NUCLEARSTRUCTURE

Proton ElectronModel ProtonElectronModel

BeforeneutrondiscoverybyJ.Chadwick B f di b J Ch d i k itsconsideredthatalphaandbetaboth areemittedfromthenucleus. i df h l NucleuswithmassAhasZofcharge. Sopeoplethoughtthat: AtomicnucleicontainsAprotonsand(A AtomicnucleicontainsAprotonsand(A Z)electrons

Butthismodelfailedtoexplain theexperimentalfacts.

FailuresTheProtonElectron ModelOfNuclear

1.HyperfineStructure
Spectrometerutilityprogressallowustoobserve complexsinglespectralline l i l t lli Example: Natransitionspectrum Lowresolutionspectroscopy 3S3P Highresolutionspectroscopy 3P1/2 3/23S1/ 3P1/2,3/23S1/ 2 hiperhalusstructure hi h l t t Theexistenceofisotopes Coreangularmomentum

It scanbeexpalined Itscanbeexpalined by isotop

Isotop atomswithsameZ,differentA I i h Z diff A Transitionwavenumberoflikehydrogen atomwithoutisotop : h

Rydberg constantifnucleimassbeassumed infinite

If certain element has two or more i i l h isotops we get different R for different isotop Ex : Li A = 6 and 7; Z = 3 i d Such element will has two constant, R1 and R2 with :

M issmallandm isverysmallcomparedto R isverysmall. Theresultsofbothtransitionarewave length whicharethedifferentis verysmallso doubletlinesseenassinglet doubletlinesseenassinglet.

But.. B

SeveralelementlikeBihasasingle isotop andhyperfinestructure itsmeanthatnucleihasan angularmomentum

2.NuclearAngularMomentum
Magnitude of nuclear angular momentum is:

I : nuclear spin quantum state state.

integer or half number

As an atom, nuclei can be in excited

Nuclear angular momentum also indicate that space is quantized i.e. i di h i i di when nuclei with I spin is placed in external magnetic field will have ( g (2I +1) different orientation.

nuclear angular momentum vector + totally atomic electrons angular momentum vector = angular momentum vector totally, i.e. : totally i e I+J =F By account number of lines well get F = 2I + 1 if I < J F = 2J + 1 if J < I, and by knowing value of J, we can predict the value of I l f I.

To account number of hyperfine structure lines use relationship between I and A The Rule is :

Odd A nuclei has spin a half Even A nuclei has spin zero or integer

Example : N-14 has A = 14 and Z = 7 According to proton-electron model:

N-14 N 14 nuclei contains 14 protons and 7 electrons, electrons total 21 particles

electron and proton has spin respectively

N-12 nuclei should has half spin p But the experiment result show that the spin is integer i.e. I=1. i e I=1

3.MagneticMoment
From atomic spectrum its known thet electron rotation with angular momentum 1 produce magnetic moment 1 magneton Bohr. Bohr The unit of magnetic moment for orbital g electron is :

All of nuclei have a net charge and if f l ih t h d the spin I isnt zero the movement of isn t charged particles in the nuclei must produce nuclear moment magnetic If nuclei charge distribution assumed spherical symmetry the result is a h i l t th lt i dipole moment

Proton (proton mass = 1836 x masa elektron) will has moment magnetic in order of: = eh = B = 5.05 10 24 erg N gauss 4m p c 1836

That is a nuclear magneton i.e. a unit that useful to express nuclear moment magnetic Nuclear moment magnetic measurement value in fact is much smaller than electron moment magnetic

 As an example : observed value of proton

magnetic moment is +2.79353 , too much smaller than Bohr magneton.

If electron i exist in the nuclei the observed l t is i t i th l i th b d

magnetic moment should be in the order of bohr magneton

But i fact measured nuclear magnetic in f d l i

y g moment always smaller than magneton bohr

4.Wavemechanics
Electronswavelengthis:

Ifelectronisexistinnuclei:itswavelength shouldlessthannucleidiameter. Fromuncertainty

Wellgetthepositionofelectron ll h f l

AssumedthatweightnucleiwithA=200has 0.6x1012 cmorderofradius Uncertaintyofelectronpositionis:

Uncertaintyofitsmomentumis: U t i t fit t i

Electronenergyexpectation:

 Takepasminimumofp wellget: Takepasminimumofp,we llget:

Secondorde kedua isignored,so:

FromtheExperiment

nuclear

disintegrationemitan2 3MeV electron di i t ti it M V l t

Basedonthreeargumentaboveitscanbe B d h b i b concludethat: Itsimpossibleforanelectrontoexistina bl f l nuclei

Proton Proton NeutronModel

BeforeneutrondiscoverybyChadwickthereisno alternativeexplanationtodeterminechargeof nucleiofatomwithAatomicmasswithoutinvolve (AZ)electronstoneutralize(AZ)positivecharge Aftertheneutrondiscoveryin1932 neutronhas

zerocharge,like protonmass,andspin zerocharge,likeprotonmass,andspin Heisenbergpurposedthenewmodelofnucleari.e. protonneutronmodel

althoughneutralwithaspinhalfneutronhasa lth h t l ith i h lf t h negativemagneticmoment,whichmeansthe vectormagneticmomentoppositetothespin vector Thesemodelsovercomeallthedifficultiesthat cantbesolvedbythemodelofprotonelectron mass oddnumberednucleihasahalfspin, themassofevennumberedcorehasspin zeroorrounded. zeroorrounded

Withtheabsenceofelectronsinthenuclei Withth b f l t i th l i themagneticmomentofthenucleusisno orderoftheBohrmagneton buttheorderof thenuclearmagneton accordingtothe e pe e ta esu ts experimentalresults Butthereisstillonequestion: Positivelychargedprotonswouldrepeleach other,whytheyareunitedinthenucleus? th h th it di th l ?

1.MassValues 1 MassValues
Massa Proton = 1.6726 x 10-27 Kg Massa Neutron = 1.6749 x 10-27 Kg Massa Electron = 9.1094 x 10-31 Kg g

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Nomenclature
Z = atomic number = Thenumberofprotonsinthe o c u be p nucleus A = Numberofmass=totalnumberofprotonsand neutronsinthenucleus A Z = Thenumberofneutronsinthenucleus Z alsoshowsthenumberofelectronsintheatom neutral
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NuclearEnergy
TheSIunitforenergyisJoule Butitstoolargefortheenergythatexists intheatomicscale

Unitsofenergyfortheatomicscaleis electronvolts. electronvolts

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Themeansof1electronvolt
QchargedparticlesthatmovefromV1potential p pointtoV2potentialpoint p p Changesinpotentialenergyis:qV1,2 Ifthechargeq=electroniccharge=1.6x1019C andifthepotentialdifferencefromV1toV2is1 p Volt Changesinenergyis: P.E=1.6x1019Cx1V=1.6x1019J itsknownas1electronvolts

1Kev =103 eV 1Mev =106 eV 10 1GeV =109 eV 10

Notice: potentialenergychangesinnumericalisthenumber ofchargetimesthepotentialdifferenceinvolts

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MassDefectinAtoms Atomicmassisalwayslessthanthesumofindividual massesofprotons,neutronsandelectronsinit ITHASAMASSDEFECT! Theenergyequivalentmassofthe missing iscalled Theenergyequivalentmassofthe"missing"iscalled BINDINGENERGY Example:heliumatom, itsmassshouldbethesumofmassoftwoprotons, twoneutronsandtwoelectrons. Butmeasurabilityofmasssmallerthanthesumthey B t bilit f ll th th th will!
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Example
Massdefectofheliumatoms (REMEMBER:1amu=1.66054x1027kg) Themassofoneproton=1.0072627Amu(=1.6726x1027Kg) Themassofoneneutron=1.0086478Amu(=1.6749x1027Kg) Themassofanelectron=0.0005486Amu(=9.1094x1031Kg) Themassofanelectron 0 0005486Amu( 9 1094x10 31Kg) Theestimatedmassofmasssumwillbeequalto2protons,2 neutronsand2electrons =4.0329182Amu Themassmeasured =4.0026033Amu Massdefect=0.0303149Amu
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BINDINGENERGYOFHELIUMATOM From the relation E = mc2 & Using m = Mass Defect m = 1.66054 x 10-27 Kg x 0.0303149amu E = 5.03391 x 10-29 Kg x (2.99792 x 108 m/s)2 = 4.5242389 x 10-12 J Divide by 1.6 x 10-19 to get answer in eV E = 28.276493 MeV
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BINDINGENERGYOFHELIUMATOM
OR A SIMPLER METHOD!

Take E T k Energy Equivalent of 1amu = 932.76 M V E i l t f1 932 76 MeV Multiply by mass defect in amu E = 932.76 MeV x 0.0303149amu = 28.276 MeV

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NuclearBindingEnergy
Nuclearmass<Z(mp) N(mn) Nuclearmass<Z(mp)+N(mn) "Massdefect"m =differencebetweenthenuclear masswiththemassconstituent ithth tit t defectenergy=bindingenergyEB EB = m c2 Bindingenergy minimumamountofenergyneeded Bindingenergy=minimumamountofenergyneeded tobreakupthenuclei Bindingenergypernucleon=EB/A Bi di l EB/A

NuclearBindingEnergyis:
1 amu = m(proton) m(neutron) A= Z= N= Mass (amu) Ebinding (MeV) EB/A(MeV) 931.5 MeV 1.00782 1.00867 56 26 30 55.92066 -505.58094 -9.02823
Thedifferencebetween theenergy(ormass) andthenuclearenergy (ormass)constituent p oto s a d eut o s protonsandneutrons Equaltothenumberof energyneededtobreak thenuclei h l Averagebindingenergy pernucleon=total bindingenergydivided bythenumberof nucleons(A). l (A) Example:Fe56

Problem
Computebindingenergypernucleonfor
4 He 2 16 O 8 56 Fe 26 6 235 U 92

4.00153amu 4 00153amu 15.991amu 55.922amu 55 922amu 234.995amu

Isthereatrend? Ifthereis,whatmightbeitssignificance? note:

1amu = 931.5MeV/c2 m(proton)=1.00782amu m(neutron)= 1.00867amu

Fusion

Bindingenergypernucleon
Fission

Toomanyprotons Electrostaticrepulsion p Mosttightlywovennuclei inthemiddleoftheMendeleevstable Energeticallymostfavorableplace

Notenoughnucleonsto buildupstrongforce

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NuclearProperties (nextlesson)
Independenttime p Nuclearproperties:
Mass Electriccharge Size Intrinsicangular I ti i l momentum(spin) Magneticmoment

Dependenttime Nuclearproperties:
Radioaktive decay Nuclearreaction l