CHAPTER 36

Quality Assurance, Testing, and Inspection

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-1

Demings 14 Points
TABLE 36.1 1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. 3. Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality. 4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. 5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease cost. 6. Institute training on the job. 7. Institute leadership (as opposed to supervision). 8. Drive out fear so that everyone can work effectively. 9. Break down barriers between departments. 10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for zero defects and new levels of productivity 11. Eliminate quotas and management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership. 12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of pride of workmanship. 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement. 14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-2

Robust Design

Figure 36.1 A simple example of robust design. (a) Location of two mounting holes on a sheet-metal bracket, where the deviation of the top surface of the bracket from being perfectly horizontal is . (b) New location holes, whereby the deviation of the top surface of the bracket from being perfectly horizontal is reduced to /2.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-3

Taguchi Loss Function

Figure 36.2 (a) Objective function value distribution of color density for television sets. (b) Taguchi loss function, showing the average replacement cost per unit to correct quality problems. Source: After G. Taguchi.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-4

Frequency and Normal Distribution Curves

Figure 36.3 (a) A histogram of the number of shafts measured and their respective diameters. This type of curve is called frequency distribution. (b) A Normal distribution curve indicating areas within each range of standard deviation. Note: the greater the range, the higher the percentage of parts that fall within it.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-5

Frequency Distribution Curve

Figure 36.4 Frequency distribution curve, showing lower and upper specification limits.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-6

Statistical Quality Control

Figure 36.5 Control charts used in statistical quality control. The process shown is in statistical control because all points fall within the lower and upper control limits. In this illustration sample size is five and the number of samples is 15.
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 36-7

Constants for Control Charts

TABLE 36.2 Sample size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308 0.266 0.223 0.180 D4 3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 1.716 1.652 1.586 D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.078 0.136 0.184 0.223 0.284 0.348 0.414 d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078 3.258 3.472 3.735

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-8

Control Charts

Figure 36.6 Control charts. (a) Process begins to become out of control because of such factors as tool wear (drift). The tool is changed and the process is then in statistical control. (b) Process parameters are not set properly; thus all parts are around the upper control limit (shift in mean). (c) Process becomes out of control because of factors such as a change in the properties of the incoming material (shift in mean).

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-9

Digital Gages with Microprocessors

Figure 36.7 Schematic illustration showing integration of digital gages with microprocessor for real-time data acquisition and SPC/SPQ capabilities. Note the examples on the CRT displays, such as frequency distribution (see Fig. 36.3) and control charts (see Fig. 36.4). Source: Mitutoyo Corp.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-10

Data for Standard Deviation Calculation

TABLE 36.3

Sample number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

x1 4.46 4.45 4.38 4.42 4.42 4.44 4.39 4.45 4.44 4.42

x2 4.40 4.43 4.48 4.44 4.45 4.45 4.41 4.41 4.46 4.43

x3 4.44 4.47 4.42 4.53 4.43 4.44 4.42 4.43 4.30 4.37

x4 4.46 4.39 4.42 4.49 4.44 4.39 4.46 4.41 4.38 4.47

x5 4.43 4.40 4.35 4.35 4.41 4.40 4.47 4.50 4.49 4.49

x
4.438 4.428 4.410 4.446 4.430 4.424 4.430 4.440 4.414 4.436

R 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.18 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.19 0.12

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-11

Acceptance Sampling

Figure 36.8 A typical operatingcharacteristics curve used in acceptance sampling. The higher the percentage of defective parts, the lower the probability of acceptance by the consumer. There are several methods of obtaining these curves.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-12

Liquid-Penetrant and Magnetic-Particle Inspection

Figure 36.9 Sequence of operations for liquid-penetrant inspection to detect the presence of cracks and other flaws in a workpiece. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission.

Figure 36.10 Schematic illustration of magnetic-particle inspection of a part with a defect in it. Cracks that are in a direction parallel to the magnetic field, such as in A, would not be detected, whereas the others shown would. Cracks F, G, and H are the easiest to detect. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission.
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 36-13

Radiographic Inspection
Figure 36.11 Three methods of radiographic inspection: (a) conventional radiography, (b) digital radiography, and (c) computed tomography. Source: Courtesy of Advanced Materials and Processes, November 1990. ASM International

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

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Eddy-Current Inspection

Figure 36.12 Changes in eddy-current flow caused by a defect in a workpiece. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission.

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

2001 Prentice-Hall

Page 36-15

Holography

Figure 36.13 Schematic illustration of the basic optical system used in holography elements in radiography, for detecting flaws in workpieces. Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition. Copyright 1985, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio. Used with permission.
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2001 Prentice-Hall

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