Petroleum Geology Introduction and background information

The fundamental question in petroleum geology:

Where are there economically recoverable reserves of hydrocarbons? To answer this question requires understanding geologic processes in a regional context. This means that Petroleum Geology doesn't ask fundamental science questions. Instead, it uses the entire fundamental geologic (and chemical and physical concepts) and applies them to finding oil reserves. Some of the geologic processes include: (1) Historical geology (timing of maturation, migration, and trap formation), (2) Structural and stratigraphic geology- the origin and physical properties of reservoir and source rocks, (3) Geochemistry- what are hydrocarbons? Where do they come from? What are properties? (4) Geophysics- seismic and well logs- subsurface exploration techniques. their

Oil exploration as a business

The basic objective of petroleum geologist is to make money. This requires finding sufficient hydrocarbon reserves to be worth extracting and extracting them in the most cost-efficient way possible. Requires expertise of many different disciplines: (1) Exploration geologist: A geologist who looks at areas not previously found to bear hydrocarbons. Could be small region within an established hydrocarbon province, or a completely new sedimentary basin that has never been drilled. (2) Development geologist: A geologist who takes a "discovery well"- i.e. a well that produces hydrocarbons, and figures out the most economic way of developing the newly-discovered oil field. (3) Geophysicist- a person largely responsible for the collection, processing and interpretation of seismic data. Often works closely with exploration geologists to combine geologic and geophysical information (4) Engineer- There are a variety of engineering disciplines, for example: a) Drilling engineers, who are responsible for economically and successfully drilling wells. Drilling is a complex business, particularly now that hydrocarbons are

being produced from deeper in the crust (>30,000 ft) and at greater water depths (> 1000 ft) than before. b) Reservoir engineers- responsible for the proper maintance and production of hydrocarbons from the reservoir. These engineers decide how much hydrocarbons to produce and at what rate, how secondary and tertiary recovery may be accomplished, and make estimates of the amounts of hydrocarbons that are present and how much can be produced. (5) Land men- responsible for the legal aspects of extracting hydrocarbons. For example, they determine who owns the surface land, who owns the minerals rights, and make sure all the contracts are in order. Boring but very important job. Commonly all of these different people work together as a team. It requires that people with many different backgrounds be able to communicate efficiently and effectively.

Brief history of oil exploration and industry

(1) Initially, hydrocarbons collected from oil seeps"springs" discharging liquid

hydrocarbons. Usage of the hydrocarbon included warfare, medication (externally on wounds and rheumatism, internally as laxative), waterproofing. (2) In 1847- James Young began retorting (a method of distillation by heat) oil from oil shale in Scotland. Products and their uses included paraffin, used for candles, and kerosene (coal oil), used for lamps. Kerosene became cheaper than whale oil (which previously had been used in lamps) this greatly expanded the demand for oil products- The first oil boom (3) In 1859, "Colonel" Drake drilled a well to 59 feet and produced oil at Oil Creek PA. This well marked the beginning of the modern oil "bidness" where large volumes of hydrocarbons were extracted from the subsurface. As a result of this discovery, so much oil was discovered and produced that the price of kerosene dropped to nearly nothing. The first oil bust The oil bust continued until the mass production of the internal combustion engine, and the development of mass produced automobiles. The auto created another large demand for hydrocarbon products, and caused a second oil boom. (4) With the second oil boom, and First World War, large multinational oil companies developed. The seven Sisters: BP, Shell, Exxon, Fulf, Texaco, Mobil, among other "minor" companies, and thousands of "independent" oil companies. The major and some of the minor oil companies are vertically integrated- that is they explore, produce, refine, and market the products. Thus, when crude oil prices are low, they make money in the refining business, when crude oil prices are high; they make money in the exploration/production business. (5) 1960, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded. Consist of countries whose economy is based on oil exports. Countries include Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Algeria, Dubai, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates.

By the 1970's, OPEC countries produced 2/3 of the worlds oil. Thus controlled the price of crude oil. By limiting production, the price increased rapidly through the 1970's. The result was conservation, a worldwide recession, and drop in consumption of oil. About the same time, major oil deposits were discovered in the North Sea. The combined drop in consumption and the increase in production from the North Sea (largely from Norway), caused a major slump in oil prices in the early 1980's. Another Bust Oil fluctuation: A function of supply and demand

A brief introduction to petroleum exploration

(1) Originally, oil exploration done by wandering aound the country side- look for seeps. East Texas Oil field (7 billion barrels of oil) was "discovered" by drilling at the intersection of all the major structures in North America. The field is trapped stratigraphically. (2) An early exploration technique, used by Howard Hunt, was called "creekology". He would drill following creek beds. The reasoning was that oil flowed in "streams" just as surface water did. Creekology was relatively successful (Hunts sons were nearly able to purchase all of the silver in the world), but not because oil flows in streams. Surface streams often flow along the crest of eroded anticlines, and since oil is lighter than water it gets trapped in the crest of the anticlines. (3) Exploration largely evolved into surface mapping of anticlines- e.g. Teapot Dome in Wyoming. In the right places, most anticlines contain oil. Through much drilling, it became clear that oil could be trapped stratigraphically as well- through facies changes within porous and permeable rocks. Stratigraphic mapping using subsurface information became important. (4) With improved geophysical technology in the 1920's and 30's. Two categoriesregional mapping tools, and logging tools. a) These were largely seismic refraction, and gravity studies. Refraction could be used to study subsurface structures, and gravity could be used to look for salt domes. b) Well logs were invented in 1927 by the Schlumberger brothers. These tools are lowered into well bores, and provide information about the rocks that were drilled. Initially they included electric logs (many types), also sonic, radioactive, caliper etc. (5) In the 1950's and 1960's, geologist realized that the distribution of rocks in the past and in the subsurface could be compared with modern environments "uniformitarianism". Many oil companies at the time support research at modern depositional environments- Galveston Island, Mississippi delta, Bahamas, etc.

(6) Now, the latest in exploration include computers, which allow rapid integration of large amounts of data.

Description of Hydrocarbons
Introduction
A. Some Definitions: Hydrocarbons- substance made of hydrogen and carbon (among other elements); grade through three states of matter: gases, liquids and solids. Petroleum exploration largely concerned with the fluids (gases and liquids). Several specific forms of hydrocarbons: Dry gas- contains largely methane, specifically contains less than 0.1gal/1000 ft3 of condensable (at surface T and P) material. Wet gas- contains ethane, propane, butane. Up to the molecular weight where the fluids are always condensed to liquids Condensates- Hydrocarbon with a molecular weight such that they are gas in the subsurface where temperatures are high, but condense to liquid when reach cooler, surface temperatures Liquid hydrocarbons- commonly known as oil, or crude oil, to distinguish it from refined hydrocarbon products. Plastic hydrocarbons- asphalt Solid hydrocarbons- coal and kerogen- (kerogen strictly defined as disseminated organic matter in sediments that is insoluble in normal petroleum solvents. Gas hydrates- Solids composed of water molecules surrounding gas molecules, usually methane, but also H2S, CO2, and other less common gases. Natural Gas: Given a strict definition by the petroleum industry- "a mixture of hydrocarbons and varying quantities of non-hydrocarbons that exists either in the gaseous phase or in solution with crude oil in natural underground reservoirs".

The common gasses in reservoirs can be divided based on their origins: (1) Inorganic- Helium, Argon, Krypton, Radon (2) Mixed inorganic and organic- CO2, H2S (3) Organic- Hydrogen, Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane Various descriptive terms for natural gas: Dissolved gas- That portion of natural gas that is dissolved in liquid phase in the sub- surface. It can be (and usually is) physically separated from the liquid when the fluids are produced. Associated gas- Also known as the "gas cap" is free gas (not dissolved) that sits on top of, and in contact with, crude oil in the reservoir. Non-associated gas- Free gas that is trapped without a significant amount of crude oil. Natural gas liquids- The liquids that can be, and are liquefied, in the field and at gas processing plants. Include the wet gases, natural gasoline, and condensate. Sweet Gas (and Oil) - Contains no H2S Sour Gas (and Oil) - Contains H2S.

Generalities of the origin of hydrocarbons:

Two possible sources: Inorganic and organic (1) Inorganic- Hydrocarbons form from reduction of primordial carbon or oxidized forms at high temperatures in the earth. (2) Organic- accumulation of hydrocarbons produced directly by living organisms, as well as the thermal alteration of biologically formed organic matter. It is generally recognized that most hydrocarbons are produced by the organic method. A few hydrocarbons in the crust may be from inorganic sources, but the majority of them are from organic. (Evidence for this?) (Note : porphyrins: oil contains this

substance which is related to and derived from chlorophyll)

Formation of hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbons formed organically are two pathways: (1) Through generation of hydrocarbons directly by organisms. This constitutes perhaps 10 to 20% of the hydrocarbons in the crust. They generally contain more than 15 C atoms, and are easily recognized structures (biomarkers); (2) Through conversion of organic matter (lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates) into kerogen, then to bitumen, and finally to petroleum as it gets buried to higher temperatures. Transformation and maturation of petroleum Diagenesis-----Catagenesis -----Metagenesis 1) Diagenesis---formation of humic acid involving microbial degradation, polymerization and condensation; conversion of organic matter (lipids (fatty acids), proteins, and carbohydrates) into kerogen, then to bitumen, Kerogen - created by the breakdown of complex biological molecules, reactions between some of the newly created simpler molecules and the loss of non-hydrogen and carbon atoms like NH3, CO2 and H2O. Microscopically, kerogen occurs as yellow orange to brown-black particle or amorphous material.

Kerogen Types Type

Algal I

Source
Algae of marine, lacustrine,

Organic constituent
Exinite

Product
Mainly crude oil

boghead cal environment Mixed marine II Decomposition in reducing environment, mostly marine Amorphous particles Yield more natural gas than I (esp. high S aromatic-intermediate crude) Coaly III Debris of continental vegetation (wood, spores, leaf, resin, plant tissues) Inert IV Fossil charcoal and other oxidized material of continental vegetation Inertinite Rarest and has practically no ability to generate oil/gas Mostly vitrinite Form mostly gas, but any oil will be low in sulfur

2) Catagenesis principal zone of oil formation; thermal degradation occurs which is responsible for breaking polymers into smaller products. This process occurs down to a depth of 4 km. A temperature of 60-175oC (oil window) is a requirement for catagenesis to occur Gas generation: 120 to 225 C, called the "gas window" Q: How does geothermal gradient affect the generation of oil? Temperature vs. depth of formation As the kerogen is subjected to deeper burial and increased P and T, it begins to release HC. The rate and types of hydrocarbons released depend on the rate of heating and the length of time available for heating.

Kinetics:
Arrhenius equation: k = Aexp(-E/RT)

Where: k is reaction rate constant (1/m.y.), A is frequency factor (1/m.y.), E is the activation energy (kJ/mol), R is the gas constant (kJ/mol K), and T is the temperature in kelvins. The values for E and A can be determined for any source rock by heating it at various temperatures and measuring the yield of hydrocarbons. These values can range widely depending on the source rock. The value of E apears to be inversely correlated to the S content. Two possible reasons: a) The C-S bonds are weaker than C-C bonds so that the kerogen can decompose at lower temperatures (ie. lower activation energy)

b) Paper (Lewan, 1998 Nature, v. 391, p. 164) proposes that the S released during organic matter diagenesis catalyzes the reaction. In general, reaction rates double for every 10C increase in temperature. But the Arrhenius equation only gives the rate that hydrocarbons are generated. Thus, to calculate the total volume, you also need to know the amount of time that the kerogen has been at the oil generating temperature.

Techniques for determining the quantity of generated hydrocarbons:

a) Level of Organic Maturity (LOM) This technique assumes doubling of reaction rate for each 10 C. Originally was made to be linear with a coal rank scale (e.g. bituminous through anthracite etc.). Found that it isn't logarithmic with the scale either, so not of much use. b) Time-temperature index (TTI). Complex formulation to calculate a value of TTI that is based on values for E, A, and T and t for the amount of time that organic matter stays within a 10C window. (p. 151 Hunt) There is also a second relationship to calculate the value of TTI for sediment that resides for a certain time at a certain temperature These equations are solved for each type of kerogen (different values of E and A) and then plotted graphically to simplify their calculations (see p. 151 in Hunt, Fig. 6-3). The next step is to sum up all values of TTI for each 10C window or for periods of constant temperature. This provides a value of STTI, which is related to the % oil generated by: x% = [1-exp(-STTI/100)]*100 The importance of using this type of calculations is that it takes into account the kinetics of oil generation from kerogen. Because activation energy is so variable for each type of kerogen it is important to account for it.

Techniques for determining temperature (Paleothermometers)

The major unknown variable in the TTI calculations is the temperature that the organic matter has been subjected to. The problem is that the geothermal gradient may have changed with time, so that the temperature at the bottom of the hole is different from the temperature in the past. There are a variety of techniques to determine the temperature that organic matter has reached.

a) Carbon ratio technique Not well calibrated. Compares residual carbon after pyrolysis at 900C and the total C in the sample. Ratio of Cr/Ct. Idea is that "fresh" OM has more easily removed C than "old and altered" OM. This means the Cr/Ct ratio increases with maturity. b) Electron spin resonance The number of free electrons varies with maturity and can be measured. There are problems associated with recycling of organic matter and original variations in the organic matter- difficult to calibrate. c) Pyrolysis The heating of source rocks and detection of the hydrocarbons that are given off. Most common technique is through Rock-Eval machine. Designed to heat organic matter, or sediment containing organic matter, and measuring the concentration of hydrocarbons and CO 2 given off. They are measured with a Flame Ionization Detector and Thermal conductivity detector. Initially rock is heated to 300C, then increase by 25C/min. up to 550C. There are three peaks (called P) or the areas under the peaks (called S) given off with this type of heating: (1) S1 represents free hydrocarbons in the rock (ie. already generated) (2) S3 represents the release of carboxyl groups as CO2 (3) S2 represents the hydrocarbons that are generated by break down of the kerogen present in the rocks. S1 and S2 are converted to milligrams carbon by calibrating the instrument with standards. The total organic carbon (TOC) content of the sample is measured separately, but two indexes can be calculated from the values for S1 and S2: the hydrogen index (HI) is the ratio for S3/TOC, and the Oxygen index (OI) is the ratio of S3/TOC. These indexes can be plotted on a diagram that shows the type of organic matter present.

(d) Gas chromatography. There is an evolution of the distribution of n-alkanes. Calibrate the technique.

(e) Clay mineral analysis Various clay minerals alter diagenetically to new minerals at specific temperatures: smectite alters to illite at T of 80 to 120C Kaolin and illite re-crystallize to micas, or to chlorite in Fe/Mg rich environments

The major problem with this is that the boundaries are not precisethere is a wide range in the distribution of the clays. Clays are completely independent of the organic matter.

(f) Fluid inclusions These are inclusions contained in authigenic minerals. It is possible to estimate the temperature that the mineral formed by heating the inclusions until the vapor phase contained in the inclusion disappears (dissolves). These have long been used for hard rock studies because the inclusions are larger and because they form at higher T, so easier to work on. Improved microscope optics allows work on small digenetic minerals now. But there are many factors that go into choosing the correct inclusions to work on, as well as interpreting the data. (g) Pollen color Spores and pollen are colorless when formed. As they heat up they gradually become darker. This is a quick and easy technique for determining approximate temperatures, but relies on the interpretation of the person observing the pollen. (h) Vitrinite reflectance This technique is a modification of measure of the maturity of coal and is based on the how shiny the coal is- more mature is shinier. For oil measurement, the kerogen is separated from the sediment by dissolution with HF and HCl, mounted on a block with epoxy, polished and put in to a reflecting microscope, and the amount of reflectance is measured termed Ro. There is an empirical relationship between vitrinite reflectance and hydrocarbon generation: Ro of 0.6 to 1.5 is oil generation, Ro of 1.5 to 3 is gas generation, and over 3.0 is all graphite. This is probably the most widely used technique. Often measurements are made downhole, and anomalies can provide information about the geology (igneous intrusions, faults, unconformities, etc.).

3) Metagenesis carbon residue (graphite); green schist temperature

Natural Gases- Their components

A. Hydrocarbon gases

Hydrocarbon gases are largely composed of the paraffin series- straight and branched, single bonded changes of hydrocarbons. The gases decrease in abundance up through pentane (C5). (1) Methane is the largest constituent of natural gas. It can form in three ways: (a) Mantle methane. Derived from the mantle (presumably primordial methane).Commonly assumed to form by the other two processes: (b) Microbial methane. As a reaction product of the bacterial decay of organic matter. Large caused by the reduction of CO2 during oxidation of the organic matter. (c) Thermogenic methane Thermal breakdown of heavier hydrocarbons. Appears that the thermal degradation has to be catalyzed for it to occur in nature. (2) Heavier hydrocarbons: Rarely (perhaps never) formed by bacterial processes. Thus the presence of heavier hydrocarbons in natural gas probably reflects proximity to liquid hydrocarbon reservoir. Gases are important during drilling of wells (1) Commonly over pressured, can cause blowouts (2) Useful way to identify producing (or hydrocarbon bearing) horizons. Extract gas from drilling mud, run through chromatograph, and identify the amount and type of gases entering the well bore. B. Non-hydrocarbon gases (1) Noble Gases- Helium, Argon, and Radon These gases are inert- do not take part in chemical reactions. They originate from decay of radioactive isotopes of various elements, predominately the U series elements. They can be quite concentrated in natural gas (>1% of the gas present): A) Helium- Origin is from alpha decay of radioactive elements B) Argon and Radon. Argon is produced by the radioactive decay of K (beta decay). No economic significance. Very big scientific significance (K-Ar dating, e.g. Foster). Radon is part of U decay scheme. Also no economic significance, but might be a major health problem. (2) Nitrogen Three potential origins of nitrogen: (1) Through oxidation of NH4, which is derived from thermal breakdown of organic matter? The oxidation-reduction reaction includes Ferric Fe redbeds. Nitrogen-bearing deposits are commonly associated with redbeds. (2) Atmospheric origin (atmosphere is 70% nitrogen) (3) Mantle outgassing- continuation of the outgassing that started soon after the formation or the earth.

There is no economic significance to the nitrogen (other than that, it reduces the concentrations of economic hydrocarbons). (3) Hydrogen is so mobile and reactive; it cannot be permanently retained in the subsurface. It must be actively produced with in reservoir, adjacent source beds, or diffusing upward from depth. Nonetheless, it can be concentrated- 35% of the gas in the Mid-continent rift system is hydrogen. Possible origins include: (1) from reactions in the crust that involve Ferrous iron reduction, and; (2) During thermal maturation of organic matter. (4) Carbon dioxide, CO2 has erratic distribution in the subsurface because of numerous sources and variations in solubility Sources: a) Thermal degradation of organic matter. Largely from the decomposition of oxygen bearing groups in organic matter. Usually derived from continentally derived organic matter. b) Inorganic clay reactions- largely from reaction between carbonates and kaolinite to form chlorite: 5FeCO3 + SiO2 + Al2Si2O5(OH)4 +2H2 <---> Fe5Al2Si3O10(OH)8 + 5CO2 Occurs between temperature of 100 and 160C c) Volcanic activity Decomposition of carbonate rocks during injection of high temperature magmas and by acidic water. CO2 now used for enhanced oil recovery so it can be economic. (5) Hydrogen sulfide the deadliest gas produced in large quantities. 1 ppt causes respiratory paralysis and sudden but agonizing death from asphyxiation. Can't rely on foul odor as warning- at concentrations below 0.1 ppt, H2S dulls sense of smell, increasing concentrations won't be noticed. Combination of H2S, CO2, and water easily corrode metal. Thus presence of H2S in hydrocarbon reserves VERY UNDESIRABLE- destroys the well equipment (pumps, casing, rods etc.). Reduces the value of the hydrocarbon deposit Origin: a) Inorganic cracking of sulfur bearing organic compounds- generally found at temperatures > 120C.

b) Reduction of sulfate- perhaps the greatest source of sulfate, particularly in oceanic sediments Also can be formed from dissolution of sulfate minerals (gypsum and anhydrite): Economics H2S is highly reactive, and will convert to metal-sulfides if sufficient metals (particularly Fe) are present. It can also be converted to sulfur metal, which is sold.

Crude Oil
A. Introduction- physical properties (1) Appearance- color- yellow, green, brown to black. (2) Texture- Oily (3) Viscosity- generally decreases with temperature, so that oil at surface is less viscous than oil in subsurface. (4) Density- most commonly expressed according to a formula that uses the specific gravity of the oil, given units of API (API stands for American Petroleum Institute) API = (141.5/specific gravity at 60oF) - 131.5 Light oils are described as being > 40 API (these would have a specific gravity of 0.83) while heavy oils have < 10 API (with a specific gravity of 1). Most oils have > 10 API, and thus will float on water. In general, viscosity and API gravity are inversely related. B. Chemical composition Oil is largely carbon and hydrogen (> 99.9% by weight). Other components include sulfur, oxygen, hydrogen and other elements. The limited chemical composition is misleading- there are hundreds of different compounds that can be generated from C and H. These compounds divided into: (1) Hydrocarbons, which contain only hydrogen and carbon and; (2) Heterocompounds, which contain elements in addition to H and C.

Major groups of Hydrocarbons a) Alkanes (or paraffins) -Saturated hydrocarbons- that is all carbon are bonded by single bonds so that they are saturated with hydrogen. Their general formula is CnH2n + 2. Types: 1) N-paraffins compounds (single bonds) whoose carbon atoms form straight chains Chemical Composition of Crude Oil Methane-butane (C1-C4) are gas Pentaneheptadecane (C5-C17) are liquid Octadecane- eicosane (C18-C20) are solid 1) Gasoline C4 C10 2) Kerosene C11-C13 3) Diesel C14-C18 4) Heavy Gas Oil C19-C25 5) Lubricating oil C26-C40 6) Residue- >C40 LPG composed of heavy hydrocarbons like propane and butane which are stored in liquid form. 2) Branched paraffins single bonded compounds whose carbon atoms form chains which are branched 1) Iso-butane gas 2) Dimethylpentane and iso-octane gasoline 3) Pristane-tetramethylpentadecace- gas oil 4) Phytane-tramethylhexadecane gas oil b) Napthenes compounds whose carbon atoms are single bonded to each other and form rings; form the major components of most crude oils c) Alkenes - compounds in which one or more atoms are connected by double bonds; abundant in immature source rocks. d) Aromatics compounds whose carbon atoms are double bonded to each other and form rings; have a structure based on hexagonal ring of carbons with alternate simple and double bonds. This basic unit is called benzene ring. Note: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) has 2 or more benzene rings which are linked to each other.

e) NSO compounds (resins) Resins and asphaltenes are the heaviest components of crude oil and the major components in many natural tars and asphalts. Oil may be degraded into heavy oil and tar by bacterial action and by favoring by fresh meteoric waters of surface origin. This oil falls into one of 2 classes, aromatic-asphaltic or aromaticnaphtenic. Some may contain naphthenes (aromatic-napthenic oil). Deep burial, however, usually has the opposite effect in altering crude oil. It tends to make the oil less dense and more paraffinic, through processes involving both thermal maturation and the precipitation and removal of asphaltic molecules.

Generation and migration of hydrocarbons: Requirements for petroleum accumulation

I. Requirements for petroleum accumulation
1. Source rock 2. Reservoir rock 3. Trap 4. Seal 5. Timing of migration

II.

Details
A. Source rock Any rock in which sufficient organic matter to form petroleum has been accumulated, preserved and thermally matured. Organic particles are usually fine-grained and will settle out most easily in quiet waters (i.e. low energy environments such as swamps, lakes and Deep Ocean). Therefore, source rocks are most commonly fine-grained rocks, particularly shales. Others are fine-grained carbonate (lime mud), marl (Mud carbonates) and coal

1) Conditions for greater preservation of organic materials a. Quiet waters b. Low energy c. Rapid sedimentation d. Stratified , oxygen poor (reducing environment) bottoms

e.g., In the ocean, the main producers are: a) Planktonic plants b) Diatoms

c) Blue green algae d) Dinoflagellates e) Benthic algae 2) Sources of organic matters in living things Biopolymers organic compounds produced by living organisms. There are four groups: a) Proteins built from amino acids (e.g., found in muscle fibers of sponges); in the presence of water, insoluble protein may be broken down by enzymes b). Carbohydrates - collective term for individual sugars and polymers c) lipids composed of fatty acids d) lignin aromatic compounds; synthesized by dehydration and condensation of aromatic alcohols in plants Categories of source rocks 1) Latent source rock source bed that exists but at is yet unsealed or discovered; usually found in deep, unexplored basins. 2) Potential source rock- unit of rock that has the capacity to generate oil and gas in sufficient quantity but that it was not buried enough (low thermal gradient) to form oil. 3) Active source rock - source bed in the process of generating oil or gas 4) Spent source rock completed oil/gas expulsion or generation 5) Inactive source rock - source bed active at one time, but has stopped prior to that it has becoming spent. 6) Limited source rock - all prerequisite of good source bed except limited volume.

Information needed to assess the source rock and the methods to assess this: a) Maturity vitrinite reflectance, gas chromatography b) Richness- total organic carbon (TOC) c) Kerogen type visual kerogen description, rock pyrolysis d) Geometry seismic e) Thickness and area (volume) core; wireline log; seismic B. Reservoir rock Rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to be able to hold/contain the oil. The quality of a reservoir is defined by its hydrocarbon storage capacity and deliverability.

Hydrocarbon storage capacity characterized by the effective porosity and the size of the reservoir Effective porosity volume percentage of interconnected pores in a rock (The remaining space in a rock is occupied by the framework matrix of the rock and, if present, non-connected pore space Permeability- measure of the rocks ability to transmit fluid. Measured in darcies, it is a function of the size , shape and distribution of the pore channels in the rock, the type and number of fluids present, the fluid flow rate, the length and cross sectional area of the rock, and the pressure differential across the length of flow. Types of porosity 1.) Primary porosity formed originally when the sediments were deposited a) intergranular b) intragranular 2) Secondary porosity - acquired after sediment deposition (e.g., fractures; solution; intercrystalline as dolomitization) POROSITY TYPES
Sandstones Primary intergranular Dissolution of vug Micropores Fracture Carbonates Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic Fenestral Fracture Vug Pores between particles or grains Pores within individual particles or grains Pores between crystal Pores formed by dissolution of an individual grain or crystal in the rock Primary pores larger than grain-supported interstices Formed by a planar break in the rock Large pores formed by indiscriminate dissolution of cements and grains Interstitial void space between framework grains Partial or complete dissolution of framework grains or cement Small pores mainly between detrital or authigenic clays; can also occur within grains Breakage due to earth stresses

Controls on reservoir quality 1. Environment of deposition

The initial pore network of newly deposited sediments and the quality of shallow buried reservoirs are generally determined by the environment of deposition. This dictates the grain characteristics, which in turn control porosity and permeability Clastic rocks: grain size, sorting, sphericity, angularity, packing and the abundance of matrix materials

Sedimentary structures affect initial reservoir quality by imparting a preferential flow pattern in the reservoir. ----Planar bedding, laminations, or other stratification features can create stratified planar flow, especially if permeability barriers such as clay partings, finer-grained laminae or graded beds are present. ----Slump features may reduce permeability by creating a tortuous flow path or may increase permeability by causing a looser grain packing and by producing small faults ----Bioturbation typically decreases reservoir quality by mixing adjacent sands and clays, introducing the clay into the interstices among the sand grains. 2. Diagenesis Four main diagenetic mechanisms affect reservoir quality a) Compaction reduces porosity and permeability of the rock by causing: 1) Grain rotation and rearrangement into a tighter packing configuration; 2) Plastic deformation of ductile grains that flow into adjacent pores and pore throats; 3) Fracturing and crushing of brittle grains and; 4) Pressure solution in the form of grain suturing and stylolization. Rocks that contain mechanically labile grains (e.g., clay clasts, altered rock fragments or delicate fossils) are likely to experience a reduction in porosity and permeability as the ductile grains plastically flow into adjacent pore spaces. Brittle grains will fracture, shatter or in the case of some fossils and porous grains, collapse.

A rock that consists of a framework of strong minerals, such as quartz, tends to undergo only minor porosity and permeability reduction during compaction due to grain rotation and rearrangement into a tighter packing configuration. b) Cementation Precipitation of authigenic minerals usually reduces reservoir quality; however, early formation of some authigenic minerals can preserve the original porosity by protecting the rock from later degradation by compaction or cementation c) Dissolution Can significantly increase both the rock porosity and the permeabilityesp. in carbonates d) Recrystallization Dolomization of limestone or calcite cement in sandstones typically increases porosity and permeability 3. Structural deformation Fracturing and brecciation associated with folds and faults, and salt diapirs generally increase the reservoir quality of well indurate rocks. Fracture porosity is typically low, usually providing only about 1% porosity; however, fractures in large reservoirs may hold considerable reserves. Conversely, fractures filled with mineralization or with gouge may produce permeability barrier. Except where mineralization has occurred, brecciation along fracture or fault zones can also increase both porosity and permeability considerably. Closely spaced sealing faults can significantly compartmentalize a reservoir.

4. Capillary pressure difference in pressure between the oil (or ghas) and water The capillary pressure of a reservoir affects the magnitude and distribution of water saturation and this hydrocarbon volume in a given reservoir area. In reservoir, zones with larger pores and pore throats have lower capillary pressure, lower irreducible water saturation, and higher hydrocarbon pore volume Methods of assessing reservoir quality

A. Macroscopic techniques 1) Use of wire line logs Overview: can be classified into three different groups based on the information they provide: (a) Lithology indicators- gamma, ray, sonic, density and neutron logs (b) Porosity logs sonic, density and neutron logs (c) Fluid saturation logs resistivity logs (d) Permeability can be inferred from log responses or a combination of log responses. The spontaneous potential log is most often used as a qualitative indicator of the permeability of a formation. 2) Drill stem testing (DST) or formation testing generally performed

after the well has been conditioned by sealing the zone of interest and allowing the production of fluids. The fluids are tested for hydrocarbon content and the pressures and flow rates are measured. The permeability can be inferred from the pressures measured over time, and the productive capability of the formation is determined from the types of fluid produced and the flow rates. B. Mesoscopic techniques Core analysis measurements performed on representative core samples ---Core analysis porosities are typically determined using one of three techniques: a) Summation of fluids b) Resaturation c) Boyles Law ---Permeability on core samples is determined using one of two permeability measurements: steady state (usually for air/gas permeability measurements) or unsteady state (monitors pressure changes, flow rates and fluid changes as a function of time to determine permeability) C. Microscopic analysis --thin section analysis, scanning electron microscope, XRD POROSITY COMPARISON
CARBONATES Uniformly of pore size shape and distribution ranges from uniform to highly heterogeneous, even within a particular rock type SILICILASTICS Commonly uniform within a homogenous body

Fracturing

is

of

major

importance

to

Generally not of major importance Visual porosity estimates usually fairly reliable Relatively consistent and depends on particle size and sorting

reservoir properties Visual porosity estimates ranges for fairly reliable to poor Porosity/permeability relationship depend on pore types

Summary of the factors to consider in determining reservoir potential and the methods to assess them 1) Size- seismic, wire line log infor, core 2) Geometry - seismic, modeled structure contour maps 3) Porosity and permeability- (see previous slides) 4) Fluid saturation porosity and resistivity logs

C. Seal/ caprock to the reservoir unit --Contains/limits the petroleum fluids at the stratigraphic level of the reservoir. A caprock is effective if its capillary or displacement pressure exceeds the buoyant pressure exerted by the underlying hydrocarbon column. The capillary pressure of the caprock is largely a function of its pore size. In assessing the quality of seals associated with a prospect, the following seal characteristics must be examined 1) Lithology core; wire line (neutron-density, gamma ray, sonic) --must be fine-grained 2) Ductility - core samples from existing wells (to be analyzed in the lab); ductile rocks are usually prone to faulting and fracturing than brittle lithologies. Caprocks are placed under substantial stress during periods of structural deformation, including deformation responsible for trap formation. 3) Thickness core; wire line (neutron-density, gamma-ray, sonic) ; seismic. ***A small thickness of fine-grained caprock may have sufficient displacement pressure to support a large hydrocarbon column. Thin caprocks, however, tend to be laterally impersistent. Thus, a thick caprock substantially improves the chances of maintaining a seal over the entire prospect.

***Seal quality/ Displacement pressure minimum pressure required to displace connate pressure water from pores and fractures in the seal 4) Lateral seal continuity seismic, wireline log information. In order to provide a good regional seal, caprocks need to maintain stable lithological character (and hence, capillary pressure and ductility characteristics) and thickness over broad areas. 5) Burial depth wireline log and seismic Not important for as long as the seal maintains a high displacement pressure and ductility over wide areas. However, we know that the shale pore diameters do decrease with burial, particularly over the first 2 km. The maximum attained depth of burial of shale caprocks is therefore, likely to have influence on sealing capability. D. Timing of migration 1. Primary migration expulsion of petroleum or proto-petroleum from source rock to reservoir rock or movement within a non-reservoir rock 2. Secondary migration movement of petroleum through permeable layers (carrier beds) to the trap. It is governed primarily by buoyancy, which tends to Move upward by displacing heavier water. Tectonics and hydrodynamic regime also become important. Major constraints to primary migration 1) Movement of oil in aqueous medium 2) Movement of oil or proto-oil thru very small pores of fine-grained rocks 3) Very low solubility of hydrocarbons 4) Nature of the form in which the hydrocarbons travel Many observations indicate that HC found in reservoir beds (porous and permeable) did not originate there: (1) HC form at depth through increased T and P. must have moved away after formation. (2) HC found in secondary porosity- HC must have flowed in after the porosity formed. (3) HC typically found in the highest portion of laterally continuous porous and permeable beds- implies upward and lateral migration (4) Oil, gas and water are stratified

How does primary migration occur? Major questions still as to how the HC migrate out primary migration occurs 1) The problem is that most source rocks are fine grained, and thus generally have low permeability. The porosity of the source rocks is generally low by the time that they are buried into the oil generating window, which implies two things: (a) There is little additional compaction driven migration of water from the pore space (b) What little permeability present originally is now gone. 2) The major problem is a size problem: Pore throats in shales at 2000 m depth are on the order 50 to 100, but individual, large hydrocarbon molecules range from 10 to 100. Thus droplets of oil are likely to be too large to pass through the pore throats, particularly when they are water wet. That is when there is water adhered to the clay that also reduces the size of the throats Possible mechanisms for migrations/ expulsion of hydrocarbons from source rock (1) Release of interstitial water in clay minerals Although most of the pore water in sediments is removed through compaction by the time oil generation is reached during burial, there is still the bound water (interlayer water) in clay minerals present in the sediment. This bound water is released from the clays at temperatures that are in the oil window. The depth depends on the geothermal gradient (2) Interstitial hydrocarbons (dehydration of clays) Not only water, but hydrocarbons may also be included in the interlayer sites of clay minerals. May provide a mechanism for primary migration- the hydrocarbons will be released along with the water.

(1) Protopetroleum Idea: Petroleum is expelled from source rocks before they have been converted to water insoluble molecules. They are expelled when they are ketones, adics and esters. Problem: Concentrations of these compounds are low in in source rocks. The compounds are easily adsorbed onto the surfaces of clay minerals.

They should not evolve into hydrocarbons in the reservoir bed once they migrate there.

(2) Expulsion at high temperatures Idea: HC are more soluble at high temperatures than low temperatures, e.g. see Figs. 5.26 and 5.27 for relationship. At T > 150C, 50 to 200 ppm HC can be soluble in water. This is one to two orders of magnitude greater than at T < 100C. Also lower weight hydrocarbons (the gases) are fairly soluble even at lower T Problem: These temperatures are greater than the oil generating window. At these higher temperatures, porosity and permeability may be destroyed. Also the hydrocarbons will thermally breakdown (3) Micelles Idea: Micelles are "colloidal organic acid soaps". One end is hydrophobic, the other hydrophylic. They can link water molecules with hydrocarbon molecules allowing migration. Hydrocarbon types have different solubilities with different micelles, and it turns out the distribution of these hydrocarbons matches the distribution of micelles. Problem: For sufficient HC to have migrated requires a very high micelle/HC ratio, but there are only trace quantities of micelles. Also, micelles molecules are larger than pore throats in clays, so they would not fit through the openings. (4) Gases Idea: High CO2 concentrations will precipitate calcite, reducing pore volumes and increasing pore pressures. CO2 also lowers the viscosity of oil, allowing it to flow more freely. Also some HC may migrate out of the source bed as gases, and then subsequenty condence. Problems: precipitation of CO2 will also reduce permeability. Also most CO2 is generated during diagenesis, and before catagenesis, and so may be lost from the system. Primary migration of HC gases can't explain primary migration of the heavier hydrocarbons.

SEDIMENTARY BASINS AND DEPOSITIONAL STYLE

Introduction on sedimentary basins: definition and general features
Depressions on the earths surface, caused by subsidence that received greater than average sediment thickness. Because of the burial and temperature requirements needed for maturation

of organic matter, most petroleum reserves can be found sedimentary basins. Petroleum reserves can be found in rocks of all ages. However, most giant fields and most of the worlds reserves occur in geologically young sequences of Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic age. Paleozoic rocks probably had an equal potential to generate hydrocarbons as the younger rocks, but there has been more time in which to destroy all or part of the petroleum through uplifts and erosion.

General types
a) Depositional sink b) Structural basin c) Compound- combined effect of sedimentation in a depression and subsequent folding of the sedimentary section. Generalities: Oil usually becomes lighter and gas more abundant with depth in most

sedimentary basins. Oil also becomes lighter and gas more prevalent laterally toward a basins center. The heaviest crude is typically found along the basin margin. This lateral and vertical distribution of oil and gas is of considerable importance to exploration. Part of the pattern may be attributed to increased thermal maturation with depth. However, another explanation is that the lighter gas displaces earlier formed oil that had already accumulated in the trap. When the trap becomes full to its spill point, oil is displaced and moves upward through the basins flank.

Reserve Calculations and Production Methods

These calculations are usually done by a reservoir engineer (if there is one in the company you work for). Small companies may not have engineers, and it is up to the geologist to make these calculations.

A. Preliminary volumetric reserve calculations:

These are the kind of calculations you would go through if you wished to "join" in the drilling or a well, or if you were planning to bid on acreage. Essentially a way to evaluate the value of particular area: The technique is to map out the area of the reservoir, contour its thickness and sum up the thicknesses. Then two fudge factors have to be applied: Estimated porosity of the reservoir Recovery factor- depends on drive mechanism, viscosity of oil, permeability, well spacing. Recovery factors can range up to 30% or more for sandstones, most carbonate reservoirs, it will be in the 10 to 20% range.

The FVF is a scaling factor that converts the volume of oil at T and P or the reservoir to the T and P of the surface, as well as extracts the volume taken up by reservoir gas. it is generally a number between 1.1 and 2, but since it is in the denominator it reduces the ultimate recovery. (1) it can be calculated on the basis of the Gas-Oil ratio (2) it can be determined in the laboratory Note that as the field is produced, the composition of the fluids can change considerably. The primary changes are that the oil/water contact will move up, and a gas cap may form on the top of the oil layer.

B. Post discovery reserve calculations

Once accurate reservoir data are know, it is possible to make better calculations. This is often done during "unitization" of a field, a process where all owners pool their interest and divide up the recoverable oil. The recoverable oil is calculated according to a formula: Recoverable oil (bbls) = 7758*V*f*(1-Sw)*R*FVF-1 The value 7758 converts from acre-feet to bbls V = volume of reservoir in acre-feet f = porosity Sw = water saturation R = recovery factor- this can only be estimated, but may be accurate if enough history surrounding wells is known FVF = formation volume factor

C. Production Methods
The type of driving mechanism that allows HC to flow to the surface is usually the concern of the petroleum engineer. But it is important for a petroleum geologist to be aware of the different kinds of driving mechanism. Three main types: water drive, gas drive, and dissolved gas drive: 1. Water drive In this case, the pressure in the reservoir is hydrostatic. The pressure depends on the recharge at the earth's surface. In this case, oil water contact may rise as the reservoir is produced. The oil water contact in most cases will not rise evenly- controlled by permeability- this will cause fingering of water into the more permeable layers. Also, the water may come up into the wellbore if the well is produced too fast

Production history: As these reservoirs are produced, reservoir pressure drops inversely with the recharge of the aquifer. There is little change in gas/oil ratio (GOR). The amount of fluid produced generally remains constant, but the water/oil ratio increases 2. Gas Cap Drive In this case, the reservoir contains a gas cap- free gas sitting on top of oil. During production, the pressure in the reservoir decreases, and causes the gas to come out of solution of the oil. Thus, free gas fills the voids that are left by the produced oil. Production history: Pressure and oil production decrease steadily during production, but the GOR increases. 3. Dissolved Gas Drive In this case, there is sufficient gas in solution to keep pressure of the reservoir high. The expansion of as it comes out of solution keeps the pressure high. If the pressure drops low enough, free gas cap will form. This is called the critical gas saturation. At this point, pressure decreases quite a lot, and production drops off. 4. Artificial Lift and Enhanced Recovery (a) If original pressure is sufficient, hydrocarbons will flow to the surface on their pressure alone. In all cases, after a certain amount of production, the pressure decreases enough that pumps have to be installed. (b) Eventually, the pressure is reduced so that pumps cannot lift the hydrocarbons. In this case, secondary and tertiary production techniques are started All of these procedures are designed to keep reservoir pressure high. They generally involve injection various types of fluids into the reservoir. Some of the types of fluids include: gases- e.g. hydrocarbon gases from the field or nearby fields, or inert other gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide water- this is probably the most common type of secondary recovery, so these type of operations are often called water floods. The water that is injected has to have a very specific chemistry because water that is different from the formation fluids may adverse effects on the formation- e.g. precipitate salts or cause clays to swell. detergents (foams) can be injected that emulsify heavy oils, or can make the water more dense so that it will move more hydrocarbons.

A modern rotary drill rig is composed of four separate systems:

Engines-Power everything Hoist syst.-Used to lift, lower and suspend the drill
string in the well

Rotating syst.- Mud System

The rotating system consists of the kelly, rotary table, the drill string, the drill collars and the bit.

The mud system is used to pump drilling mud down the drill string and back up to the surface. This system has multiple functions: Control the subsurface pressure via Mud weight Blow-out preventers (valves) Prevent the hole from collapsing Cool the drill bit Remove the drill cuttings Drilling mud is a key element of the drilling process. If the mud weight is too high the reservoir may be damaged, if too low there may be a blow out if a high pressure zone is encountered. Surface casing is always set in order to attach the blow-out preventers to control pressure. If the well is successful, production casing is lowered to the reservoir, cemented to the walls and perforated in front of the reservoir unit in order to be able to test and produce that interval

In some cases it is necessary to set an intermediate casing in order to isolate an over pressured (or under pressured) layer. Otherwise it would be necessary to maintain excessively high mud weight that would Steel casing (heavy gage pipe) is used to maintain the integrity of the hole and to isolate specific strata. invade the reservoir damaging it.

Wells are not always vertical. If the beds are tilted the well will tend to "walk" up-dip causing the well to deviate. In other cases the well is deviated on purpose, such as in order to drill several wells from a single surface location, or if it necessary to "side-track" the hole to avoid an obstruction. Directional drilling is done with a bit that is powered by a down hole motor (or turbine) instead of powered by turning the entire drill string from the surface.

OVERVIEW ON PETROLEUM EXPLORATION

Geological Surveys
The exploration for natural gas typically begins with geologists examining the surface structure of the earth, and determining areas where it is geologically likely that petroleum or gas deposits might exist. It was discovered in the mid 1800's that anticlinal slopes had a particularly increased chance of containing petroleum or gas deposits. These anticlinal slopes are areas where the earth has folded up on itself, forming the dome shape that is characteristic of a great number of reservoirs. By surveying and mapping the surface and sub-surface characteristics of a certain area, the geologist can extrapolate which areas are most likely to contain a petroleum or natural gas reservoir. The geologist has many tools at his disposal to do so, from the outcroppings of rocks on the surface or in valleys and gorges, to the geologic information attained from the rock cuttings and samples obtained from the digging of irrigation ditches, water wells, and other oil and gas wells. This information is all combined to allow the geologist to make inferences as to the fluid content, porosity, permeability, age, and formation sequence of the rocks underneath the surface of a particular area. Once the geologist has determined an area where it is geologically possible for a natural gas or petroleum formation to exist, further tests can be performed to gain more detailed data about the potential reservoir area. These tests allow for the more accurate mapping of underground formations, most notably those formations that are commonly associated with natural gas and petroleum reservoirs. These tests are commonly performed by a geophysicist, one who uses technology to find and map underground rock formations

The exploration process

The exploration effort in any given area builds on the work that had been done previously by others. Therefore the specific sequence of steps varies depending on how much information is already available. Below I list a typical process for a frontier basin.

1. Regional Studies.
Objective: to identify a sedimentary basin with good hydrocarbon potential (good source and reservoir units). These are studies at the scale of a sedimentary basin.

Data Surface Geology Results of old wells Existing seismic data Regional Stratigraphic and geologic history Location of oil and gas seeps

Sources Geological survey, other companies National oil company, other companies, geological literature Other oil companies, data repositories, seismic contractors Geologic journals, university thesis, company reports All the above sources

2. Land acquisition.
After a prospective basin is identified the company must acquire the right to explore (and exploit) the hydrocarbons in a given area. Different countries have different rules about the ownership of the subsurface. In the US the surface owner also owns the minerals rights (except off shore), in many other countries the state owns the subsurface mineral rights and they lease them to the explorationist in exchange for cash or for a percentage of the oil production if there is a discovery. Often the exploration rights are assigned on the basis of a competitive bidding process. In some other countries only the national oil company is allowed to carry out exploration, but often they establish partnerships with private companies to share the risk (and hopefully also the profits). This is a complicated political, economic, and legal issue that often determines whether exploration can be carried out in a basin. Oil exploration also impacts the local population (human or otherwise), so the explorationist must be aware of any potential conflicts. Recent examples of this are: -Debate in US congress over opening the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to exploration (Alaska North Slope) -Uwa indian community threatens to commit mass suicide if Occidental Petroleum drills in their ancestral land (Northeastern Andes, Colombia) -Talisman Energy (Canada) is criticized for investing in oil exploration in Sudan where a civil war is in progress.

3. Exploration.
Once the exploration rights are secured, a first pass of data is acquired over the lease area. This includes: -Regional seismic grid (lines are long but widely spaced) -Detailed surface geological maps -Geochemical sampling to evaluate source rock maturity and richness -Age dating to refine knowledge of geological and thermal history Main Goal: to identify plays and prospects.

What is a petroleum play?

Conceptual model of a system of possible petroleum accumulations in a basin taking into account both the hydrocarbon source and the style of trap that may be present.

What is a prospect?
A specific trap that has been identified but not tested by the drill yet. Frequently a second pass of seismic data (shorter, closely spaced lines) is acquired to fully constrain the geometry of each prospect. Products: -Structural map on the reservoir units -Isopach maps of the reservoir -Maps on basement structure and any other important structural feature -Map of source rock. The goal is to determine: -Trap geometry and type. -Closure -Migration pathway -Size of the trap

Isopach maps: Contours of equal stratigraphic thickness. These maps are often used to
find the thickest part of the reservoir. Other variables that are commonly contoured are

net pay, porosity, oil saturation, pressure, etc.

Other important studies are: -Models of thermal maturity -Structural analysis -Geochemical modeling This help determine the timing of hydrocarbon generation relative to the age of the trap, and they type and amount of hydrocarbons expected

4.

Assessment (Prospect evaluation).

Once the prospects have been identified and successfully mapped, a business decision must be made: Does it make sense to drill or not? To answer this question one must determine: - What are the potential oil or gas reserves? -What is the risk of the prospect? -Cost of drilling? -What infrastructure is needed? Cost? -Is there a market for the hydrocarbons? -How will they be transported to this market? Companies often have to compare prospects from different basins in different parts of the world in order to decide how to spend their exploration budget. It is the geologist's job to promote his/her prospects within the company or to other potential partners.

5. Drilling an exploratory well

The objective of an exploratory well is not only to test a specific prospect but also to learn as much as possible about the petroleum geology of the area. Historically the success rate of exploratory wells is about 1 in 10. For this reason it is important to collect as much data as possible from the well, even a dry well is very valuable in guiding future exploration. This means: -Complete well sample logging -Full monitoring of gas and oil shows -Full set of well logs -Velocity survey, vertical seismic survey -DST (drill stem tests) -Sidewall cores -Cores -Biostratigraphy -Source rock geochemistry