C H A P T E R

CORE

Organising and displaying data

What is the difference between categorical and numerical data? What is a frequency table, how is it constructed and when is it used? What is the mode and how do we determine its value? What are bar charts, histograms, stem plots and dot plots? How are they constructed and when are they used? How do you describe the features of bar charts, histograms and stem plots when writing a statistical report?

1.1

Classifying data
Statistics is a science concerned with understanding the world through data. The rst step in this process is to put the data into a form that makes it easier to see patterns or trends.

Some data
The data contained in Table 1.1 is part of a larger set of data collected from a group of university students.
Table 1.1 Student data

Height (cm)

Weight (kg)

Age (years)

Sex M male F female M M M F M F F M

173 179 167 195 173 184 175 140

57 58 62 84 64 74 60 50

18 19 18 18 18 22 19 34

Plays sport 1 regularly 2 sometimes 3 rarely 2 2 1 1 3 3 3 3

Pulse rate (beats/min)

86 82 96 71 90 78 88 70

Source: www.statsci.org/data/oz/ms212.html. Used with permission.

Essential Further Mathematics Core

Variables In a data set, we call the things about which we record information variables. An important rst step in analysing any set of data is to identify the variables involved, their units of measurement (where appropriate) and the values they take. In this particular data set there are six variables: height (in centimetres) sex (M = male, F = female) weight (in kilograms) plays sport (1 = regularly, 2 = sometimes, 3 = rarely) age (in years) pulse rate (beats/minute)

Types of variables: categorical and numerical

Having identied the variables we are working with, the next step is to decide the variable type. Some variables represent qualities or attributes. For example, F in the Sex column indicates that the person is a female, while a 2 in the Plays sport column indicates that the person is someone who plays sport sometimes. Variables that represent qualities are called categorical variables. Other variables represent quantities. For example, a 179 in the Height column indicates that the person is 179 cm tall, while an 82 in the Pulse rate column indicates that they have a pulse rate of 82 beats/minute. Variables that represent quantities are called numerical variables. Numerical variables come in two types, discrete and continuous. Discrete numerical variables represent quantities that are counted. The number of mobile phones in a house is an example. Counting leads to discrete data values because it results in values like 0, 1, 2, 3 etc. There can be nothing in between. As a guide, discrete numerical variables arise when we ask the question How many? Continuous numerical variables represent quantities that are measured rather than counted. Thus, even though we might record a persons height as 179 cm, in reality that could be any value between 178.5 and 179.4 cm. We have just rounded off the height to 179 cm for convenience, or to match the accuracy of the measuring device.

Warning!!
It is not the variable name itself that determines whether the data is numerical or categorical, it is the way the data for the variable is recorded. For example: weight recorded in kilograms, is a numerical variable weight recorded as 1 = underweight, 2 = normal weight, 3 = overweight, is a categorical variable

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

Exercise 1A
1 What is: a a numerical variable? Give an example. b a categorical variable? Give an example.

2 There are two types of numerical variables. Name them. 3 Classify each of the following variables as numerical or categorical. If the variable is numerical, further classify the variable as discrete or continuous. Recording information on: a b c d e f g length of bananas (in centimetres) h number of cars in a supermarket car park i daily temperature in C j eye colour (brown, blue, . . . ) k shoe size (6, 8, 10, . . . ) l the number of children in a family m city of residence (NY, London, . . . ) n number of people who live in your city/area time spent watching TV (hours) the TV channel most watched by students salary (high, medium, low) salary (in dollars) whether a person smokes (yes, no) the number of cigarettes smoked per day

4 Classify the data for each of the variables in Table 1.1 as numerical or categorical.

1.2

Organising and displaying categorical data

The frequency table
With a large number of data values, it is difcult to identify any patterns or trends in the raw data. We rst need to organise the data into a more manageable form. A statistical tool we use for this purpose is the frequency table. The frequency table A frequency table is a listing of the values a variable takes in a data set, along with how often (frequently) each value occurs. Frequency can be recorded as a count: the number of times a value occurs, or percent: the percentage of times a value occurs count 100% total count A listing of the values a variable takes, along with how frequently each of these values occurs in a data set, is called a frequency distribution. percent = Example 1 Frequency table for a categorical variable

The sex of 11 preschool children is as shown (F = female, M = male): F M M F F M F F F M M Construct a frequency table to display the data.

Essential Further Mathematics Core

Solution 1 Set up a table as shown. The variable Sex has two categories, Male and Female. 2 Count up the number of females (6) and males (5). Record in the Count column. 3 Add the counts to nd the total count, 11 (6+5). Record in the Count column opposite Total. 4 Convert the counts into percentages. Record in the Percent column. For example: 6 100% = 54.5% 11 5 Finally, total the percentages and record. percentage of females = Frequency Sex Female Male Total Count 6 5 11 Percent 54.5 45.5 100.0

There are two things to note in constructing the frequency table in Example 1. 1 In setting up this frequency table, the order in which we have listed the categories Female and Male is quite arbitrary; there is no natural order. However, if the categories had been, for example, First, Second and Third, then it would make sense to list the categories in that order. 2 The Total count should always equal the total number of observations, in this case 11. The percentages should add to 100%. However, if percentages are rounded to one decimal place a total of 99.9 or 100.1 is sometimes obtained. This is due to rounding error. Totalling the count and percentages helps check on your counting and percentaging. How has forming a frequency table helped? The process of forming a frequency table for a categorical variable: displays the data in a compact form tells us something about the way the data values are distributed (the pattern of the data)

The bar chart

Once categorical data has been organised into a frequency table, it is common practice to display the information graphically to help identify any features that stand out in the data. A statistical tool we use for this purpose is the bar chart. The bar chart pictures the key information in a frequency table. It is designed for categorical data. In a bar chart: frequency (or percentage frequency) is shown on the vertical axis the variable being displayed is plotted on the horizontal axis the height of the bar (column) gives the frequency (count or percentage) the bars are drawn with gaps between them to indicate that each value is a separate category there is one bar for each category

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

Example 2

Constructing a bar chart from a frequency table Frequency Count Percent 3 14 6 23 13.0 60.9 26.1 100.0

Construct a bar chart for this frequency table. Climate type Cold Moderate Hot Total

Solution 1 Label the horizontal axis with the variable name, Climate type. Mark the scale off into three equal intervals and label, Cold, Moderate and Hot. 2 Label the vertical axis Frequency. Scale allowing for the maximum frequency, 14. Fifteen would be appropriate. Mark the scale off in ves. 3 For each interval, draw in a bar. There are gaps between the bars to show that the categories are separate. The height of the bar is made equal to the frequency.
15

10 Frequency

0 Cold Moderate Climate type Hot

The mode
One of the features of a data set that is quickly revealed with a bar chart is the mode or modal category. This is the most frequently occurring value or category. This is given by the category with the tallest bar. For the bar chart above, the modal category is clearly Moderate. That is, for the countries considered, the most frequently occurring climate type is Moderate. However, the mode is only of interest when a single value or category in the frequency table occurs much more often than the others. Modes are of particular importance in popularity polls. For example, in answering questions like Which is the most frequently watched TV station between the hours of 6.00 and 8.00 p.m.? or What are the times when a supermarket is in peak demand, morning, afternoon or night?

What to look for in a frequency distribution of a categorical variable: writing a report

A bar chart, in combination with a frequency table, is useful for gaining an overall view of a frequency distribution of a categorical variable, the so-called big picture.

Essential Further Mathematics Core

Describing a bar chart In describing a bar chart, we focus on two things: the presence of a dominant category (or group of categories) in the distribution. This is given by the mode. If there is no dominant category, then this should be stated. the order of occurrence of each category and its relative importance In commenting on these features, it is usual to support your conclusions with percentages. When quoting percentages, it is also advisable to indicate at the beginning the total number of cases involved. Using the information in Example 2 to describe the distribution of climate type, you might write as follows:

Report
The climate types of 23 countries were classified as being, `cold', `moderate' or `hot'. The majority of the countries, 60.9%, were found to have a moderate climate. Of the remaining countries, 26.1% were found to have a hot climate while 13.0% were found to have a cold climate.

Stacked or segmented bar charts

25 A variation on the standard bar chart is the Climate Hot segmented or stacked bar chart. In a Moderate 20 segmented bar chart, the bars are stacked Cold on one another to give a single bar with 15 several components. The lengths of the 10 segments are determined by the frequencies. When this is done, the height of the bar gives 5 the total frequency. Segmented bar charts should only be used when there are 0 a relatively small number of components, usually no more than four or ve, because it becomes difcult to distinguish the components. The segmented bar chart above was formed from the climate data used in Example 2. Note that a legend has been included to identify the segments. In a percentage segmented bar chart, 100 Climate the lengths of each of the segments in the 90 Hot bar are determined by the percentages. 80 Moderate 70 When this is done, the height of the bar is Cold 60 100. The percentage segmented bar chart 50 opposite was formed from the climate data 40 used in Example 2. 30 Percentage segmented bar charts are most 20 10 useful when we come to analyse the 0 relationship between two categorical variables, as we will see in Chapter 4. Percentage Frequency

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

Exercise 1B
1 a In a frequency table, what is the mode? b Identify the mode in the following data sets: i Grades: A A C B A B B B ii Shoe size: 8 9 9 10 8 8 7 9 8

B 10

D C 12 8

10

2 The following data; 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 3 3 identies the state of residence of a group of people, where 1 = Victoria, 2 = SA and 3 = WA. a Form a frequency table (with both counts and percentages) to show the distribution of state of residence for this group of people. Use the table in Example 1 as a model. b Construct a bar chart using Example 2 as a model. 3 The size (S = small, M = medium, L = large) of 20 cars was recorded as follows: S M S S L L M S M M M M L M S S S S M M

a Form a frequency table (with both counts and percentages) to show the distribution of size for these cars. Use the table in Example 1 as a model. b Construct a bar chart using Example 2 as a model. 4 The table shows the frequency distribution of School type for a number of schools. The table is incomplete. a Write down the information missing from the table. b How many schools are categorised as Independent? c How many schools are there in total? d What percentage of schools are categorised as Government? e Use the information in the frequency table to complete the following report. Frequency Count Percent 4 11 5 20 25 100

School type Catholic Government Independent Total

Report
schools were classified according to school type. The majority of these schools, %, were found to be schools. Of the remaining schools, were while 20% were schools.

Essential Further Mathematics Core

5 The table shows the frequency distribution of the place of birth for 500 Australians. a Is Place of birth a categorical or a numerical variable? b Display the data in the form of a percentage segmented bar chart. c Use the information in the frequency table to write a brief report. Place of birth Australia Overseas Total Percent 78.3 21.8 100.1

6 The table records the number of new cars sold in Australia during the rst quarter of 2005 categorised by type (private vehicle or commercial vehicle). a Copy and complete the table giving the percentages correct to the nearest whole number. b Display the data in the form of a percentage segmented bar chart. Frequency Count Percent 132 736 49 109

Type of vehicle Private Commercial Total

7 The table shows the frequency distribution of eye colour of 11 preschool children. a Use the information in the table to construct a bar chart. Place the columns in order of decreasing frequency. b Use the information in the table to construct a percentage segmented bar chart. c Use the information in the table to write a brief report. 8 Twenty-two students were asked the question, How often do you play sport? with the possible response: Regularly, Sometimes or Rarely. The distribution of responses is summarised in the frequency table. a Write down the information missing from the table. b Use the information in the frequency table to complete the following report. Frequency Eye colour Count Percentage Brown Hazel Blue Total 6 2 3 11 54.5 18.2 27.3 100.0

Plays sport Regularly Sometimes Rarely Total

Frequency Count Percent 5 10 22 22.7 31.8

Report
When students were asked the question, `How often do you play sport', the dominant response was `Sometimes', given by % of the students. Of the remaining students, % of the students responded that they played sport while % said they that they played sport .

1.3

Organising and displaying numerical data

Frequency tables can also be used to organise numerical data. For discrete numerical data, the process exactly mirrors that for categorical data. For continuous data, some modications need to be made because groups of data values, rather than individual values are listed.

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

Example 3

Frequency table for discrete numerical data

The family size of 11 preschool children (including the child itself) is as follows: 3 3 4 4 5 3 2 4 3 5 3 Display the data in the form of a frequency table. Solution 1 Set up a table as shown. In the data set, the variable family size takes the values 2, 3, 4 and 5. List these values under Family size in some order, here increasing. 2 Count up the number of 2s, 3s, 4s and 5s in the dataset. For example, there are ve 3s. Record these values in the Count column.

Frequency Family size 2 3 4 5 Total Count 1 5 3 2 11 Percent 9.1 45.5 27.3 18.2 100.1

3 Add the counts to nd the total count, 11. Record this value in the Count column opposite Total. 4 Convert the counts into percents. Record in the Percent column. For example, 5 100% = 45.5% 11 5 Finally, total the percentages and record. percentage of 3s =

Grouping data
Some variables can only take on a limited range of values, for example, the number of children in a family. Here, it makes sense to list each of these values individually when forming a frequency distribution. In other cases, the variable can take a large range of values, for example age (0100). Listing all possible ages would be tedious and would produce a large and unwieldy display. To solve this problem, we group the data into a small number of convenient intervals. There are no hard and fast rules for the number of intervals but, normally, between ve and fteen intervals are used. Usually, the smaller the number of data values, the smaller the number of intervals. Note that the intervals are dened so that it is quite clear into which interval each data value falls. For example, you cannot dene intervals as, 15, 510, 1015, 1520, . . . etc, as you would not know into which interval to put the values, 5, 10, 15, etc. Guideline for choosing the number of intervals There are no hard and fast rules for the number of intervals to use but, normally, between ve and fteen intervals are used.

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

Example 4

Grouping data

The ages of a sample of 200 people aged from 16 to 72 years are to be recorded. Group the ages into six equal-sized categories that will cover all of these ages. Solution 1 Write down the required number of intervals. 2 Determine interval width. Ages range from 16 to 72, which covers 57 years. Six intervals will give intervals 57 = 9.5. of width 6 Set the interval width to 10, the nearest whole number above 9.5. 3 Choose a starting point that ensures that the intervals cover the full range of values. 15 would be a suitable starting point. 4 Write down the intervals.

Number of intervals: 6 57 Interval width = = 9.5: use 10 6

Starting point: 15

Intervals: 1524, 2534, . . . , 6574

Once we know how to group data, we can form a frequency distribution for grouped data. Example 5 A grouped frequency distribution for a continuous numerical variable

The data below gives the average hours worked per week in 23 countries. 35.0, 48.0, 45.0, 43.0, 38.2, 50.0, 39.8, 40.7, 40.0, 50.0, 35.4, 38.8, 40.2, 45.0, 45.0, 40.0, 43.0, 48.8, 43.3, 53.1, 35.6, 44.1, 34.8 Form a grouped frequency table with ve intervals. Solution 1 Set up a table as shown. For ve intervals and data values ranging between 34.8 and 53.1, use the intervals: 30.034.9, 35.039.9, . . . , 50.054.9. 2 List these intervals, in ascending order, under Average hours worked. 3 Count the number of countries whose average working hours fall into each of the intervals. For example, six countries have average working hours between 35.0 and 39.9. Record these values in the Count column. 4 Add the counts to nd the total count, 23. Record this value in the Count column opposite Total.

Average hours worked 30.034.9 35.039.9 40.044.9 45.049.9 50.054.9 Total

Frequency Count 1 6 8 5 3 23 Percent 4.3 26.1 34.8 21.7 13.0 99.9

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5 Convert the counts into percentages. Record in the Percent column. For example, for 35.039.9 hours, 6 percentage = 100% = 26.1% 23 6 Finally, total the percentages and record.

There are two things to note in the frequency table in Example 5. 1 The intervals in this example are of width ve. For example, the interval 35.039.9, is an interval of width 5.0 because it contains all values from 34.9500 . . . to 39.9499. 2 The modal interval is 40.044.9 hours; eight (34.8%) of the countries have working hours that fall into this interval. How has forming a frequency table helped? The process of forming a frequency table for a numerical variable: orders the data displays the data in a compact form tells us something about the way the data values are distributed (the pattern of the data) helps us identify the mode (the most frequently occurring value or interval of values)

The histogram
The frequency histogram, or histogram for short, is a graphical way of presenting the information in a frequency table for numerical data. Later in the chapter, you will learn about two other graphical displays for numerical data, the stem plot and the dot plot. Constructing a histogram from a frequency table In a frequency histogram: frequency (count or percent) is shown on the vertical axis the values of the variable being displayed are plotted on the horizontal axis for continuous data, each bar in a histogram corresponds to a data interval. For discrete data, where there are gaps between values, the intervals start and end halfway between values. Empty classes or missing discrete values have bars of zero height. the height of the bar gives the frequency (usually the count, but it can equally well be the percentage) Example 6 Constructing a histogram from a frequency table: continuous numerical variable Average hours worked 30.034.9 35.039.9 40.044.9 45.049.9 50.054.9 Total Frequency (count) 1 6 8 5 3 23

Construct a histogram for this frequency table.

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

Solution 1 Label the horizontal axis with the variable name, Average hours worked. Mark in the scale using the beginning of each interval as the scale points: that is 30, 35, . . . 2 Label the vertical axis Frequency. Scale allowing for the maximum frequency, 8. Ten would be appropriate. Mark in the scale in units. 3 Finally, for each interval, 30.034.9, 35.039.9, . . . , draw in a bar with the base starting at the beginning of each interval and nishing at the beginning of the next. The height of the bar is made equal to the frequency. Example 7
9 8 7 Frequency 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Average hours worked 60

Constructing a histogram from a frequency table: discrete numerical variable Family size 2 3 4 5 Total
5 4 Frequency 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 Family size 5 6

Construct a histogram for this frequency table.

Frequency (count) 1 5 3 2 11

Solution 1 Label the horizontal axis with the variable name, Family size. Mark the scale in units, so that it includes all possible values. 2 Label the vertical axis Frequency. Scale to allow for the maximum frequency, 5. Five would be appropriate. Mark the scale in units. 3 Draw in a bar for each data value. The width of each bar is 1, starting and ending halfway between data values. For example, the base of the bar representing a family size of 2 starts at 1.5 and ends at 2.5. The height of the bar is made equal to the frequency.

Constructing a histogram from raw data It is relatively quick to construct a histogram from a preprepared frequency table. However, if you only have raw data (as you mostly do), it is a very slow process because you have to construct the frequency table rst. Fortunately, a graphics calculator will do this for us.

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

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How to construct a histogram using a graphics calculator Use a graphics calculator to display the following set of marks in the form of a histogram. 16 15 11 12 4 18 25 22 15 17 7 18 14 23 13 15 14 13 12 17 15 18 13 22 16 23 14

Steps 1 Enter the data into your calculator using the Stat List Editor. a Press to open the Stat List Editor. b Enter the data into L1. If L1 already contains data, use the arrow keys to move the cursor to highlight L1 and press to clear L1. 2 Statistical graphing is done through the STAT PLOTS menu. a Press y , to access menu. b Press to select Plot 1. c Press again to turn Plot 1 On. Your screen should now look like that shown opposite. 3 To construct a histogram: a use the down arrow key () to move the cursor down to Type: (of graph). Then use the horizontal arrow key ( ) to move the cursor across to (histogram). Press to select. b next move the cursor down () to Xlist : If L1 shows, press . If not, press y d to insert L1 and press to select. If you have done this correctly, your screen should now look like that shown opposite. 4 To plot the histogram in a properly scaled window, press q . 5 Pressing r places a marker at the top of the rst column and tells us that the: r interval width used by the calculator to form the histogram is 3.5 (7.5 4 = 3.5) r rst class interval contains all values ranging from 4 to less than 7.5 For this interval, the count is two (n = 2) To nd out the counts in the other intervals, use the horizontal arrow key ( ) to hop from interval to interval. ! !

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

Note: If you want to change the starting point and/or interval width of the histogram, press p.

Xmin determines the starting point of the histogram Xscl determines the class width Make the desired changes and press s to redraw the histogram.

r r

Exercise 1C
1 The number of occupants in nine cars stopped at a trafc light was: 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 What is the mode of this data set? What does this tell us? 2 The number of surviving grandparents for 11 preschool children is listed below. 0 4 4 3 2 3 4 4 4 3 3 Form a frequency table to show the distribution of the number of surviving grandparents. 3 a Write down the missing information in the frequency table. b How many families had only one child? c How many families had more than one child? d What percentage of families had no children? e What percentage of families had fewer than three children? Number children in family 0 1 2 3 4 Total Frequency Count Percent 3 10 6 2 21 47.6 28.6 9.5

4 a Salaries of women teaching in a school range from $20 106 to $63 579. Group the salaries into ve equal-sized categories that cover all teaching salaries. b The number of students in VCE Further Mathematics classes ranges from 6 to 33. Group class size into six equal-sized categories that cover all Further Mathematics class sizes. c The amount of money carried by a sample of 23 students ranges from nothing to $8.75. Group the amount of money carried by the students into ve equal-sized categories that cover all amounts of money carried by the students. 5 The histogram opposite was formed by recording the number of words in 30 randomly selected sentences. a What percentage of these sentences contained: ii 2529 words? i 59 words? iv fewer than 15 words? iii 1019 words Give answers correct to the nearest percent. b How many of these sentences contained: ii more than 25 words? i 2024 words? c What is the mode (modal interval)?
Frequency (%) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Number of words in sentence

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

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6 Use the information in the table opposite to help you construct a histogram to display population density. Use the histogram in Example 6 as a model. Label axes and mark in scales.

Population density 0199 200399 400599 600799 800999 Total Number of rooms 4 5 6 7 8 Total

Frequency (count) 11 4 4 2 1 22 Frequency (count) 3 0 1 3 4 11

7 Use the information in the table opposite to help you construct a histogram to display the distribution of the number of rooms in the houses of 11 preschool children. Use the histogram in Example 7 as a model. Label axes and mark in scales.

8 The pulse rates of 23 students are given below. 86 70 82 78 96 69 71 77 90 64 78 80 68 83 71 78 68 88 88 70 76 86 74

a Use a graphics calculator to construct a histogram. Use automatic scaling ( q for a TI calculator). b For this histogram: i what is the interval width? ii what is the count for the second interval? What actual data values does this include? c Use the window menu to redraw the histogram so that the rst interval starts at 60, and the interval width is ve. Make Xmax = 95 and Ymax = 6. d For this histogram, what is the count in the interval 65 to <70? 9 The following data values are the number of children in the families of 25 VCE students: 1 6 2 5 5 3 4 1 2 7 3 4 5 3 1 3 2 1 4 4 3 9 4 3 3 a Use a graphics calculator to construct a histogram. Use automatic scaling ( q for a TI calculator). b For this histogram: i what is the interval width? ii what is the count for the second interval? What actual data value(s) does this include? c Use the window menu to redraw the histogram so that the rst interval starts at 0.5, and the interval width is one. Make Xmax = 10.5 and Ymax = 8. d For this histogram: i what is the count in the interval from 4.5 to less than 5.5? ii what actual data value(s) does this interval include?

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

1.4

What to look for in a histogram

Histograms are useful for gaining an overall view of a frequency distribution of a numerical variable, the so-called big picture. Describing a histogram In describing a histogram, we focus on three things: shape and outliers (values in the data set that appear to stand out from the rest) centre spread

Shape
How is the data distributed? Is the histogram peaked, that is, do some data values tend to occur much more frequently than others, or is it relatively at, showing that all values in the distribution occur with approximately the same frequency? Symmetric distributions If a histogram is single-peaked, does the histogram region tail off evenly on either side of the peak? If so, the distribution is said to be symmetric (see Histogram 1).
10 8 6 4 2 0 lower tail peak upper tail Frequency 10 8 6 4 2 0 peak peak

Frequency

Histogram 1

Histogram 2

A single-peaked symmetric distribution is characteristic of the data that derives from measuring variables such as peoples heights, intelligence test scores, weights of oranges in a storage bin, or any other data for which the values vary evenly around some central value. The histogram for average hours worked (see Example 6) would be classied as approximately symmetric. The double-peaked distribution (Histogram 2) is symmetric about the dip between the two peaks. A histogram which has two distinct peaks indicates a bimodal (two modes) distribution. A bimodal distribution often indicates that the data has come from two different populations. For example, if we were studying the distance the discus is thrown by Olympic level discus throwers, we would expect a bimodal distribution if both male and female throwers were included in the study. Skewed distributions Sometimes a histogram tails off primarily in one direction. Such distributions are said to be skewed.

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

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If a histogram tails off to the right we say that it is positively skewed (Histogram 3). The distribution of salaries of workers in a large organisation tends to be positively skewed. Most workers earn a similar salary with some variation above or below this amount, but a few earn more and even fewer, like the senior manager, earn even more. The distribution of house prices also tends to be positively skewed.
peak 10 8 6 4 2 0 Histogram 3 Frequency long upper tail Frequency +ve skew 10 8 6 4 2 0 Histogram 4 long lower tail ve skew peak

If a histogram tails off to the left we say that it is negatively skewed (Histogram 4). The distribution of age at death tends to be negatively skewed. Most people die in old age, a few in middle age and even fewer in childhood.

Outliers
Outliers are any data values that stand out from the main body of data. These are data values that are atypically high or low. See for example, Histogram 5, which shows an outlier. In this case it is a data value which is atypically low compared to the rest of the data values. outlier main body of data Outliers can indicate errors made collecting 10 or processing data, for example a persons 8 age recorded as 365. Alternatively, they may 6 indicate data values that are very different 4 2 from the rest of the values. For example, 0 compared to her students ages, a teachers Histogram 5 age is an outlier.

Centre
Histograms 6 to 8 display the distribution of test scores for three different classes taking the same subject. They are identical in shape, but differ in where they are located along the axis. In statistical terms we say that the distributions are centred at different points along the axis. But what do we mean by the centre of a distribution? This is an issue we will return to in more detail later. For the present we will take centre to be the middle of the distribution.
8 7 Frequency 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 Histograms 6 to 8

Frequency

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

The middle of a symmetric distribution is reasonably easy to locate by eye. Looking at Histograms 6 to 8, it would be reasonable to say that the centre or middle of each distribution lies roughly halfway between the extremes; half the observations would lie above this point and half below. Thus we might estimate that Histogram 6 (yellow) is centred at about 60, Histogram 7 (light blue) at about 100, and Histogram 8 (dark blue) at about 140. For skewed distributions, it is more difcult to estimate the middle of a distribution by eye. The middle is not halfway between the extremes because, in a skewed distribution, the scores tend to bunch up at one end. However, if we 5 line that divides imagine a cardboard cut-out of the histogram, the area of the 4 the midpoint lies on the line that divides the histogram in half histogram into two equal areas (Histogram 9). 3 Using this method, we would estimate the 2 centre of the distribution to lie somewhere between 35 and 40, but closer to 35, so we 1 might opt for 37. However, remember this is 0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 only an estimate.
Frequency
Histogram 9

Spread
If the histogram is single peaked, is it narrow? This would indicate that most of the data values in the distribution are tightly clustered in a small region. Or is the peak broad? This would indicate that the data values are more widely spread out. Histograms 10 and 11 are both single peaked. Histogram 10 has a broad peak indicating that the data values are not very tightly clustered about the centre of the distribution. In contrast, Histogram 11 has a narrow peak, indicating that the data values are tightly clustered around the centre of the distribution.
10 8 6 4 2 0 2 wide central region Frequency 20 16 12 8 4 0 2 narrow central region

Frequency

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Histogram 10

4 6

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Histogram 11

But what do we mean by the spread of a distribution? We will return to this in more detail later. For a histogram we will take it to be the maximum range of the distribution. Range Range = largest value smallest value For example, Histogram 10, has a spread (maximum range) of 22 (22 0) units, which is considerably greater than the spread of Histogram 11, which has a spread of 12 (18 6) units.

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Example 8

Describing a histogram in terms of shape, centre and spread

35 30 Frequency (count) 25 20 15 10 5 0 170 340 510 680 850 1020 Number of phones (per 1000 people)

The histogram opposite shows the distribution of the number of phones per 1000 people in 85 countries. a Describe its shape and note outliers (if any). b Locate the centre of the distribution. c Estimate the spread of the distribution.

Solution a Shape and outliers b Centre Count up the frequencies from either end to nd the middle interval. c Spread Use the maximum range to estimate the spread.

The distribution is positively skewed. There are no outliers. The distribution is centred in the interval 170340 phones/1000 people. Spread = 1020 0 = 1020 phones/1000 people

It should be noted that with grouped data, it is difcult to precisely determine the location of the centre of a distribution from a histogram. So, when working with grouped data, it is acceptable to state that the centre of a distribution lies in the interval 170340. We will learn how to solve this problem later in the chapter. If you were using the histogram above to describe the distribution in a form suitable for a statistical report, you might write as follows.

Report
For the 85 countries, the distribution of the number of phones per 1000 people is positively skewed. The centre of the distribution lies somewhere in the interval 170340 phones/1000 people. The spread of the distribution is 1020 phones/1000 people. There are no outliers.

Exercise 1D
1 Label each of the following histograms as approximately symmetric, positively skewed or negatively skewed, and identify the following: i the mode a
20 15 10 5 0 Histogram A Frequency

ii any potential outliers

iii the approximate location of the centre b

80 60 40 20 0 Histogram B Frequency

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

c
Frequency

20 15 10 5 0 Histogram C

d
Frequency

20 15 10 5 0 Histogram D

10 2 These three histograms show the marks obtained by a group 9 8 of students in three subjects. 7 a Are each of the distributions 6 approximately symmetric or 5 skewed? 4 b Are there any clear outliers? 3 c Determine the interval 2 containing the central mark 1 for each of the three subjects. 0 d In which subject was the 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50 spread of marks the least? Use Subject A Subject B Subject C Marks the range to estimate the spread. e In which subject did the marks vary most? Use the range to estimate the spread.

3 Label each of the following histograms as approximately symmetric, positively skewed or negatively skewed, and identify the following: i the mode(s) a
Frequency 20 15 10 5 0 Histogram A

ii any potential outliers

Frequency

iii the approximate location of the centre b

Frequency 80 60 40 20 0 Histogram B

c
Frequency

20 15 10 5 0 Histogram C

d
Frequency

20 15 10 5 0 Histogram D

e
Frequency

10 5 0 Histogram E

Frequency

20 15

80 60 40 20 0 Histogram F

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

21

Frequency (count)

4 This histogram shows the distribution of pulse rate (in beats per minute) for 28 students. Use the histogram to complete the report below describing the distribution of pulse rate in terms of shape, centre, spread and outliers (if any).

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 Pulse rate (beats per minute)

Report
For the students, the distribution of pulse rates is with an outlier. The centre of the distribution lies in the interval beats per minute and the spread of the distribution is beats per minute. The outlier lies in the interval beats per minute.

1.5

Stem-and-leaf plots and dot plots

Stem plots
A stem-and-leaf plot, or stem plot for short, is an alternative to the histogram. It is particularly useful for displaying small to medium sized sets of data (up to about 50 data values) and has the advantage of retaining all the original data values. This makes it useful for further computations. A stem plot is also a very quick and easy way to order and display a set of data by hand. Like a histogram, the stem plot gives information about the shape, outliers, centre and spread of the distribution. One of the stem plots advantages over a histogram in describing distributions is being able to see all the actual data values. This enables the centre and the range of the distribution to be located more precisely. It also enables the clear identication of outliers. Constructing a stem plot In a stem-and-leaf plot, each data value is separated into two parts: the leading digit(s) form the stem, and the trailing digit becomes the leaf. For example, in a stem-and-leaf plot, the data values 25 and 132 are represented as follows: 25 is represented by 132 is represented by and so on. To construct a stem plot, enter the stems to the left of a vertical dividing line, and the leaves for each data point to the right. Usually we rst construct an unordered stem plot by systematically plotting each data point as listed in the data set. From the unordered stem-and-leaf plot an ordered stem plot is then easily obtained. In an ordered stem plot the

Stem Leaf 2 5 13 2

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

leaves increase in value as they move away from the stem. It is usually the ordered stem plot that we want, because an ordered stem plot makes it easy to nd the key values. Example 9 Constructing an ordered stem plot

University participation rates (%) in 23 countries are given below. 26 3 12 20 36 1 25 26 13 9 26 27 30 1 15 21 7 8 22 3 37 17 55 Display the data in the form of an ordered stem plot. Solution 1 The data set has values in the units, tens, twenties, thirties, forties and fties. Thus, appropriate stems are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Write these down in ascending order, followed by a vertical line. 2 Now attach the leaves. The rst data value is 26. The stem is 2 and the leaf is 6. Opposite the 2 in the stem write down the number 6, as shown. The second data value is 3 or 03. The stem is 0 and the leaf is 3. Opposite the 0 in the stem, now write down the number 3, as shown. Continue systematically working through the data following the same procedure until all points have been plotted. You will then have the unordered stemplot as shown. 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 6

3 Ordering the leaves in increasing value as they move away from the stem gives the ordered stem plot as shown.

0 3 1 9 1 7 1 2 3 5 7 2 6 0 5 6 6 3 6 0 7 4 5 5 unordered stemplot 0 1 1 3 3 7 1 2 3 5 7 2 0 1 2 5 6 3 0 6 7 4 5 5 ordered stemplot

8 3 7 1 2

8 9 6 6 7

Using a stem plot to describe a distribution Stem plots are just like histograms, except that you can see all the data values. This enables more precise estimates to be made of the centre and spread.

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

23

Methods for determining the centre, spread and outliers from a stem plot Centre (middle) Count up from either end of the distribution until you nd the middle value; the value which has an equal number of data values either side. n+1 th For an odd number of data values, n, the middle value is the 2 value. Thus, the median will be an actual data value. n+1 th For an even number of data values, n, the middle value is the 2 value. Thus, the median will lie between two data values. Spread (range) Subtract the smallest data value from the largest data value. Range = largest value smallest value Outliers Data values that stand out from the main body of data are called outliers. Their values can be read directly from the stem plot.

Describing a stem plot in terms of shape, centre and spread Test marks The ordered stem plot opposite shows the 0 distribution of test marks of 23 students: 1 5 9 9 9 a Name its shape and note outliers (if any). 2 0 4 5 7 8 8 8 b Locate the centre of the distribution. 3 0 3 5 5 6 8 c Estimate the spread of the distribution. 4 1 2 3 3 5 d Write down the values of any outliers. 5 6 0 Solution a Shape b Centre There are 23 data values, the middle value is the 12th value. Check by counting. c Spread Use the range to estimate the spread. d Outlier Read off the value of the outlier

Example 10

The distribution is approximately symmetric with one outlier. The distribution is centred at 30 marks. Spread = 60 15 = 45 marks Outlier = 60 marks

If you were using the stem plot to describe the distribution in a form suitable for a statistical report, you might write as follows.

Report
For the 23 students, the distribution of marks is approximately symmetric with an outlier. The centre of the distribution is at 30 marks and the distribution has a spread of 45 marks. The outlier is a mark of 60.

Split stems
In some instances, using the simple process outlined above produces a stem plot that is too bunched up to give us a good overall picture of the variation in the data. This is often the case

24

Essential Further Mathematics Core

when the data values all have the same rst digit or the same one or two rst digits. For example, a group of 17 VCE students recently sat for a statistics test marked out of 20. The results are as shown below. 2 12 13 9 18 17 7 16 12 10 16 14 11 15 16 15 17

Using the above process to form a stem plot we end up with a bunched-up plot like the one below: 0 1 2 0 7 1 9 2

When this happens, the stem plot scale can be stretched out by splitting the stems. Generally the stem is split into halves or fths. For example, for the interval 1019, the split stem system works as follows. 1 (1011) 1 (1213) 1 (1415) 1 (1617) 1 (1819)
Stem split into fths

1 (1019)

1 (1014) 1 (1519)

Single stem

Stem split into halves

In a stem plot with a single stem, the 1 represents the interval 1019. In a stem plot with its stem split into halves, the top 1 represents the interval 1014, while the bottom 1 represents the interval 1519. In a stem plot with its stem split into fths, the top 1 represents the interval 1011, the second 1 represents the interval 1213, the third 1 represents the interval 1415, the fourth 1 represents the interval 1617, while the bottom 1 represents the interval 1819. Comparison of stem plots with different split stems Using a split stem plot to display the test marks can show features not revealed by a standard plot. This can be seen in the next plot with the stem split into fths, indicating that a mark of 2 is an outlier. 0 2 7 9 1 0 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 0 0 1 1 2 7 9 0 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 9 0 2 4 6 8

1 2 3 5 5 6 6 7 7

Single stem

Stem split into halves

Stem split into fths

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

25

Back-to-back stem plots

A back-to-back plot has a single stem with 8 6 4 2 1 1 1 5 6 8 9 8 two sets of leaves as shown. 1 0 2 1 1 1 4 The real value of back-to-back plots is 3 2 2 3 1 1 5 that they are a useful tool for comparing the distribution of two sets of data values for the same variable. Example 11 Using a back-to-back stem plot to compare two distributions Test 1 9 9 8 6 6 5 0 8 7 6 5 5 0 5 3 3 2 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 8 9 0 0 1 0 Test 2

Use the back-to-back stem plot to write a report comparing the distribution of the two sets of test marks in terms of shape, centre, spread and outliers.

9 7

4 3 2

5 5 3

7 5 3

8 8 6 8 4 5

Solution

Report
The distribution of the Test 1 marks is negatively skewed while the distribution of the Test 2 marks is approximately symmetric. The two distributions have similar centres, 36.5 and 35. The spread of the Test 1 marks is less than the Test 2 marks, 29 compared to 42. There are no outliers.

Dot plots
The simplest way to display numerical data is to form a dot plot. A dot plot consists of a number line with each data point marked by a dot. When several data points have the same value, the points are stacked on top of each other. Like stem plots, dot plots are a great way for displaying small data sets and have the advantage of being very quick to construct by hand. They are best when the data values are relatively close together. Example 12 Constructing a dot plot

The ages (in years) of the 13 members of a sporting team are: 22 19 18 19 23 25 22 29 18 22 23 24 22 Construct a dot plot. Solution 1 Draw in a number line, scaled to include all data values. Label the line with the variable being displayed.
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Age (years)

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

2 Plot each data value by marking in a dot above the corresponding value on the number line.

17

18

19

20 21

22 23 24 25 26 27 Age (years)

28 29 30

Interpreting a dot plot Dot plots are interpreted in much the same way as stem plots. However, usually there is little we can say about the shape of the distribution from the dot plot because there are not sufcient data points for any pattern to be revealed. From the dot plot in Example 12, we see that the distribution of ages is centred at 22 years (the middle value) with a spread of 11 years (29 18 = 11).

Which graph?
One of the issues that you will face is choosing a suitable graph to display a distribution. The following guidelines might help you in your decision making. They are guidelines only, because in some instances, there may be more than one suitable graph. Type of data Categorical Numerical Graph Bar chart Segmented bar chart Histogram Stem plot Dot plot Qualications on use Not too many categories (4 or 5 maximum) Best for medium to large data sets (n 40) Best for small to medium sized data sets (n 50) Only suitable for small data sets (n 20)

Exercise 1E
1 The data below gives the urbanisation rates (%) in 23 countries. 54 99 22 20 31 3 22 9 25 3 56 12 16 9 29 6 28 100 17 9 35 27 12 a Construct an ordered stem plot. b What advantage does a stem plot have over a histogram? 2 For each of the following stem plots (A, B and C): a name its shape and note outliers (if any) b locate the centre of the distribution
Stem plot A Stem plot B

c determine the spread of the distribution d write down the values of outliers (if any)
Stem plot C

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 2 0 2 0 2

0 1 1 2 6 7 7 9 2 3 5 5 5 5 6 1 4 7 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 1 0 2 1 2 2

3 0 2 2 3

6 1 2 4

9 5 6 8 8 4 5 9 9 9 4 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 3

2 0 2 4 1 1 3 5 8 8 0 0 4 4 4 7 7 8 9

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

27

3 The data below gives the wrist circumference (in cm) of 15 men. 16.9 17.3 19.3 18.5 18.2 18.4 19.9 16.7 17.1 17.6 17.7 16.5 17.0 17.2 17.6 a Construct a stem plot for wrist circumference using: i stems 16, 17, 18, 19 ii these stems split into halves b Which stem plot appears to be more appropriate for this data? c Use the stem plot with split stems to help you complete the report below

Report
For the men, the distribution of their wrist circumference is . The centre of the distribution is at cm and it has a spread of cm. There are no outliers.
4 The data below gives the weight (in kg) of 22 students. 57 58 62 84 64 74 57 55 56 60 75 68 59 72 110 56 69 56 50 60 75 58 a Construct a stem plot for weight using: i stems 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 ii these stems split into halves b Use the stem plot with a split stem to write a brief report on the distribution of the weights of the students in terms of shape (and outliers), centre and spread. Use the report from Question 3 as a model. 5 The number of possessions (kicks, mark, handballs, knockouts, etc.) recorded for players in a football game between Carlton and Essendon is shown below. Carlton Essendon 10 44 32 44 19 35 11 5 24 28 21 32 21 59 21 12 19 26 23 22 29 34 22 34 36 20 14 25 16 19 32 32 14 29 8 22 21 26 44 19 21 22 a Display the data in the form of an ordered back-to-back stem plot. b Complete the following report comparing the two distributions in terms of shape (and outliers), centre and spread.

Report
The distribution of the number of possessions is for both teams. The two distributions have similar centres, at and possessions respectively. The spread of the distribution is less for Carlton, possessions, compared to possessions for Essendon.
6 The following data gives the number of children in the families of 14 VCE students: 1 6 2 5 5 3 4 4 2 7 3 4 3 4 a Construct a dot plot. b What is the mode? c What is: i the centre? ii the spread?

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

7 The following data gives the life expectancies in years of 13 countries: 76 75 74 74 73 73 75 71 72 75 75 78 72 a Construct a dot plot. b What is the mode? c What is: i the centre? ii the spread? 8 Data has been collected for each of the following variables. The data is to be displayed graphically. In each case, decide which is the most appropriate graph. Select from bar chart, histogram, stem plot or dot plot. Sometimes more than one sort of graph is suitable. a b c d e f g h number of passengers in a bus 1000 buses in sample amount of petrol purchased (in litres) 30 petrol purchases type of petrol purchased (super, unleaded, premium) prices of houses sold in Melbourne over a weekend the number of medals won by countries winning medals at the Olympics state of residence of a sample of 200 Australians number of cigarettes smoked in a day (a sample of 120 people) resting pulse rates of 7 students

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

29

Review

Key ideas and chapter summary

Types of data Frequency table Data can be classied as numerical or categorical. A frequency table is a listing of the values a variable takes in a data set, along with how often (frequently) each value occurs. Frequency can be recorded as a: r count: the number of times a value occurs; for example, the number of females in the data set is 32 r percent: the percentage of times a value occurs; for example, the percentage of females in the data set is 45.5% Categorical data arises when classifying or naming some quality or attribute; for example, place of birth, hair colour. Bar charts are used to display the frequency distribution of categorical data.

Categorical data Bar chart

For a small number of categories, the distribution of a categorical Describing variable is described in terms of the dominant category (if any), the distributions of categorical variables order of occurrence of each category and its relative importance. Mode The mode is the value or group of values that occurs most often (frequently) in a data set. For example, for the data 2 1 1 3 3 2 5 1 6 1 1 2 1 1, the mode is 1, because it is the data value that occurs most often. Numerical data arises from measuring or counting some quantity; for example, height, number of people, etc. Numerical data can be discrete or continuous. Discrete data arises when you count. Continuous data arises when you measure. A histogram is used to display the frequency distribution of a numerical variable: suitable for medium to large sized data sets. A stem plot is an alternative graphical display to the histogram: suitable for small to medium sized data sets. The advantage of the stem plot over the histogram is that it shows the value of each data point. A dot plot consists of a number line with each data point marked by a dot: suitable for small sets of data only. The distribution of a numerical variable can described in terms of: r shape: symmetric or skewed (positive or negative)? r outliers: values that appear to stand out r centre: the midpoint of the distribution (median) r spread: one measure is the range of values covered (Range = largest value smallest value)

Numerical data

Histogram Stem plot

Dot plot Describing the distribution of a numerical variable

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

Review

Skills check
Having completed this chapter you should be able to: differentiate between numerical and categorical data interpret the information contained in a frequency table identify and interpret the mode construct a bar chart or histogram from a frequency table decide when it is appropriate to use a histogram rather than a bar chart and vice versa construct a histogram from raw data, using a graphics calculator construct a dot plot and a stem plot from raw data, using split stems if required locate the mode of a distribution from a histogram, stem plot, dot plot or bar chart recognise a symmetric, positively skewed and negatively skewed histogram or stem plot identify potential outliers in a distribution from its histogram or stem plot write a brief report to describe the distribution of a numerical variable in terms of shape, centre, spread and outliers (if any) write a brief report to describe the distribution of a categorical variable in terms of the dominant category (if any), the order of occurrence of each category and their relative importance

Multiple-choice questions
The following information relates to Questions 1 to 3 A survey collected information about the number of cars owned by a family and the car size (small, medium, large). 1 The variables Number of cars owned and car Size are: A both categorical variables B both numerical variables C a categorical and a numerical variable respectively D a numerical and a categorical variable respectively E neither numerical nor categorical variables 2 To graphically display the information about car size you could use a: A dot plot B stem plot C histogram D segmented bar chart E back-to-back stemplot 3 The Number of cars owned is: A a continuous numerical variable C a continuous categorical variable E none of the above B a discrete numerical variable D a discrete categorical variable

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

31

Review

The following information relates to Questions 4 to 6 A group of teenagers were asked to nominate their favourite leisure Leisure activity activity. Their responses have been Sport organised into a frequency table as Listening to music shown. Some information is missing. Watching TV Other Total

Frequency Count Percentage 73 70 59 250 29.2 19.2 23.6

4 The percentage of students who said that listening to music was their favourite leisure activity is: A 17.5 B 28.0 C 29.2 D 50.0 E 70.0 5 The number of students who said watching TV was their favourite leisure activity is: A 19 B 48 C 62 D 125 E 70.0 6 For these students, the most popular leisure activity is: A sport B listening to music C watching TV D other E cant tell Questions 7 to 11 relate to the histogram shown below This histogram displays the test scores of a class 6 of Further Mathematics students. 5
Frequency

7 The total number of students in the class is: A 6 B 18 C 20 D 21 E 22 8 The number of students in the class who obtained a test score less then 14 is: A 4 B 10 C 14

4 3 2 1 0 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Test score

D 17

E 28

9 The histogram is best described as: A negatively skewed B negatively skewed with an outlier C approximately symmetric D approximately symmetric with outliers E positively skewed 10 The centre of the distribution lies in the interval: A 810 B 1012 C 1214 D 1416 11 The spread of the students marks is: A 8 B 10 C 12 D 20 E 22 12 For the stem plot shown opposite, the modal interval is: A 2024 B 2529 C 2029 D 25 E 29 E 1820

1 1 2 2 3

0 5 3 5 0

2 5 3 7 1

6 9 4 9 9 9 2 4

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

Review

Percentage

The following information relates to Questions 13 and 14 This percentage segmented bar chart 100 90 shows the distribution of hair 80 70 colour for 200 students. 13 The number of students with brown hair is closest to: A 4 B 34 C 57 D 68 E 114 14 For these students, the most common hair colour is: A black B blonde C brown
60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Other Red Black Brown Blonde

D red

E other

15 The ages of 11 primary school children were collected. The best graph to display the distribution of ages of these children would be a: A bar chart B dot plot C histogram D segment bar chart E stem plot

Extended-response questions
1 One hundred and twenty-one students were asked to identify their preferred leisure activity. The results of the survey are displayed in a bar chart. a What percentage of students nominated watching TV as their preferred leisure activity? b What percentage of students in total nominated either going to the movies or reading as their preferred leisure activity? c What is the most popular leisure activity for these students? How many students rated this activity as their preferred leisure activity?
30 25 Percentage 20 15 10 5 0
TV M us i M c ov i Re es ad in g O th er Sp or t

Preferred leisue activity

2 The number of people killed in natural and non-natural disasters in 1997 by world region is shown in the table below. a Construct a bar chart. Region Number killed b In which region was the: Europe 874 i greatest number of people killed? Africa 8 327 ii least number of people killed? Asia 10 551 Oceania 457 The Americas 1 581
includes Australia (41)

Chapter 1 Organising and displaying data

33

Review

3 A group of 52 teenagers was asked Do you agree that the use of marijuana should be legalised? Their responses are summarised in the table opposite.

a Construct a properly labelled and scaled frequency bar chart for this data. b Complete the table by calculating the appropriate percentages correct to one decimal place. c Use the percentages to construct a percentage segmented bar chart for this data. d Use the frequency table to help you complete the following report.

Legalise Agree Disagree Dont know Total

Frequency Count Percent 18 26 8 52

Report: In response to the question, `Do you agree that the use of marijuana should be legalised?', 50% of the 52 students . Of the remaining students, % agreed while % said that they .
4 The table below gives the distribution of the number of children in 50 families. a Is the number of children in a family a numerical or categorical variable? b Write down the missing information. c What is the mode? d Determine the number of families with: i three children ii two or three children iii less than three children e Determine the percentage of families with: i six children ii more than six children iii less than six children Number of children in family 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Frequency Count Percent 5 6 19 7 2 3 0 1 50 10 38 14 4 6 0 2 100

10 5 Students were asked how much they spent on entertainment each month. The 8 results are displayed in the histogram. Use this information to answer the 6 following questions. 4 a How many students: i were surveyed? 2 ii spent $100105 per month? 0 90 b What is the mode? c How many students spent $110 or more per month? d What percentage spent less than $100 per month? Frequency

100

110 120 Amount ($)

130

140

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Essential Further Mathematics Core

Review

i Name the shape of the distribution displayed by the histogram. ii Locate the interval containing the centre of the distribution. iii Determine the spread of the distribution using the range.

6 This stem plot displays the ages (in years) of a group of women. a What was the age of the youngest woman? b In terms of age, one of the women is a Note: 17 possible outlier. What is her age? 17 2 c How many women were aged between 17 5 18 0 17.0 and 17.4 years inclusive? 18 5 d How many women were 19 years old 19 1 or older? 19 8 e What is the modal age category? 20 f What percentage of women were less 20 6 than 20 years old? g i Name the shape of the distribution of ages, noting outliers. ii Locate the centre of the distribution. iii Determine the spread of the distribution. 7 The distribution of times spent by 37 cars while stopped at trafc lights is as shown in the histogram opposite. Use the histogram to write a report on the distribution of waiting times in terms of shape, centre, spread and outliers.
10 8 Frequency 6 4 2 0

2 = 17.2 years 3 4 6 6 8 8 9 9 1 3 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 7 8 8 8 9 2 2 3 3

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Waiting time (seconds)

8 Use a graphics calculator to construct histograms for the following sets of data. a Use intervals of width 5 starting at 90. Monthly expenditure on entertainment (in dollars) 110 115 105 98 118 114 125 95 114 104 97 130 122 93

112 107 135 121

94 108 118 106 121 125 107 109

b Use intervals of width 8 starting at 32. Life expectancy (in years) 58 50 65 66 68 64 74 72 73 74 73 48 75 41 71 44 72 44 61 49 67 48 66 48 37