6000 Years of Housing: Less about architecture, and more about how culture, social forces and the

environment have shaped mankind's conquest in constructing shelter. A very comprehensive & generously illustrated work.

Book review: 6000 YEARS OF HOUSING

NORBERT SCHOENAUER PART III PUBLISHED IN 1981 & REVISED IN 2000

CONTENT: PART I - THE PRE-URBAN HOUSE PART II - THE ORIENTAL URBAN HOUSE PART III - THE OCCIDENTAL URBAN HOUSE
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Part 1: Time, anthropo-geographic and socio economic factors have equal contribution to development of architectural history. Even today many cultural tribes live in pre historic dwelling units. Beehive huts were after cave living and this was followed by sedentary living style. Caved preserved the paintings and enough proof of the pre historic world but beehive huts that were destroyed once the tribe group moves does not preserve any history

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The circular plans of dwellings were always preferred and the concave shape is very inviting in nature in comparison to the rectangular shape (More thoughtfully devised). The restrictions with circular plan were that you cannot achieve larger spans and no material was strong enough to hold it in place. The evolution sequence depends on complexity of construction, building size- socio economic structure, size of viable economic unit. As more people moved to manufacturing and trading lesser people were left in the fields and this led to 6000 years of Housing

Evolution of Plan

Circle

Oval

Rounded

Rectangular

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Part 2: Oriental Urban House: Favored housing for 200 years Inward looking, central open private space, court garden Source of light, air, rain Micro climate created that can be modified by user Offers exposure to 4 directions Rooms open into it so it becomes what people make of it Acoustical and visual privacy Private (Family) space was larger than the Public (Guest) space Each room is multifunctional (Specific to each person) Simple facade based on social values of the family Greek and Roman civilization Beneficial design of the house and streets should be adopted

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The Oriental Neighborhood: Narrow alleys lead to a cluster of private homes, these are the semi private areas Main spine serves the residential requirements, this becomes the semi public realm Beyond the gates is the spine street which is the public realm The residential clusters vary based on common social, religious, occupational features; they do not represent homogenous income groups.

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Occidental Homes:
Great Britain homes Outward looking units, facing public streets Courtyard is a Backyard Urban patio houses which are 1 or 2 storeys. Patio- neither garden nor court. More of an indoor room which is open to sky and the centre of family life. Showed status through pent houses and had no patio They dint have any protective screen walls Compact urban housing creates reasonable walling distances to community facilities and effective density and population for mass transportation systems.

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CHAPTER 1: THE DARK AGES

THE ECLIPSE OF ROMAN CITIES
Roman Empire began to decline, this phase came to be known as The Dark Ages. Reasons: wars, diseases, political decay, spread of christianity and invasions by barbaric tribes. Cities invaded by Arabs housed many changes like Cordova that had dwellings for ordinary people, residences for upper class, shops, mosques, schools, bath & hospitals. It became formidable city by the end of 10th century. Arles, in southern France was built within the walls of amphitheater, which originally had 3 arcades, out of which topmost arcade was demolished & material was used for fortification. It had defense towers, 2 gates, shops at base and housing above. Spalato was built on the remains of former emperors palace surrounded by walls, it had narrow streets to leave more space for houses situated along the harbor.

THE EMERGENCE OF MEDIEVAL CITIES

After the collapse of Roman empire the economic base in europe became primarily agriculture & thus feudalism arose. It resulted into a 2-class society of peasants and warriors.

Monasteries: Many poor families sought the comfort of churches for peace & security, which led to start of people residing near monasteries. Usually they were smaller versions of walled cities with the church located in the north & dwellings surrounding it. Sometimes they were built on the ruins of other cities which provided material & later became towns & cities of Christian Occident.

Burghs: Walled enclosures of restricted perimeter circular in form & surrounded by a moat. They were stepping stone in the urban evolution of cities as craftsmen & merchants sought protection and were allowed to stay out of their walls in small communities which would be resulting in the nuclei of future cities.
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THE EMERGENCE OF MEDIEVAL CITIES

The Rise of Mercantilism: Burghs & monasteries led to trade & commerce with free citizenship. Jews played a role in development of self-governing communities that contributed to urban civilization. The cities that developed had one nuclei, church or monastery & developed organically around it.

The Early Medivial Urban Dwelling: Early urban houses were not even or aligned in rows & streets, they were more of organic in nature. They had thatched roofs & vulnerable to fire as they were made of wood.

Dwelling towers of middle ages were a natural adaption which looked liked tiny fortresses & were most evident in Italy, Bologna & Florence. They evolved for the survival of the inhabitants from continuous invasions.

First level was storage & entry from first upper level which included kitchen & hearth placed on a sloping site. They had several loopholes so that the building occupants could discharge missiles on any assailant attempting to scale the walls.

CHAPTER 2: THE MIDDLE AGES

MEDIEVAL FORTRESS CITIES
Dark ages gradually gave way to new era, the High Middle Ages. This development, coupled with an increase in population gave rise again to a division of labor enabling trade & commerce to develop cities to grow & flourish. Cities & rural countryside appeared at near distances & a symbiotic relationship developed between the rural & urban population. Saxon cities became important trade centers & seats of local government, but they could hardly have survived without their surrounding countryside dotted with scores of fortified villages. The solid rows of buildings were in great contrast to the definition of rural roads by open fields that led to the city.

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DUBROVNIK (RAGUSA)
A significant city before the end of 12th century, Dubrovnik occupied 40 acres of area by the end of 13th century. Located along the harbor, its city layout was a roughly grid pattern, but along north facing slope the streets became stairways. Older section of the city is more crowded & the upper storyes of several buildings bridge the lanes in a typical oriental city fashion. Dubrovnik has its unique features, but it is also typically Mediterranean and its picturesque street-scapes reveals many influences from the Orient style.

THE LATE MEDIEVAL URBAN HOUSE

Church was a dominant visual element of the medieval cities but the combination of multitude dwellings with shops & workshops gave the city its indelible character.

Width of street frontage of a building indicated the wealth of the owner. From the beginning of medieval times, a place to live was synonymous to a place to work.

Climate & geographic conditions played an important role in the type of dwellings. For e.g; in northern part dwellings had more fenestrations then in the southern part & the same implied to the type of building materials used.

Marketplace in Hirschberg is an example of narrow arcaded urban house. Buildings didnt have shops facing facade but instead they had a huge main entrance & a side entrance which gave access to rear workshop & cellar. Upper-level space is used for dwellings where Diele was a double height traditional central family space.

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CHAPTER 3: AGE OF RENAISSANCE

THE IMPRESSIVE CITY
During middle ages cities increased at a formidable rate. population double in less than a century in France , England &Italy. Black death epidemic great loss and demoralization.1300s defense system became obsolete. A well fortified city was no longer impregnable as traditional defenses were no longer a match for the new form of assault. Additional financial burden of erecting new lines of defenses with no physical expansion cities became over arrowed consequently buildings grow up words. Revival of classical influence upon the arts and literature as well as intellectual during 15th century known as renaissance.

PLANNING PRINCIPLES OF THIS ERA:

1)Wide avenues and straight streets with a vista. 2)Chess board pattern of ancient city buildings. 3)Extensive use of squares and groups of squares not merely as monumental, market or traffics spaces but also as domestic or residential squares. Medieval streets which were narrow & crooked were subjected to geometric classification . human scale France formation of city scape due to use of wheeled vehicles in principle streets. Demand of new attendants moviegoer military consideration too were factors for transformation in street dimension & pattern.
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PLANNING PRINCIPLES OF THIS ERA:

Ambitions plans to cut avenues through medieval cities did not always succeed.For example Sir Christopher wrens plans for London which was to bring order into the city after the great fire of 1670, Was never realized as it was foiled tenacious mercantile and habits & jealous property rights. In cities the home and workplace became separated during renaissance a separation that up to then had no precedents in the evolution of urban housings. Woman lost touch with affairs of outer world and men intern lost touch with domestic affairs.The basic social units the family underwent a profound changes. One couldn't afford palaces so the next best things to line in was row house that looked like palaces.

RESIDENTIAL SQUARES AND CRESCENTS

Beginning of 17th century Henry iv of France planned earlier residential squares in France ,providing a setting of cosmopolitan living in otherwise corrupted city. Bath: spa popular during the Romans speculative architecture that resulted in large sector of city beginnings wholly built with interconnected residential squares. Several cities founded in north America incorporated the square concept .cities were made out in grid-ion pattern with at least one large square designed as a civic center. William Penn's plan for Philadelphia.

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THE TOWN HOUSE

With development of residential squares and crescents by large scale building speculators the town house involved as a mass produced product at the time not considered to be real architecture. Exterior and interior , proportion and scale were classical but ornamentation subdued.

CHAPTER 4: INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION
Industrial revolution was preceded by agrarian revolution the enclosure act ensured that common fields as well as common waste lands were enclosed and brought under cultivation. Improved agriculture improved productivity to facilitate marketing and distribution- roads and canals were improved resulted in unprecedented network of good transportation route. Initially basic source of energy was flowing water , thus industries developed near river bank harmony between residential ,commercial and industrial buildings, materials: wood and stone. Industrial revolution entered its second phase when coal replaced water as source of energy. The siting of factory, changed to location where coal was available in abundance. Rivers lost their importance except for transport routes which also changed with invention of steam engine and rapid development of railway network. Now economic and demographic necessities were considered for location.
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INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION

Materials: wrought iron than steal and bricks. Which gave rise to large spanned structures for industries but less influence on domestic designs. Towns and cities grew in size with rise in populations which in turn multiplies the social problems. Migration from rural areas , overcrowded slums, epidemics no facility of water , drainage and education. great Britain was first but hardly alone to experience industrial revolution. Middle of nineteenth century onwards several reforms took place ,provision of open spaces ,education and better living condition, Sir Ebenezer Harvard's garden city.

BACK TO BACKS, TENEMENTS, & BYE LAWS HOUSING

Great influx of rural people to the cities and towns created on unprecedented demand for workers housing in all countries affected by industrialization. Requirements was met by converting middle class houses in tenements. The pressure for greater exploitation of urban land led to the usage of back to back dwelling, a row housing development attached on three sides by neighboring houses. No cross ventilation and poor sanitation. Lodging houses for single men and women-hostels. During second half of 19th century model bye-laws were made to maintain health standards and curtail substandard housing, an act was passed in 1855. Bye-laws house:2-storey row houses with privies and a small yard at the rear. Railroad flats: series of narrow rooms in line. Restriction by New York health board and the tenement house act of 1867 prevented further rail road housing and led to air-shaft buildings. Last decades of 18th centuries emergence of park tenement-provision of large open space or park in the middle of the blocks of buildings.
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SMALLING LAWNS, VILLAS, COTTAGES & APARTMENTS

Town house concept continued but there was a reduction in the size of dwellings . End of 18th century well to do families fled to country side .New dwelling called villa was developed. Mid of 19th century villa appeared in urban areas. Perceived as ideal dwellings villas or cottages were less attractive to single person or childless couples. So catering flats came into use known as apartments. American apartment hotel.

CHAPTER 5 & 6: TWENTIETH-CENTURY HOUSING

DOMESTIC REVIVAL IN GREAT BRITAIN

The Arts & Crafts and Garden City movements brought a transition in domestic design.

Domestic Revival is characterized by simplicity, informal wholesomeness, good craftsmanship, honest use of building materials & respect for physical environment.

Free-style architecture: Charles F. A. Voysey, Baillie Scott, Charles Rennie Mackintosh & Edwin Lutyens.

Voysey: Low ceiling (2.36 m), enhanced comfort of rooms which made them cozier & larger, also easier to heat in winter.

Mackintosh: His buildings had steep roof, small windows and interiors were charming & reposeful, in sync with the spaces.

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HAMPSTEAD GARDEN SUBURB: In harmony with nature. Cottage style domesticity, affordable to all. To design the street network of the community for benefit of those living there rather than for people passing by. Landscaped square of Hampstead with two churches & a large public building was conceived as the center of the community. Sensitive spatial forms were more effective rather than imposing dimensions.

ARTS & CRAFTS IN NORTH AMERICA

Simple & useful houses in which children enjoyed growing up and remember later in their lives with fondness of homes.

A small house with lots of room in it, Frank Llyod Wrights design for Ladies Home Journal. These homes were unique as they had living rooms instead of parlors.

In absence of air conditioning, use of verandahs & sleeping porches during hot & humid summer months was quite common.

FLWs own house in Oak park (chicago suburbs) has many features resembling early American Shingle style & free style of British Domestic Revival. Servantless homes with open plan and workspace instead of kitchen.

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ARTS & CRAFTS IN NORTH AMERICA

Bungalows originated in India were adapted by British colonial officers. They had high-ceilinged double living & dining rooms, light & ventilated windows with large shaded verandahs. Montreal multiplex houses with open stairs felt safer than the unsupervised internal stairs. It also made contribution to animation of Montreals streets. The street life could be observed as the stairs provided a viewing platform.

FOREST HILL GARDENS

First American planned garden suburb, to serve as a model community for families of moderate means, but also a business venture with an educational purpose.

The commercial center was also planned as a gateway & located to the railroad station.

Semidetached & rows of attached houses were built, these clustered houses brought charm and the variety of the street scenes in the community.

It is often cited as an example of high degree of social interaction, good management and neighborhood unit design concept.

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HIGH RISE TENEMENTS

The adaption of high rise buildings for public housing has led to many disappointments, this failure is attributable primarily to the lack of security & safety as well as to poor maintenance of the few collective amenities provided in these buildings According to Oscar Newmans research in his book Defensible Space, the statistical evidence revealed a correlation between building heights & occurrence of crime in building.

MIXED-USE BUILDINGS

Mostly inner cities that are considered attractive, lively & safe either have residents living downtown or in close proximity to city center; hence making the streets animated throughout the day.

Zoning prescribing a single land-use for a particular area became popular during 19th century when life in cities were affected by industrial revolution.

FLWs Price Tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma, is a significant post WW-II example of an early mixed use development in North America. A 19-storey air-conditioned tower was considered the tree that escaped the crowded forest.

Price Tower, Marina City, a mixed-use building complex in Chicago introduced the concept of a city within a city. The complex includes apartments, offices, shops, restaurants, a television theatre, ice-skating rink and marina.
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MID-RISE HOUSING

At the turn of the century, multi-level medium rise apartment houses were common in most large cities since building height before the invention of the elevator was restricted to number of storeys people could climb. Medium rise apartment houses are socially, economically & environmentally advantageous than high-rise apartment buildings. Environmental considerations also favor mid-rise buildings because micro-climatic conditions adjacent to them are more favorable. They are better protected from wind & by-passed by air streams.

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