Product Application & Research Centre

Mumbai

Stretched Tapes (Raffia) and Monofilaments Introduction Stretched tapes are uniaxially oriented thermoplastic semi finished products with a high width to thickness ratio. These tapes can be converted into twines, ropes, woven and knitted fabrics. A range of applications for stretched tapes have expanded considerably from woven sacks to tarpaulins, primary carpet backing, industrial fabric, carpet yarn, ropes, geotextile fabrics, concrete reinforcement etc. Monofilaments are uniaxially oriented wirelike polymer strands having a circular cross section. They are manufactured by melt spinning process. The use of monofilaments has steadily increased as a substitute for natural fibres. The size of monofilaments ranges from 0.1mm to 2.5mm in diameter depending upon the end use application. Polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon and polyesters are commonly used raw materials for making monofilaments. Polypropylene has emerged as a leader in the monofilament industry because of its light weight, ease of extrusion and orientation, higher strength and low cost. Monofilaments and multifilaments can be distinguished by the filament size. The size of monofilaments varies from 0.1mm to 2mm whereas that of a single filament in multifilaments ranges from 5 microns to 50 microns. Theory of orientation Partially crystalline thermoplastics, namely eg. Polyethylene (HDPE) and Polypropylene (PP) are ideal materials for making oriented products. In a stretching process, the macro molecules are given an orientation in the direction of draw. The orienting ability of polymer is determined by its spherulite structure. When tension is applied, amorphous regions get oriented first between folded lamellae and the spherulite boundaries. During drawing or stretching, energy conversion takes place. The oriented structure is heated nearly to its melting temperature to reduce amorphous region tension and subsequent shrinkage of tapes is avoided. Manufacture of Tapes The principal stages involved in tape manufacture are : Extrusion of film Quenching of film Slitting of film into tapes Orientation of tapes Annealing of tapes Winding

The equipment and processing requirements for conversion of PP into tapes are quite similar to those for HDPE. Although the blown film process has not phased out completely, more and more processors are shifting to the cast film process owing to its better gauge control and higher outputs. Equipment for Cast Film Extrusion Extruder PP can be processed on conventional extruders with three zone screws viz. feed, compression and metering. The output obtained from PP depends upon the L/D ratio (Length to Diameter Ratio). Higher the L/D ratio, higher will be the output per revolution of screw. For good melt homogeniety and optimum output, extruders with L/D ratios of 24:1 upto 30:1 are preferred, whilst compression ratio's between 3.0 - 3.5 should be used. Screw diameters range from 65 upwards. An illustration of a typical stretched tape plant is given in Fig. 1. Die The type of die used is referred to as a coat hanger die / T-die which provides a good streamlined flow. Quenching of the film The polymer melt is partly oriented during extrusion through a die. To prevent melt relaxation the melt is quenched rapidly after exiting from the die. Fast cooling promotes a finer crystalline structure of polymer in the film which in turn improves the performance of film during the stretching operation, apart from rendering better physicals. In cast film, the cooling is done by quenching the film in a water tank. The film from the die is directly taken into the tank filled with water. Film quality and performance of the resulting tapes mainly depend on the quenching conditions. During quenching, the significant parameters which control the physicals of the tapes are die-water distance (air gap) and quench water temperature. Operation with a lower air gap will reduce the time for melt relaxation and result in films, with higher strength. A very fast rate of quench will result in a very fine crystal structure in the film, which will give higher clarity and strength, than a film which is quenched at slower rates. To achieve optimum strength and elongation, air gap of 20-35 mm and quench water temperature of 30-40C is recommended.

Slitting of film into tapes The flat film after quenching is slit into tapes of specific width according to the end use requirements. The slitting tools generally used are industrial or surgical blades with sharp edges. Blunt blades produce poor cuts, which lead to problems in drawing, winding and weaving of tapes. The blades are equally placed on a bar using spacers and are set at an angle of 30 and 60 with the film. Initial tape width is adjusted by selecting appropriate spacer. Orientation of tapes Orientation is accomplished by stretching the tapes while passing them through a hot air oven or over a hot plate, maintained at a temperature just below the melting temperature of PP. PP has a higher melting point (160-165 C) than HDPE. Hence, it needs to be oriented at a higher temperatures than that for HDPE to fully develop the mechanical properties in stretched products. Stretching of tapes is done by passing them over two sets of rollers, called godet rollers, placed on either side of the hot air oven / hot plate and operating at different speeds. Ratio of speed of second set of rollers, operating at higher speed, to that of first set is termed as stretch ratio. Stretching of tapes in presence of heat media results in molecular / chain orientation and thus greatly increases the mechanical strength of tapes. PP tapes have to be oriented at a stretch ratio of 5-6 and temperature of 135-155C in hot air oven or at 125-160 C on a hot plate. Hot Air Oven Tapes from the first set of godet are taken through an oven on to the second godet rollers. Hot air is blown in the oven, counter current to the movement of tapes, and recirculated through a blower - heater system at linear flow rate of 10-30 mtrs/sec. Higher flow rate of circulating air is preferred as it enables faster and more uniform heating of the tapes and lower the risk of leaving some areas in tapes undrawn or underdrawn. Once the required tape properties are obtained, the orientation temperature and the stretch ratio are kept constant and checked randomly throughout the process. In hot air oven system, uniform heating of the tapes takes place, which ensures better tape properties compared to the Hot plate system. The length of this unit is around 3 meters and its width is slightly more than that of the godet rolls, for all the tapes to traverse freely. A good temperature control system with an accuracy of atleast 5 C is required. Hot air circulation in the oven should be adequately controlled to avoid excessive turbulence.

Hot Plate Hot plate is heated electrically or by circulating hot oil. In this system, tapes are in close contact with the hot metal surface while they are oriented. The upper and lower hot plate design is preferred as it provides enough contact for uniform distribution of the tapes, since half the tapes can be stretched over top surface while the other half are stretched over lower surface, giving better heat transfer to all tapes and less variations in mechanical properties. Although hot plate offers 25% saving in terms of energy requirement, the hot air circulating ovens provide uniform heating to the tapes, thereby enabling the converter to exploit the superior mechanicals of PP. Annealing of tapes Drawn tapes are "annealed" immediately after stretching operation. This helps to minimize tape shrinkage which may occur as a result of residual stresses in the oriented tapes. Annealing is done by heating the stretched tapes while they are passing over from second goddet rollers to third godet rollers; the latter being maintained at a slightly lower speed (5% less) than the former. The annealing ratio is a function of second and third goddet rollers. The annealing temperature is slightly lower (5-10C) than the orientation temperature. For PP, it is between 125-145 C, while for HDPE it is between 100-110 C. Alternatively, tapes can be annealed by using hot goddet rolls, which are usually heated electrically or by circulating hot oil. Relaxation takes place over a short gap (the distance between the rolls). Winding After the final goddet stand, the tape proceeds to a winder stand and is taken up by the bobbins. For good winding, controlled tension is essential.

Manufacture of monofilaments The process essentially consists of the following steps

Extrusion Forming (Quenching) Drawing Heat setting Winding

Extrusion Conventional extruders are used for extrusion of monofilaments. Usually these extruders have screw dia of 65, 90 or 110mm. For good melt homogeneity and optimum output, screw of L/D ratio from 24:1 to 30:1 is preferred with compression ratio of 3 to 3.5 The homogenised melt from the extruder is fed to a circular die or spinneret which is at 90 to the axis of the extruder. The die is threaded on to the head which is connected to the extruder through an adaptor or neck. The filterpack and breaker plate are mounted on the head. The filter ensures that a contaminant free melt is fed to the die, which may otherwise lead to breakage of filaments. Monofilament dies usually have 180 to 200 holes which are even distributed on 2 or 3 pitch circles (concentric to one another). The L/D ratio of the die is usually 8 to 10mm. These holes are precisely machined to get a smooth and uniform monofilament surface. A cone with a smooth surface is fixed onto the die to ensure smooth and uniform flow of melt to all the holes. Circular dies are preferred for uniform pressure drop throughout the die.

Spinning pumps Monofilament lines usually include a spinning pump. It is a gear pump which maintains a constant supply of melt to the die and isolates it from surging effects which can lead to denier or size variation and even filament breakage. Usually higher pump inlet pressures are set to ensure proper filling of the pump and also to increase extruder counter pressure which results in better homogenisation of melt. Some lines also incorporate on line screen changes prior to the spinning pump. Forming The monofilaments emerging from the die are taken into a quench bath. The quench medium is water which is maintained at around 25-35C. The purpose of quenching is to have a finer crystallite size which will facilitate stretching to produce high tenacity filament. The filaments are taken over a deflecting roll in the quench bath and are drawn continuously by Godet I. Quench baths used are height adjustable to alter the distance between the die face and the water surface which is called hot distance or air gap. The hot distance influences the tenacity and stretchability of the filaments. Normally it is maintained between 25-40mm. At the quench bath outlet, the filaments are taken over a roll where the filaments are separated. Absorbant cotton pads or brushes are also used to reduce water carry over. Separators avoids entanglement of filament which also leads to considerable breakages.

Drawing The drawing zone of a monofilament line consists of the first godet, a hot air oven and a fast godet (2nd godet). Stretching is effected by the speed differential between the 1st and IInd godet. The filaments are heated to just below their softening point in the hot air oven (145-160 C) and drawn. Stretch ratio of 8 to 10 are set for PP filament. Normally, line speeds are between 130mpm to 160 mpm. Setting Monofilaments are subjected to heat setting to stabilise the orientation and residual stresses which lead to shrinkage. This is effected with godet three which runs at a speed of 10% lower than that of the 2nd godet and by passing the filaments through a setting oven which is usually at 80-100C. Winding In most of the extrusion lines, the filaments are wound individually on separate spools or bobbins. Each winder is fitted with a separate torque motor. Winding tension is electronically set to get a good package. The winders also have a large bobbin winder at the end to wind all the filaments together during start up.

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Resin Selection The advantages of using synthetic materials instead of natural fibres are better physical properties, chemical and thermal resistance, negligible water absorption resistance to rotting and fungus attack. PP belongs to the family of polyolefin polymers comprising of low and high density polyethylenes, polybutylenes etc. Although both HDPE & PP compete in the manufacturing of stretched tapes, a number of factors are in favour of PP. The density of PP is the lowest among all the synthetic polymers. Moreover, PP has a higher softening point which gives it the advantage when it comes to hot filling of certain products in woven sacks. PP being stiffer than HDPE and fabric made from PP has a higher coefficient of friction, giving it the advantage of higher stackability during storage. On the other hand, PP tapes tend to fibrillate during processing but this can be avoided by adding antifibrillating additive. For polymer to work well in a tape processing environment, it has to meet certain basic requirements. These are : Capability of being processed easily into film Good processing stability and melt strength to eliminate melt flow breaks and thus deteriorating physical properties Polymer cleanliness to eliminate filter pack blockage and tape flaws Very little water carry over for processes using quench baths. However this is most commonly related to the additive package The capability to orient readily to eliminate tape breakage while drawing Good end use stability, particularly for outdoor use Resin Characteristics

MFI : 2 to 4 Moderately broad molecular weight distribution Free of gels and fish eyes Low water carry over in water bath quench Consistent processability Good colour and processing stability

Repol Grades

Repol H030SG : This is a 3MFI, homopolymer grade with a general additive package ie. antioxidants and acid acceptor. This grade is recommended for raffia tapes used in making woven fabric for sacking, carpet backing, industrial fabric and geotextile application. Repol H030SU : This is a UV stabilized version of Repol H030SG and its recommended for outdoor applications.
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Effect of polymer variables on properties A) Molecular weight (Melt flow) : Molecular weight of PP has a significant effect on processing and tape properties. Melt flow index is an indication of molecular weight. As molecular weight increases (melt flow decreases) tenacity increase and % elongation decreases at a particular draw ratio. However as molecular weight decreases, tenacity and % elongation decreases. Polypropylene grades of higher melt flow tend to process easier than lower melt flow grades ie. extrusion pressures are lower for a given extrusion rate. Repol H030SG has a melt flow index of 3 gm/10min by virtue of which it gives an optimum balance of tape properties and processability. B) Molecular weight distribution (MWD) : Molecular weight distribution is a function of catalyst system and polymerisation process. Molten PP is shear sensitive ie. apparent viscosity decreases as applied pressure increases. PP with broad MWD is more shear sensitive than the one with narrow MWD. Hence broad MWD PP's are easier to process than one with narrow MWD. MWD is found to have little effect on physical properties of PP. Repol H030SG is a moderately broad molecular weight distribution polymer. Hence it exhibits good processability. (C) Stereoregularity : Polypropylene has a methyl group attached to every other carbon atom. Unless these methyl groups are arranged in one position relative to the chain (isotactic arrangement), PP cannot crystallise. The crystallinity is responsible for the strength, stiffness and solvent resistance of PP. Higher the isotactic content, better the physical properties of the tape. Hence isotactic PP is preferred. Xylene solubles determines the percentage of lower molecular weight fraction in polypropylene. Higher xylene solubles will lead to decreased tenacity, increased shrinkage, stickiness and weaving problems. On the other hand, lower solubles will lead to tape splitting and drawbreaks. Additives Repol H030SG incorporates a general additive package consisting of

Antioxidants Acid acceptors

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Effect of processing variables on physical properties :A) Draw / Stretch Ratio : As draw ratio increases, tenacity increases and % elongation decreases. Higher draw ratio increases the alignment of the polymer molecules. A draw ratio between 5:1 to 6:1 is optimum for obtaining a tape with good combination of mechanical properties, non fibrillating tendency and curl free tapes. The draw ratio also determines initial cross-section of the slit strip/monofilament which is required for obtaining final width of the tape or size of monofilament. B) Temperature : Extrusion temperature ie. the temperature profile on the extruder affects the melt temperature and extruder output. Quench temperature is also another important variable as the rate of cooling has a significant effect on the strength and characteristics of the product. In the stretched tape process, rapid cooling with low quench temperature produces a film of higher crystallinity which results in poor orientation. Also the tendency to fibrillate is less. The effect of orientation temperature on stretched tape properties is shown in the following Fig. 3

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As the orientation temperature increases, tenacity increases and % elongation remains relatively constant. Eventually a temperature is reached where tenacity decreases rapidly, with corresponding increase in % elongation.

Effect of orientation temperature on shrinkage is shown in Figure 4. As orientation temperature is increased, the residual shrinkage decreases.

Desired Characteristics of PP Tapes Tapes are required to be produced as per IS 11197 1985 (Spec. for mono-axially oriented tape. As per IS 11197, finished tapes should have the following characteristics :Finished tape width (mm) Linear density (denier) Tenacity (g/denier) Elongation at break (%) : : : : 5 mm (max) 600 (min) 4.2 15-25

In general, tapes with tenacity of 5.0-6.0 g/d and elongation of 20-25% are preferred.

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Applications Raffia Tapes 1. Packaging applications

Woven Sacks - Cement Packaging Polypropylene woven sacks have increasingly replaced jute bags and paper bags for packing cement. They offer distinct advantages such as high strength, lower bag weight, low cost, fungus attack and low seepage of cement as compared to jute bags. In comparison to paper bags, polypropylene woven sacks offer advantages such as better bursting strength, low weight and low cost, but paper bags exhibit better printability and lower seepage than PP bags. Previously HDPE woven sacks were predominantly used for packing cement, but most of the end users have shifted to polypropylene due to the following advantages :

Polypropylene has a lower density (0.90 g/cc) than HDPE (0.952 g/cc) therefore giving higher yield per unit weight Polypropylene exhibits higher service temperature than HDPE, hence when cement is filled at a temp.. of 85 C-90 C at a pressure of 6 kg/cm2 , the performance of PP woven sacks is better in terms of bursting strength Polypropylene has higher tensile strength than HDPE Easy availability

Unlaminated gussetted polypropylene bags with a valve for filling cement are normally used. Cement is usually packed in 50 kg bags. The fabric used has a mesh size of 10x10 and the bag weight is @70 gms. The bags are not laminated to facilitate breathing of air during filling. Fertilizer Packing Laminated HDPE bags are predominantly used for packing fertilizers. Since HDPE exhibits better outdoor stability than PP and also because PE lamination grades are easily available, PP till recent times did not make in roads into this sector due to unavailability of a suitable PP lamination grade. New Applications for PP Woven Sacks

Sugar bags Postal bags Tea bags

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Flexible Intermediate Bulk Containers (FIBC) / Jumbo bags Polypropylene woven fabric is used to fabricate FIBC's or jumbo bags. These bags have carrying capacities of 500 kgs to 4000 kgs. The design and fabric of these bags varies depending upon the requisite container strength. These bags are used for packing agro products, chemicals, detergent, plastic raw materials, petrochemical products and fertilizers. UV stabilised PP grades are used for this application. The tape denier ranges from 2100D to 2600D for Jumbo bags. 2. Tarpaulins

Tarpaulins are usually produced from HDPE woven fabric, cross laminated PE film, heavy duty LDPE/LLDPE films and cotton canvas. Constructions of woven sack tarpaulin range from 90 gsm to 200 gsm. Cost of cotton canvas tarpaulin is comparative to low gsm HDPE tarpaulins, but they soil easily and are not weather proof and rot proof. Some applications of woven fabric tarpaulins are : Water proof liners for trucks Railway wagon covers Floor linings for storage Shed, warehouse covering Agricultural farms Construction sites - stock pile cover for cement Poultry shadding Automobile covers Baling cloth HDPE is preferred for tarpaulins due to superior stability to outdoor exposure. UV stabilised PP can be used for tarpaulins but the cost of it is higher than HDPE tarpaulins. 3. Geotextiles

Geotextile is a woven or non woven fabric that is designed to stop water erosion, cracking in roads, soil embankments and other construction application. It works by reducing amount of water in contact with the structure and preventing soil erosion. HDPE/PP woven sacks are mainly used for : Separation Reinforcement Drainage and filtration Erosion control

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4.

Concrete reinforcement

Fibrillated PP tapes can be blended with concrete to reinforce non load bearing structures. Advantages of PP reinforced concrete are impact strength, some residual strength after cracking and improved flexural strength. It also gives saving in construction and transportation cost. Monofilaments Ropes : Ropes are usually manufactured from PP or HDPE but both these materials cater to different markets. PP exhibits very good tensile strength and abrasion resistance due to which PP ropes cater to high performance application. PP is also popular because of its low density. PP ropes are used for industrial application like cargo handling, marine application (mooring ropes), ropes for trawling, mountaineering etc. On the other hand, HDPE ropes are used for domestic application like decorative household uses, furniture and light fishing activities. Denier of monofilaments used for ropes and nets is usually between 500 to 800 and tenacity between 5.5 to 6 gpd. Nets : PP and HDPE monofilaments are used for making nets. PP nets are used for high strength application due to its good tensile strength, wear resistance and knot strength. eg. cargo handling net, safety nets, nets for defence application. HDPE nets are mainly preferred for fishing. PP nets are stiff and can damage the catch. PP monofilaments are used for making bristles.

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Trouble - Shooting Guide - Tape Plant Sr. No. 1. Problem Film puncture Suggested Remedy Clean die lip Optimise temperature profile See under film puncture Check hot plate temperature Reduce stretch ratio Reduce quench tank temperature Set die gap Increase stretch ratio Increase oven/hot plate temperature Reduce quench tank temperature Increase oven/hot plate temperature Increase stretch ratio Reduce air gap Adjust die gap and clean die if required to get uniform film thickness Check uniformity of temperature on hot plate Check spacer thickness with Vernier Check pressure roller and its pressure Check sharpness of blades on spacer Reduce stretch ratio Check for wrinkles in the tape Check winder tension Check traverse guides of winders for damages Increase annealing temp, check speed of godet 3 Improve heat conduction during annealing

2.

Tape breakage

3.

Low tenacity (Tensile strength) High elongation

4.

5.

Denier variation

6.

Fibrillation of tapes

7.

Shrinkage of tapes

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Trouble - Shooting Guide - Monofilaments Sr. No. 1. Problem Filament breakage Suggested Remedy a) Surging in extruder. Run at higher pressure, or with better-mixing screw, or with cooled screw, or with gear pump, or more slowly. Try to determine period of the surging, and relate to drive, controllers etc. b) One or more holes partially blocked. The same filament(s) will break every time c) Uneven temperature or distribution of material in head and die. The same group of filaments will break every time. Look at blueprint of die, to find asymmetrical construction, if any, which could cause the uneven patterns d) Melt too cold. Not enough ductility to draw down. Raise temperature e) Melt too hot. Too fluid to hold together under drawing tension. Reduce temperature f) Drawdown too great (use smaller holes in die) or drawdown too fast (slow down whole system) g) Moisture in material. Use a hopper-dryer h) Contamination in material. Inspect feed, stop using reground or reworked plastic i) Oxidation and weakening of filament surface. Run at lower temperature, or reduce the gap between die and quench bath j) Decomposition in extruder, head, or die. Bits of decomposed material clog holes, or come through them but weaken the filaments. Clean die, run at lower temperature; examine die design for possible stagnation spots, change die or head if necessary, use better-stabilized plastic k) Too much orientation. Ratio of roll speeds may be too high causing excessive tensile stress in orientation stage l) Too cold orientation. If plastics is not hot enough, too much tensile stress will be produced in the filaments m) Too hot orientation (air oven). If plastic becomes too hot, it loses ductility and will break under the normal orientation stresses n) Nicks or abrasive areas or any of the rolls. Grind them smooth, or wrap them with tape

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o) Erratic drive. Check smoothness of operation of all moving parts 2. All filaments varying in a) Surging in extruder, drawdown too much or diameter too fast, or erratic drive. See (a), (f) and (o) above Some filaments different a) Temperature gradients in die. Unequal flow in from others, in size die. Check for drafts, burned-out heaters, poor and/or strength die design. See (c) above Poor surface appearance a) Moisture in material or any pigment. Dry the feed b) Melt fracture. Reduce linear speed, or use larger holes (more drawdown), or reduce entrance angle into die holes, or use lower viscosity compound, or run hotter c) Plastic too cold. Run hotter d) Compound inherently dull. Change compound, or run hotter, or flame polish a) Not enough orientation. Increase ratio of roll speeds. Use proper orientation temperature. Note that changes of orientation may also change the filament size, requiring compensating adjustments elsewhere b) Degraded plastic. Use lower material temperature, requiring compensating adjustments formula c) Nicks or cuts in filaments. Examine breaks and examine unbroken filaments. Look for a repetitive pattern and examine take-off for the source

3.

4.

5.

Low tenacity

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