Let A = R. Dene a relation on R by x y x y Z. (a) Show is an equivalence relation.

ation. (1) is reexive: xxxxZ 0Z (2) is symmetric: xy xy Z yxZ yx (3) is transitive: (x y) and (y z) (x y Z) and (y z Z) a=xy b=yz a+b=xz a+bZxz Z (b) Describe
1 2

= {x R | x 1 }. 2 1 = 2 = xR|x k+ 1 Z 2

1 |kZ 2

(c) What is R/ ? A circle. Partially ordered sets (posets) Hierarchical charts/family trees/military chain of commands + ... Transitive/reexive properties implied in diagram Denition 1. A relation R on a set A is a partial order (1) R is reexive (2) R is transitive (3) R is antisymmetric Denition 2. R antisymmetric: if xRy and yRx then x = y. I.e. no cycles in graph. Remark 3. A partial order relation is usually written as x y instead of xRy. c, p3 s2

Example 4. If pn is a private, sn is a sergeant and c is a captain. p2 and by assumption x x for any x.

1

Denition 5. A partially ordered set (A, ) is a set A together with a partial order on A. Example 6. Let X be any set, A = P(X). Dene a relation R, S P(X), then R, S A. Dene R S R S. A = {1, 2} then P(A) = {, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}. So {1} {1} Denition 7. Hasse diagram. Example 8. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Dene a 1 | 3 so 1 2 | 4 so 2 3 | 6 so 3 but 5 6 so 5 2 | 2 so 2 To check this is a poset: (1) x x? True since x | x for any x A. (2) If x y and y z then x | y and y | z. So x | z and x z. (3) If x y and y x then x | y and y | x. So x y and y x which means x = y. The Hasse diagram of a poset A: place elements of A on a page so that (1) If x y and x = y [we write x y] we place y above x on the page. (2) If x y and there is no z A with x z and z y then join x and y. Example 9. P(A) with A = {1, 2, 3}. Here is a Hasse diagram for (P(A), ) where R S R S. Denition 10. Special elements in a poset (A, ). An element x A is (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) a maximal element there is no y A with x a minimal element there is no y A with y the greatest element y x for all y A. the least element x y for all y A. b a | b: maximal elements: 4, 6, 5 minimal elements: 1 greatest element: doesnt exist least element: 1 y. x. b a | b. E.g. 3 4 6 6 2 {1, 2} since {1} {1, 2} {1} {1} {2} on A by: if

etc.

Example 11. In {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} with a

Denition 12. Upper + lower bounds: (A, ) poset, suppose S A. Then x is an upper bound for S s x for all s S. x is a lower bound for S x s for all s S.

Denition 13. The least upper bound of S is the least element in the set of upper bounds of S. The greatest lower bound of S is the greatest element in the set of lower bounds of S. Example 14. S = {1, 2} A. Upper bounds for S: 2, 4, 6. Least upper bound: 2. Lower bounds for S: 1. Greatest lower bound: 1.