Metals

Uses of different metals through history

Discovery and extraction of metals
By about 2700 BC, only seven metals were known: Gold, copper, silver, lead, tin, iron and mercury. Metals such as gold could be found as uncombined or native metals while others such as tin were produced by smelting their ores. Copper and iron were known as both native and smelted metals.

Gold
First metal to be used by humans (at least 1000BC) Gold was used to make jewellery

The copper Age (9000-5000bc)

Used to make fishhooks, pins and jewellery Copper was harder than gold and was more useful for tool making Blue and green copper ores were used in powdered forms as decorative paints. The process of smelting was developed between 7000 and 6000 BC, and allowed copper ores to be reduced to metallic copper. Anthropologists classify the period between 6000 and 5000 BC as the height of the Copper Age. As the Copper Age, declined the Bronze Age developed.

The Bronze Age (6000-3000bc)

Metal smiths discovered a way of producing harder materials from copper. They produced a hard alloy of copper and arsenic called arsenic bronze. The ores which copper minerals were found were often contaminated with other metals such as arsenic, lead, nickel, and bismuth. Arsenic bronzes became favoured over pure copper, because lead contaminants softened the copper but arsenic contaminants produced a harder, finer, product that was more readily worked and cast. Further experimentation showed that tin produced the best alloy with copper. Tin bronzes (containing about 10% tin) were harder and less brittle than arsenic bronzes.

Tin bronze could be more readily shaped and sharpened than copper, so cutting tools and weapons of war could be made from it. Bronze weapons allowed nations to conquer their less developed neighbours and the rulers of these kingdoms demanded bronze for their palaces and tombs. Reached its height in 4300-3000BC. It was replaced by the Iron age.

The Iron Age (3500-2000BC)

Copper ores could be smelted easily, unlike iron ores which required much higher temperatures to smelt. The iron formed was not as malleable as copper unless it was red hoy, and impurities were more difficult to remove. Native copper was much more abundant than native iron, the only source of native iron was meteoric iron By chipping off pieces of meteoric iron, early iron workers could make iron weapons that were harder than bronze weapons This type of iron was resistant to corrosion because of its high nickel content Strips of iron were being used for various purposes including chariot wheels and barrel hoops. Iron nails, knives and sickle blades have been discovered. The blacksmiths also discovered how to convert iron into the allow we call steel Steel is ideal for weapons such as swords The strength of steel made it useful for construction of machines and a wide variety of structural purposes. Because of their greater tensile strength and the hardness of iron alloys, iron and steel gradually replaced copper alloys.

The wide variety of metals

The discovery of metals is related to the technological development of societies. Some metals such as lead and tin, owe their discovery to the development of high temperature furnaces and smelters. Many metals are so strongly bound to other elements in their ores that considerable energy is required to break the chemical bonds and release the metal. The more reactive the metal, the more energy is required to release it from its compounds

Some metals were not discovered until the 19th century because heat energy alone was not sufficient to decompose their compounds The invention of electrolytic decomposition led to the discovery of active metals such as sodium, and potassium in 1807, and magnesium in 1808. The discovery of active metals such as sodium and magnesium resulted in discoveries of other metals using the process or reduction. These active metals could remove oxygen or other non-metals from the compounds of other metals, leading to the release of the free metal.

Period of discovery
Before 750 BC 1201-1700 AD 1701-1800 AD 1801-1900 AD 1901 AD-present

Selection of metals discovered

Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin and mercury Zinc, bismuth Cobalt, nickel, manganese, tungsten, uranium, titanium, chromium Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, indium, gallium, radium Europium, rhenium, francium, neptunium, plutonium, curium, einsteinium

Metals and their contemporary uses

Copper
Has been used by humans for over 8000 years Copper is a salmon pink, lustrous metal that is highly malleable and ductile. It has very high electrical and thermal conductivity. It is unreactive and slow to corrode in the environment

Uses
Electrical wiring Saucepan bases Water pipes/fittings Ornaments

Property
High electrical conductivity and ductility High heat conductivity and malleability High malleability and resistance to corrosion Lustre and malleability

Magnesium
A strong lightweight silvery metal. Does not exist as a free element in nature. Was first prepared in 1808. Its uses are based on chemical reactivity, low density and brilliant white light produced on combustion

Uses
Fireworks Structural alloy in aircraft and cars Steelmaking (removing of sulphur from molten steel) Production of titanium metal Corrosion protection of iron structures

Property
High reactivity with oxygen-produces bright white light when burnt in air Low density High reactivity with sulphur-combines with sulphur in steel to form stable magnesium sulphide High reactivity used to reduce titanium salts to titanium metal at high temperatures High reactivity acts as a sacrificial anode to protect steel ships from corrosion

Lead
Very soft, dense, blue grey material with a low melting point (327 degrees) It is not found free in nature Because lead is soft and malleable, the Romans worked it extensively. They even used lead to construct pipes for transporting water. The major uses of lead in modern society are related to its density, malleability, conductivity and ability to shield against radiation.

Uses
Sheet lead for roofing/flashing Soldering metal wires (lead alloyed with tin) Electrodes in car batteries Shielding against radiation Fishing sinkers

Property
Malleability and resistance to corrosion due to the formation of a stable oxide on its surface Low melting point of lead alloys: good electrical conductivity of lead and tin. Good electrical conductivity: malleability and low chemical reactivity in sulphuric acid. Ability to absorb ionising radiation

High density; malleability; softness; resistance to corrosion

Titanium
Silvery, white metal of low density, high tensile strength and high corrosion resistance. It is not found as a free metal in nature and the first samples of metallic titanium were not produced until 1791. Titanium is both lightweight and very strong. When it is alloyed, it is 30% stronger than steel and has an extraordinary resistance to metal fatigue (cracking) It is difficult to work with and expensive.

Uses
Structural metal (or alloy) in aircraft, spacecraft, racing yachts and racing bicycles. Surgical implants

Property
High tensile strength; low density; high melting point; low thermal conductivity; high corrosion resistance (particular in salt water) High tensile strength; Low density; high corrosion resistance; minimal allergic response in human tissue.

Range of alloys produced and the reasons for the production and use of these alloys
What are alloys?
A mixture of metal with one or more other elements (These other elements are usually metals)

Mixing metals with other elements can produce desirable properties. The cupronickel alloy used in Australian coinage is an example of a homogenous alloy in which some copper atoms are substituted by similar sized nickel atoms.

Alloys of Iron-steel
Name Mild Steel % Carbon <0.2 % Manganese 0-0.4 Properties Soft; malleable; ductile; corrodes rapidly Uses Sheet steel, car bodies, nails, roofing, pipes, nuts and bolts, wires. Railway tracks, girders, beam, axles, crankshafts, forgings Axe heads, small tools, scissors, springs, high strength wires.

Structural steel

0.3-0.6

0.6-1.65

Hard; moderate ductility; corrodes rapidly

High carbon steel

0.6-1.3

0.3-0.9

Very hard; very low malleability; brittle; corrodes fairly rapidly

*More carbon makes steel harder and less malleable **Manganese hardens and toughens the steel and makes it less brittle

Name Stainless steel

% Carbon 0.1-1.5

Other Metals 12.30% Cr 0-8% Ni

High nickel steel

<0.05

High speed steel

0.4-1.0

18% Ni 8% Co 4% Mo 0.8% Ti 14-18% W 3-5% Cr 0.2-1.0 V

Properties High corrosion resistance; abrasion resistance; high tensile strength Tough; high corrosion resistance; high weldability Hard at high temperatures; high heat resistance; high tensile strength

Uses Kitchen sinks, surgical instruments, cutlery, valves, flanges Aircraft undercarriages, dies, engine parts. High speed cutting tools

The addition of various metals changes the property of steel. For example: chromium increases resistance to corrosion, heat and abrasion nickel increases strength and hardness tungsten increases hardness and abrasion resistance and strength, and hardness at high temperatures Molybdenum increases hardness and strength, and corrosion resistance in marine environments.

Brass
The major metals in brass are copper and zinc Brass is typically a golden yellow colour and it can be used in costume jewellery. The presence of zinc makes it much stronger and harder than copper. The higher the proportion of zinc, the greater the hardness and tensile strength Brass can also be highly polished, which makes it useful for ornamental materials and brass musical instruments.

Solder
The major metals in solder are lead and tin. The proportion of lead to tin affects the melting point of the alloy. The melting point of solder is usually less than either led (327C) or tin (232C) Solder is an alloy used to join wires and electrical components in circuits It adheres strongly to other metals in the solid and the liquid states.

%Pb (Lead) 36 50 60 70

%Sn 62 50 40 30

Solidus-Liquidus temperature range (C) 178-190 183-212 183-188 183-258

Uses (With 2% Ag) silver soldering for specialised electronic circuits General-purpose plumbers solder General purpose solder for electrical connections allows short soldering time Automotive plumbers solder for radiator and body repair wide plastic range allows it to be worked longer Thermostat soldering

92

280-305

There are also special lead free solders in which silver is a major component. Silversmiths and jewellers use these silver solders to create personal jewellery. Some examples include: Hard silver solder (high melting point): 75% Ag; 22% Cu; 3% Zn. Easy flow silver solder (low melting point): 45% Ag; 24% Cd; 16% Zn; 15% Cu.

History of the periodic table

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
His classification scheme of 1789 identified our groups of elements: metals, non-metals, elastic fluids (gases) and earths. Some of these elements (earths) were much later shown to be compounds

Johann Dobereiner (1780-1849)

Between 1817 and 1829, Johann Dobereiner observed the chemical similarity between certain groups of three elements which he called triads. Dobereiner arranged the elements of each triad in order of their atomic weights. He noted that not only were the properties (such density) of the middle element of each triad intermediate between the first and last, but also the atomic weight of the middle member was close to an average of the atomic weights of the other two One such triad consisted of the elements lithium, sodium, and potassium. Below: examples of Dobreiners Triads

Triad Cl Br I S Se Te

Atomic Weight 35.45 79.90 126.90 32.06 78.96 127.60

Density (g/cm3) 1.56 3.12 4.93 2.07 4.81 6.25

Sodium Salt formula NaCl NaBr NaI Na2S Na2Se Na2Te

John Newlands (1837-1898)

In 1864, Newlands published a new classification of the elements. He arranged the elements in tabular form in order of increasing atomic weight with spaces left for undiscovered elements. Newlands 1866 table was divided into eight columns and seven rows with some elements occupying the same position. Later versions of this table omitted the undiscovered elements.

(1) H L* G* B C N O
*Newlands used these old symbols; L=Li; G=Be

(2) F Na Mg Al Si P S

(3) Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe

Noted that every eight element starting from a given one possessed similar physical and chemical properties Thus, the shaded elements (Lithium, sodium and potassium) were chemically similar and were described as a family of elements. Newlands described this repeating pattern as the law of octaves. Unfortunately, his law often seemed to break down. For example, nitrogen, and phosphorus are non-metals and not similar to manganese. Despite these problems, Newlands laid the foundations for the modern periodic table.

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

Used the similarities in the physical and chemical properties of elements to produce his own classification of the elements He based his table of elements on their order of atomic weights. Where the atomic weight of the element was not accurately known, he placed the element in a position consistent with its properties. He left spaces for undiscovered elements in the belief that the properties of these undiscovered elements could be predicted by trends across the rows and down the columns of the table. The table (published in 1871) consisted of eight columns and twelve rows.

Elements with similar chemical properties occupied the vertical groups of Mendeleevs table. Mendeleev noted that there was a gradation in physical properties down the groups.

Periodic law (1869) One of Mendeleevs most important contributions was to use the predictive ability of his table to help identify the properties of undiscovered elements When elements on the periodic table are arranged by atomic number, relationships and similarities in properties can be seen. He made predictions about the properties of an undiscovered element by considering the properties of its neighbouring elements.

Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)

The periodic nature of the properties of the elements was revealed graphically when Meyer published graphs of the physical properties of the elements as a function of their atomic weights. Mendeleevs table was better than Meyers because it was based on chemical properties so generalisations could be made more readily.

William Ramsay (1852-1916)

Between 1893 and 1898, Ramsay and his team discovered a family of unreactive gases, including helium, neon and argon. Ramsay believed that this new family should be added to the right hand end of Mendeleevs periodic table to create a new group. Mendeleev eventually added this new family group (group 8) which was called the inert gases, and more recently, the noble gases.

Henry Moseley (1887-1915)

In 1913, the Dutch physicist Anton van den Broek suggested that the elements of the periodic table be arranged according to the charge on their nucleus rather than according to their atomic weight. To test this idea, henry Moseley undertook a series of experiments in 1912 and 1913 in which he investigated the X ray spectra of 10 consecutive elements of the periodic table, he concluded that: There is in the atom a fundamental quantity, which increases by regular steps as we pass form one element to the next Moseleys fundamental quantity was named the atomic number, and as a result, the modern periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number

Periodic Law (present) J.J Thomson (1856 1940)

Discovered the electron in 1897. Proposed that each element contained a unique number of electrons arranged in rings within the atom. Suggested that those elements that belonged to the same family had similar properties because of similar arrangements of electrons.

Niels Bohr (1885-1962)

Proposed that elements in the same group of the periodic table should have the same number of electrons in the outer shell. This same number of valence electrons gave these family members similar electrons in the outer shell of all the noble gases. E.g. The presence of eight electrons in the outer shell of all the noble gasses was responsible for the chemical inertness of these elements.

Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958)

Was able to explain the length of each period of the periodic table. He showed that period one should contain only two elements while period two could accommodate eight elements by showing the quantum theory he could predict the number of elements that would occupy each of the periods of the periodic table.

Extraction of copper from its ores

Copper forms many different minerals. The earliest copper minerals to be mined were those that were brightly coloured and rich in copper, such as malachite Over time, the high grade surface ores became depleted. We know need to mine ores with lower copper content to provide copper for our technological society. The traditional method of extraction is to heat the copper sulphide. Copper (II) sulphide gives copper and sulphur dioxide during thermal decomposition. Thermal decomposition means that the compound breaks down into other substances when it is heated. Thermal decomposition is an endothermic reaction

Copper ores

The main copper ores mined in Australia are: - Chalcopyrite - Covellite - Chalcocite - Cuprite

Extraction of copper from Chalcopyrite

The conventional extraction of copper from the Chalcopyrite ore body involves both physical and chemical separation procedures. 1. Crushing and grinding the mined ore (Physical) 2. Concentration (physical)

The Chalcopyrite mineral is separated from the gangue using the process of froth flotation. The chalcopyrite minerals are removed from the gangue because they stick to the froth. The copper concentrate is pumped to the smelter 3. Extraction and casting (a) Roasting The initial roasting (heating) process converts Chalcopyrite to chalcocite; iron (II) oxide; and sulphur dioxide (chemical. 2CuFeS2(s) + 4O2(g) Cu2S(l) + 2FeO(s) + 3SO2(g) (b) Converting Additional sand is added to the molten copper matte, which reacts with the air blown into the converter to form molten copper (chemical) 2Cu2S(s) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(l) + 2SO2(g)

(c) Casting The melted copper (98% pure) is run off into moulds and cast into blocks for further refining (physical) (d) Electrolytic refining The process of electrolysis is used to refine (purify) the copper produced in the smelter.

Energy considerations in the extraction of copper

The conventional method of copper smelting and refining was developed between 1865 and 1909. The conventional method requires large amounts of energy per tonne of metal produced. By the mid-20th century new technologies such as flash smelting halved thee nergy usage The furnace is heated until it is so hot that the copper concentrate immediately ignites with the oxygen Impure liquid copper (the copper matte) and sulphur dioxide are formed during combustion. Large amounts of heat are released which keep the furnace at the correct temperature. In the mid-1980s, the SX/EW (solvent extraction/electrowinning) process was widely adopted. (is a process that enables them to extract copper from low copper percentage ores.) By extracting copper on site, the copper ore does not have to be mined conventionally. This is a huge energy saver as considerable energy is used in smelting methods, where 65MJ of energy is expended to extract one kilogram of copper, hydrometallurgical methods use 15-36MJ of energy.

Recycling aluminium
Before 1960, aluminium drink cans were unknown; most drink containers were made of glass or steel. Since then aluminium has been used extensively because it is readily rolled, lightweight, odourless, and tasteless and conducts heat away from the drink so it can be chilled rapidly. The huge use of aluminium has led to the problem of waste disposal. Australia now recycles about 70%^\ of its aluminium drink cans. If more aluminium is recycled, fewer mines are needed, so less pollution from fluoride compounds is released Recycling also saves energy. Melting and recycling aluminium uses less than 5% of the total energy required to convert bauxite or to aluminium.

The steps in recycling process aluminium cans are:

1. Aluminium cans are collected, and stored temporarily at local collection centres. 2. At a centralised sorting centre, the cans are screened to remove steel cans. The cans are then crushed. 3. Following weighing, the cans are crushed into large blocks before transportation to the furnace. 4. The cans are melted, poured into moulds and cooled to produce ingots of solid aluminium. 5. Aluminium ingots are then rolled thinly by manufacturers and made into new cans. 6. Other aluminium scrap is sorted into pure aluminium and alloys. Alloys are melted separately and the alloy composition adjusted before casting into ingots.

Justify the increased recycling of metals in our society and across the world
Saves considerable energy and materials For every 1kg of aluminium recycled: - 14-21 kW/h less electricity is required for electrolysis - 5-8kg of bauxite does not have to be mined - 20kg of greenhouse gases are not emitted into the atmosphere. Also reduces the use of landfill sites in the cities and towns. Aluminium industry has designed lighter cans that require less aluminium. This means that about 40% less metal needs to be produced to make these cans so less ore needs to be mined and less energy used. The use of aluminium in the automobile industry also helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The reduction in car weight by the use of aluminium alloys, leads to lower fuel consumption.

Steel: There is a 75-80% energy saving in making steel cans using recycled steel over production from raw materials. Annual savings in electrical energy are equivalent to the power needed for 18 million homes per year.

Every kg of steel that is recycled saves: - 1.5 kg or iron ore from being mined - 0.5 kg of coal being mined - 40% of the water used in producing new steel - 2 kg of greenhouse gases being emitted into the atmosphere

Metals are not renewable resources we must conserve our metal resources by recycling
Metals are important non-renewable sources Along with their alloys, they have a wide variety of uses including coinage, electrical wires, containers, structural metals and alloys and piping Consequently, metals must continue to be mined and recycled to supply the demand As society continues to use metals, we must also continue to fund the research for the new ore bodies. There is not a limitless supply of metals in the world.