1

Introduction
This essay will assess the hypothesis that the female body shape has changed in the past 60 years due to huge media influence, looking at style icons from the relevant eras to evident these changes. The effects of these changes will also be examined, through analysis of eating disorder, cosmetic surgery statistics and primary research of surveys and interviews. Women in the media are often victim to severe scrutiny by tabloid newspapers and the paparazzi, regarding their figure. Celebrity gossip magazines are crammed full of photos and articles of either embarrassing, cellulite emphasising or bone-bulging snaps of a bikini clad pop star, or top tips on how the reader can achieve that tanned, toned body all the A-Listers are parading on the red carpet. These images give their audience superficial aspirations, filling their mind with what their body should look like, and the extremes they need to go to reach these often unattainable results. This emphasis on body shape is not just for teenagers and middle age women though, it all starts at a young age, thanks to one world famous blond bombshell- Barbie. Since 1959, girls as young as 3 have been given the iconic doll to play with (PBS, nd), and end up aspiring to be like her. Though the infamous effigy is far from an ideal role model. The many ideas of what her figure would be like if she were a real person give some shocking results. Rescaling the measurements from a Barbie doll to those of an average size 10/12 woman, it was found that she would either have to be 7ft 6ins tall, or would have shockingly unusual measurements of 20-27-29, meaning approximate 20ins waist, 27ins bust and 29ins hips (BBC, 2009). It has also been speculated that, if Barbie were human, she would be so thin that she would not be able to menstruate, as she would not have the body fat percentage necessary to do so (Pendergast, 2002). This is without putting the changes to her shape throughout the years into consideration, the 1997 slimming down of the doll (smaller waist and bust, wider hips) for example (BBC, 1997).

(BBC, 2009)

Cult of the body beautiful

By the 1960s, cosmetic surgery was in demand, thanks to surgeons inventing new bodily issues for women to worry about, such as the bat wing deformity of flabby upper arm skin, and the spare tire deformity of loose and protruding abdomen flesh. It was also around this era that makeshift silicone breast implants were becoming popular, with showgirls using the same liquid silicone that was used in WW1 Polio victims, to create a fuller bust (Random History, 2008). March 1962, Timmie Jean Lindsey was given the worlds first silicone breast implants. She underwent the surgery as a trial, after problems were arising with the other substances that were being used as implants; foam, rubber for example. At a time when Marilyn Monroe was a screen sensation, and Playboy Magazine was becoming a huge success, the hourglass figure was in demand, and Timmie Jean admitted her implants caused more attention from the opposite sex, and a definite ego boost (Ballinger, 2012). Fast forward to the present day, and in the UK, as well as across the pond in the US, the number of individuals putting themselves under the knife in order to alter their appearance has risen drastically in recent years. Despite the state of the economy both sides of the Atlantic, a staggering 43,069 cosmetic procedures took place in the UK in 2011, up 5.8% from the previous year. The most common was breast augmentation, which in itself had increased by 6.2% to 10,003 women having the surgery (Rogers, 2012). These figures are nothing compared to those from the United States though. A staggering 1.58 million cosmetic procedures were carried out in 2011, a 2% increase from the previous year. In total, 627,784 women put themselves through the traumas of breast augmentation, liposuction and tummy tucks, as well as the 119, 026 face lifts that were carried out (Rogers and Vanco, 2012).

(Berliet, 2009)

UK and US Cosmetic Surgery Statistics

(Rogers, 2012)

(Rogers and Vanco, 2012)

How To Lose Weight: Dont Eat!

This was the message given to little girls who were the owners of 1965s Slumber Party Barbie (Fashion Doll Guide, 2006). Yet, it was not until the 1970s that the media began to report on eating disorders such as Anorexia and Bulimia. These mental illnesses are more common in the 21st Century than ever before, largely due to the thin ideal that has become "fashionable", and something that almost all types of media advocate, as well as the focus on sport and fitness (Gehlin, 2008). Figures from the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey showed that 6.4% of adults in the UK, that took part in the survey, suffer from an eating disorder. However, 14-25 year olds are most at risk (Disorder Eating, 2011). It has also been evidenced that Anorexia has the highest mortality rate of all psychiatric disorders due to medical complications and a high suicide rate, with research showing that 20% of sufferers will die prematurely due to their illness (b-eat, 2010). Harvard professor Anne Beckers research proves just how influential the media can be on girls ideas of what their body should look like. Whilst studying in Fiji, she noticed the huge focus on food and eating, with larger, plump bodies being favourable, particularly in women. In 1995, television arrived on the island, and up until then Fijian teenagers had been free from the eating disorders common in Western culture. Three years later, 11.3% of adolescent girls admitted they had tried to lose weight and felt intimidated to do so. In interviews, the girls spoke desperately, with pleas like I want their body and I want their size. By 2007, when another study was carried out, from a survey sample of over 520 girls, it was shown that 45% admitted to purging the month prior to the interviews (Becker, 2002). Here are some statistics gathered from eating disorder program, Radar (nd): In 1970 the average age a girl started dieting was fourteen; by 1990 the average age dropped to eight. In 1950 mannequins closely resembled the average measurements of women. The average hip measurement of mannequins and women were 34 inches. By 1990 the average hip measurement was 37 inches, while the average mannequins hip measured only 31 inches. Over the last three decades fashion models, Miss America contestants, and Playboy centrefolds have grown steadily thinner, while the average womans weight has actually risen. Twenty years ago the average fashion model weighed 8% less than the average woman. Today she weighs 23% less. Kate Moss is 57 and weights 95 lbs, 30% below ideal body weight, and Gisele Bundchen, Vogues model of the millenium who strays from the rail thin image, is 25% below her ideal body weigh at 511 and 115 lbs. A study found that 25% of Playboy centrefolds met the weight criteria for Anorexia, whilst supermodels Niki Taylor and Elle Macpherson, as well as Julia Roberts Cameron Diaz and Diana Ross also meet the BMI criteria for Anorexia.
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US Eating Disorder Statistics

(National Eating Disorders Association, 2012)

The best way to show how the media has manipulated body shape through the years is by looking at icons of the eras, and the best place to start is

The Fabulous Fifties: When Blondes Had More Fun, and more curves!
The biggest icon of the 1950s, and one of the biggest ever is, of course, Norma Jean Baker, more commonly known as Marilyn Monroe. At a height of 5 feet 5 inches (Capell, 1964), she exhibited the very definition of an hourglass figure, with her costumes having to be specially tailored to her dramatic shape. According to measurements from her dressmaker, she had a bust of 37 inches, waist of 23 inches and 36 inch hip, with her clothes size fluctuating between a UK sizes 16 and 8 (US 12 and 4) (Stein, 2009). Despite Monroes figure being the envy of women worldwide for decades, model/actress Elizabeth Hurley is well known to have controversially stated in a 2000 Allure magazine interview that Ive always thought Marilyn Monroe looked fabulous, but Id kill myself if I was that fat.. Her weight fluctuated so much during her career, it is impossible to determine whether she would be classed as under/overweight or normal, so this statement evidents just how much the media has warped the public idea of body image over the years. The other icons of this era, such as pin-up queen Bettie Page, and actress/model Audrey Hepburn, were also curvaceous without being overweight. Page's frame, at the same height as Monroe, was not quite as dramatic as her fellow pin-ups, with a 36 inch bust, 23 inch waist and 35 in hips (bettiepage.com, 2010). Hepburn, on the other hand, had a more slender frame at 5 feet 7 inches, with measurements of 34-20-34 (bust-waist-hips) (Paris, 1996), but still had that definitive 50s shape. The wholesale survey of body shapes, conducted in 1951 shows that the hourglass was the average shape of the era, with the average British woman measuring up at a height of 5 feet 2 inches, a 37 inch bust, a 27.5 inch waist and 39 inch hips (Quinn, 2004). The perfect hourglass shape did not come naturally to all though. By 1950, cosmetic surgery was fully established in the medical world, and soon moved in to the public consciousness (American Society of Plastic Surgeons, 2011). Breast augmentation was risky and experimental, with petroleum jelly, beeswax, shellac, and epoxy resins being used as implant material, and liquid silicon injections used to restore shape (Donohoe, 2006).

Audrey Hepburn

(Yeager, nd)

(Miller, 2011)

(Lake, 2009)

This lust for curves soon turned into a leaner desirable shape for woman, thanks to

The Swinging Sixties:

When there was Pussy Galore, and the models were Twiggy thin
By the early 1960s, world famous models played less of a pin-up role, focussing more on fashion. Marilyn Monroe had taken a backseat, in order for the way to be paved for a new (this time British) household name- Twiggy. Originally nicknamed as "Sticks" due to her stick thin figure, this changed to Twigs, before becoming the name shes best known for. At 5' 6", she was reasonably short for a catwalk model. Measuring 32-23-32 (bust-waist-hips in inches) and weighing approximately just 90lbs (Brumburgh, nd), she would be considered drastically underweight on the Body Mass Index (BMI), with a BMI of 14.7, compared to a healthy score of 18.525 (Hicks, 2001). The fashions of the era also promoted the emaciated image of the supermodels, as the figure flattering, tight waisted halter tops and wide, calf-length swing skirts were swapped for bright coloured mini skirts (some 7 to 8 inches above the knee) and knee high boots (Miki, 2008). (Fashion Model, nd) The 60s was also the decade of the Bond Girls, with one

infamous gun toting, bikini clad nemesis in particular, Honor Blackmans Pussy Galore. Blackman brought a more hourglass shape with her from her 40s/50s acting career, with measurements of 37-23-35 (bust-waisthips in inches) and standing at 5 feet 6 inches tall (Brumburgh, nd). As previously detailed, the first silicone breast augmentation surgery was carried out in 1962, and this was the start of a cosmetic surgery revolution (American Society of Plastic Surgeons, 2011) despite it still staying in the closet for a few years after that (Babbitt, 2002), as well as an alarming new rate of eating disorders in the latter part of the decade (Brumberg, 2000). Despite this focus on slim women, the average height and weight for women in 1960 was 5'3" and 140.2lbs, putting the commonplace 60s woman just within the 'normal' BMI range, bordering the overweight mark (Longley, 2002).

(Drut, 2011)

This plastic surgery boom brought back the curves of the 50s, in all sorts of shapes and sizes, looking all together different on the young, slim frames of The Sun's Page 3 girls...

The Psychedelic Seventies: When Page 3 became the new Pin Up

The 70s followed in the 60s skinny image, with high waisted hot pants, leotards and strapless tops being the new fashion trend, as well as the mini making a return and becoming increasingly popular (Paperpast, nd). Keeping in this curve-free shape, and adding extra masculinity, model/ singer Grace Jones had a look like no other. At a great height of 5'10", with measurements of 34-24-35 (bust-waist-hips) her look was hugely androgynous (Celebrities Height, nd), and far from the overtly feminine shape of the 50s. On the complete opposite side of the scale, were Rupert Murdoch's newest marketing campaign, The Sun's Page Three Girls. While these women (or in a majority of cases, girls) had curves, many were (Last FM, 2009) surgically enhanced, and as they were photographed topless, there was a great emphasis of big busts on a small frame (Nicholas, 2011). Another big name in the seventies, proving that not all women were stick thin or full of silicone, was hugely successful punk icon Blondie. At a small height, of 5 3, weighing approximately 124 lbs and measuring 34-24-34 (bust-waist-hips) (Celebrities Height, nd) she would be classed as a healthy weight, complete with a tiny waist and equal bust and hips, making her closer to the traditional hourglass shape than some of the other well known women of the decade. It is difficult to determine though, the effect these 'role models' had, and the size of the average woman in the seventies, due to a lack of statistics. It can be seen however, that 15% of the US population aged 20-74 were classed as obese (Guyenet, 2008), and women's clothes sizes were up to 5 inches smaller in the 1970s as they are in the present day (see graphs below) (The Economist, 2012). (Laundelles, 2007)

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The next decade saw some hugely influential women take to the screen/ stage/ etc...

The Eclectic Eighties: When Material Girls Just Wanted to Have Fun
In 1980, the average British woman had a BMI of 24.2 (Hope, 2011), while the average American woman's (aged 20-74) BMI was 26.6, compared with model Cindy Crawford's Body Mass Index of 19 (Foster, 2012). This era was very much the time of the supermodel, with Crawford's fellow models, such as Naomi Campbell (32-33-32 and 5 9'') (En Mode, 2008) also measuring up as dangerously underweight. Possibly one of the most iconic women of the 80s, and indeed the last century, is Madonna. Measuring up at 36-24-34 and 120lbs, with a height of 5'4'' (Absolute Madonna, nd), she (A-List Boutique, 2001) would fall into the normal weight category, proving not everyone was ridiculously thin in the 80s. Pint-sized pop princess of the 80s, Kylie Minogue would also fall into the normal category, but only just. At a height of 5'1", measurements of 34-2334 and a weight of 102lbs (Ruskin, nd) her BMI would be 18.9, a mere .6 clear of the underweight category. By commonplace definition, a traditional hourglass means the bust and hips are within one inch of each other, and the waist at least nine inches smaller than both the hips and bust (Calorie Count, 2008), meaning the two pop starlets, while not being quite as defined as Marilyn Monroe and the like, were still hourglass shape. The supermodels on the other hand, were certainly not.

(Caldwell, R, 2008)

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(80s World Forever, nd)

But the models just got thinner and thinner in...

The Naughty Nineties: When Friends were there to Spice Up Your Life
The supermodels of the 80s carried their reign into the next decade, with more and more breaking into the limelight. One of the most popular models of the nineties, and therefore a huge icon of the era, was Kate Moss. With her stardom came a whole new level of thin models, with Moss measuring up at 32-21-32 and 5'7'' tall (True Knowledge, 2012). Whilst these figures would fit her into the 'hourglass' shape, for her height, she would also be classed as over a stone underweight according to her BMI score. Three ladies sum up the nineties in a nutshell- Jennifer Aniston, Courtney Cox and Lisa Kudrowbetter known as Rachel, Monica and Phoebe from US comedy Friends. Only Aniston would not be classed as underweight, despite all three of them having the measurements for an hourglass figure (34-23-35, 34-24-34 and 36-26-36 respectively) (Hollywood Actress, 2009). Following the Spice Girls success in the early/mid 1990s, Victoria Beckham became a household name, as a solo artist, model and fashion designer. Weighing less than 100lbs, and measuring 3423-33 (True Knowledge, 2012) she would only just fit in the hourglass category, despite being dangerously underweight. Beckham is also well know to have had breast implants in the early 2000s, taking her from her natural, proportionate 34A, to an eccentric 34DD. She later had the implants removed after realising just how unnatural they looked (DiMattina, 2011). Irvings 1990 study evidents that these thin models had a huge influence on how women felt about their bodies at the time. Exposing bulimia sufferers of all symtamologies to different sized models, she found that her sample reported lower levels of weight concern after exposure to average or larger models, than after looking at ultra-thin models such as Kate Moss. This suggests that there may be some relief effect associated with viewing larger models.

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(Fanpop, nd)

Things changed again, with normal shapes and sizes being praised in

The Nifty Noughties: When the ladies were going Gaga for Sex in The City
In 2008, size 16 Chloe Marshall caused controversy by becoming the first plus size Miss England finalist, creating a light at the end of the tunnel for many, and just another reason to demean big women for most (Richardson, 2008). Another lady paving the way for larger women in the celebrity world is chart topper and World Record breaker Adele. At 59 and a size 16, she says she has never had a problem with her appearance, and would rather have lunch with my friends than go to a gym (Jones, 2009). Not to say that this decade saw only curvaceous on the screen/stage though, Victoria Beckham carried on her reign into the 2000s, and actresses such as Sex and The Citys Sarah Jessica Parker and pop stars Amy Winehouse and Lady Gaga kept the thin ideal popular and harder to achieve than ever. And as can be seen from the cosmetic surgery and eating disorder statistics featured above, both extreme measures for achieving a perfect body are becoming increasing popular, so there is a long way to go before normal size figures will be accepted as normal. (Rosengurtt, 2008) Nonetheless, thanks to Doves Campaign For Real Beauty (Dove, 2004), women are learning to love their curves and more curvaceous women are being featured as models in advertising worldwide. The average woman wears a size 14-16 in the US and UK, making it somewhat strange that this is usually where plus-sizes start. In the US, 64% of women are a pear shape, in the UK this falls to 20%, but only 8% have that much sought after hourglass figure. (Netscape, 2012 and Dogruyol, 2010).

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Jolie, 2011

Its a Mans World: How men have become victims too

It is not only women that are bombarded with countless perfect bodied celebrities, fad diets and constant exercise plans to aspire to. Men are now also suffering due to an increase in these impossible goals. As the statistics below show, more men are suffering from eating disorders than ever before. The number of men putting themselves through unnecessary surgical enhancement in order to improve their appearance is also dramatically increasing. Obviously men have very different body shapes to women, with the fashion industry seeing the average man measuring up at a 40-inch chest, 34-inch waist, and 40inch hip even though the real average male measures 4438-42 (Netscape, 2012). Men who took part in a 2010 study saw the perfect male body being very muscular, despite 69% of women saying they preferred a lean body to a bulky one (Coxhead, 2010).

(Mens Fitness, 2009)

(Cosmetic Surgery Phuket, nd)

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Primary Research
In order to gain a better understanding of how people view the female body shape, two forms of primary research were carried out- surveys, and an individual interview. The research aim was to find out if the idea created by the media is seen as ideal by the general public, and how much the media influences how women feel about their own bodies. The survey shown on the next page was given to a both sexes of a variety of ages, describing eight different female body types. The results of the survey show that the traditional hourglass is the most sought after body shape, according to both male and female participants, with a majority of females seeing themselves as the pear body shape. The results from the surveys can be seen on the pie charts on the following pages. The interview conducted shows the influence the media has on the way women see themselves. The participant, who admits she is overweight but loves her body, came out as a spoon shape according to a body shape test, and admits the hourglass figure is the ideal- but just because it has been forced into all of us since the 50s. She also feels that she is not as effected by the mainstream media as most women she knows. As someone who's always been over weight & unable to shop in most highstreet stores since my late-teens I've always felt isolated from the "group think" on body fretting. Fat positive blogs and websites have (whilst making me seriously consider my weight vs my health and understanding you can be fit and fat and healthy, or none of these things, or a mix) given me an outlook on myself that's seriously helped in confidence terms. She also said that she does feel some daily concern over her body, dressing to hide her upper arms, which she dislikes. However, rather than being constantly stressed about and conscious of this, she says it has instead simply become part of her everyday style. It was also admitted that she gets concerned a couple of times a week over what others think about her appearance, rather than her personal opinion. Her views how women are portrayed in the media is significant in showing the medias influence on body image. I hate the way many advertisements will show sections of women: reducing them to body parts, de-humanised, unworthy of being represented as a whole, but a whole lot of my issues revolve around the roles that women are given in the media, entertainment industry and advertising in general: not just shapes & sizes. It barely needs mentioning that far too many women who present shows, act, sing etc are painfully thin. The Voice may be working on the guise that the acts are picked for their voices rather than images: but the ones that get to the TV blind auditions are all really pretty and thin by pre-picking. That irks me massively. I really don't think a few more Ella Fitzgeralds, Camilla Batmangehlas and Beth Dittos would do much harm in the world.

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Ideal female body shape according to male participants

Ideal female body shape according to female participants

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Self-estimated shape of participating women

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Copy of survey given to participants

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Research criticism
Surveys The main problem with the survey carried out is the selective sample. The sample was small and consisted of college-mates and family members so cannot give a true example of the publics opinion. This being said, the participants were of various ages, and of both sexes, making it easier to generalise the results for the population, thus making the results reasonably reliable. Another issue with surveys is that the closed questions do not give participants the freedom to show their true opinion and the questions may be misinterpreted. The latter issue was overcome by the observer answering any questions the participants had, in order for them to give their honest opinion. One positive side to closed questions is that it is easy to analyse the results and compare each participants answer. Consent was obtained from each participant by the observer, and the purpose of the survey was fully explained to each individual.

Interviews Consent was also obtained for the interview, with the participant being briefed of the nature of the interview before completing any questions. The participant also remained anonymous, keeping within confidentiality guidelines. The usefulness of an interview is that a detailed response to each question can be achieved, though this does cause the problem of not being able to generalise if being compared with others answers. In this case though, as only one interview was carried out, the answers were very useful. Question bias can cause problems with interviews, with the observer wording the questions in a certain way in order to get the answers they require. It is felt that this has not occurred in this instance, as the questions left the participant with enough freedom to answer wholly and honestly.

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Conclusion
The examples throughout this study demonstrate how female body shape has changed over the years, drastically between the 50s and 60s, gradually getting to todays obsession with the overly thin, surgically enhanced celebrity. While many of the women looked at do indeed technically fit in the definition of an hourglass figure, most do not have the definition found on the icons of the 50s. Though, as can be seen of late, curvaceous famous faces are becoming increasingly popular, and the paparazzi are praying on the underweight almost as much as the overweight. The famous names mentioned do evident the lust for being lean, and along with professor Anne Beckers study, show that the media can be held majorly responsible for an increase in eating disorders and cosmetic surgery figures. However, the fact that a 34in waist is typical for a British woman, compared to 27.5in in the fifties, with clothes sizes being made larger to accommodate this growth in body size, shows that whilst these women may affect the way women feel about their bodies, it is only a minority that feel forced to take extreme measures to live up to celebrity ideals. The primary research carried out also backs up the secondary findings, showing that the media hugely influences how women (and men) feel about their bodies. The surveys and interview also prove that this new thin ideal is not ideal to all, and the traditional hourglass shape of Marilyn Monroe is favoured by the majority. Even those that did not specify the hourglass as their personal ideal stated they found one of the other curvaceous shapes as the perfect womanly shape. The people focussed on are a mere few of the influential stars of these eras, making the findings an insight rather than fact. They clearly show the medias influence on normal people though, as a correlation between eating disorders can be clearly seen. The primary research carried out also backs up the idea that the media causes an unhealthy obsession with appearance. Nevertheless, it could also be argued that the media industry is somewhat responsible for people getting larger too, as they are the ones bombarding the general public with the convenience of greasy, highly fatty, fast food.

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