50 th Anniversary Conference TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE PROCESSING OF ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH STEELS

Conference Proceedings

Edited by: Ralf Kolleck

Copyright 2010 Local Organising Committee

Verlag der Technischen Universitt Graz www.ub.tugraz.at/Verlag

ISBN 978-3-85125-108-1

Conference Proceedings
______________________________________________________________________

50 th Anniversary Conference

TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE PROCESSING OF ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH STEELS
2010 May 31 June 02 Graz | Austria

Organised by the Institute of Tools and Forming and hosted by Graz University of Technology
Univ.- Prof. Dr.- Ing. Ralf Kolleck

IDDRG EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE:

Nico Langerak, President, Netherlands Alain Col, President, France Chester Van Tyne, General Secretary, United States Abel Santos, Treasurer, Portugal Nader Asnafi, Vice President, Sweden Hisashi Hayashi, Vice President, Japan Richard Kergen, Vice President, Belgium Franz-Joseph Lenze, Vice President, Germany Arto Ranta-Eskola, Vice President, Finland Edwin Till, Vice President, Austria Miklos Tisza, Vice President, Hungary

IDDRG SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE:

Prof. Taylan Altan, Ohio State University Prof. Bernd-Arno Behrens, Uni Hannover Prof. Bruno Buchmayr, MU Leoben Dr. Gerd Eer, INPRO GmbH Prof. Manfred Geiger, Uni Erlangen-Nrnberg Prof. Hartmut Hoffmann, TU Mnchen Dr. Harald Hofmann, ThyssenKrupp Steel Prof. Pavel Hora, ETH Zrich Prof. Marion Merklein, Uni Erlangen-Nrnberg Dr. Evelin Ratte, ThyssenKrupp Nirosta Prof. Karl Roll, Daimler AG Ralf Snkel, ThyssenKrupp Steel Prof. A. Erman Tekkaya, TU Dortmund Dr. Edwin Till, Voestalpine AG

Address of welcome of Univ.-Prof. Dr. Ing. Ralf Kolleck Head of the Institute Tools & Forming
I feel honored to welcome you to the 50th anniversary of the IDDRG conference here in Graz, one of UNESCOs world heritage sites and cultural capital 2003. The region of Graz is not only the biggest Styrian conurbation and at the same time Austrias third-largest metropolitan area, it also is an eminent factor to the Austrian economy. Around 40 percent of the total Styrian economic performance is generated in Graz and its surrounding areas. Representing a strong economic center in Austrias south, Graz features several leading businesses that have been successful in Europe and in some cases already all over the world. Due to its outstandingly well sustained city core, the historic city centre of Graz has been declared one of UNESCOs world heritage sites in 1999. Nowadays the historical development of the city center can be retraced almost entirely by viewing the cityscape. The UNESCO award as well as the nomination to be the European cultural capital in 2003, indicate the local, regional and international importance of Graz, which is also of artistic, social, cultural and economic significance. Lifelong learning and continuative further training are key factors to a successful professional life. Graz, with its numerous schools, four universities, two technical colleges and many other educational institutions, provides the ideal surrounding. I do hope that you will not only enjoy all scientific talks and the resulting discussions, but also the planned supporting program. I wish you, on behalf of my institute and all staff members, a pleasant stay at the IDDRG 2010.

Address of welcome of Prof. Dr.-Ing. Matthias Kleiner President of the DFG

In 2010, the International Deep Drawing Research Group (IDDRG) is celebrating its 50th anniversary. It was IDDRGs mission from the very beginning to bring together experts in the field of sheet metal forming, and among these scientists, product specialists and industry researchers from all over the world, and to foster their cooperation. Today, this mission is still as up-to-date as it was back in 1960. The IDDRG has chosen a format, which combines technical presentations with room for discussions and thus is an inspiration for other disciplines. It is pivotal that every exchange and discussion about new methods and findings within the realm of research is followed by the transfer of basic knowledge into industrial as well as societal environments. Only then can interactions and cycles, which not only advance but also demand innovations, develop. The findings of basic research will be applicable to economy and society and then on their part raise new basic questions. Knowledge transfer and reciprocal impulses between research and society are of major concern for the German Research Foundation (DFG). I would like to congratulate the IDDRG not only as President of the DFG but also as a colleague and wish all members and participants of the conference a lively exchange at all times and all the best for the next 50 years.

IDDRG 2010

Table of Contents

Invited Lectures Resource Efficiency in Forming Technology - Chances for Competitiveness

Reimund Neugebauer

How started IDDRG?

Alain Col

Results of IDDRG 2009 Survey on the Most Important Material Property Data for Numerical Analysis
B.S. Levy

13

Hot Stamping Further development of manganese boron steels for the lightweight design of body in white structures
Franz-Josef Lenze, Janko Banik, Sascha Sikora, Thomas Gerber

17

Influence of post uniform tensile and bending properties on the crash behaviour of AHSS and press-hardening steel grades
Patrick Larour, Heinrich Pauli, Thomas Kurz, Thomas Hebesberger

27

Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Tailor Welded Blanks in Hot Sheet Metal Forming Processes
Klaus Lamprecht, Gnter Deinzer, Anton Stich, Jrgen Lechler, Thomas Sthr, Marion Merklein

37

Significant Findings and Innovative Procedures for the Process Secure Press Hardening of Laser Welds in Hotform Blanks
Max Brandt, Christian Dornscheidt, Lukas Korves, Jrg Maas, Dietmar Schaftinger, Stephan Selle, Sascha Sikora

49

Improvement of Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of 22MnB5 Steel by Hot Stamping and Direct Cooling
Fernando Flandoli, Sergio Tonini Button

61

IDDRG 2010

Transformation kinetics of the hot stamping steel 22MnB5 in dependency of the applied deformation on the austenitic microstructure
Marion Merklein, Thomas Svec

71

Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Micro structural Evolution during Hot Stamping
Bernd-Arno Behrens, Philipp Olle, Grygoriy Gershteyn, Kathrin VogesSchwieger

81

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in the Transition Zone of a Low Carbon Boron Steel after Partial Hardening
Mario Saeglitz, Karsten Bake, Ulrich Gernert

91

Simulation techniques for robust process layout of hotforming processes

Thomas Schnbach

101

Cooling of Tools for Hot Stamping Applications

Ralf Kolleck, Wolfgang Wei, Peter Mikoleizik

111

Further Results in Blanking form - hardened ultra high strength Manganese-Boron-Steels with Innovative Tools and Tool Steels
Benedikt Krnauer, Martin Hirsch, Roland Golle, Hartmut Hoffmann, Matthias Golle, Gerhard Jesner, G. Pelloso, L. Baron, Michael Hermann

121

Roller Hearth Furnaces for Hot - Form Hardening

Harald Lehmann

131

Potentials of Induction Heating used in Industrial Applications for HSS-Material

Holger Schlbe, Bernard Nacke

141

Inductive Heating of Al/Si-coated Boron Alloyed Steels

Robert Veit, Ralf Kolleck

151

Ultra high strength Steels Effects of the Initial Diameter of Bore and the Planar Anisotropy of n value and r value on Fracture Behavior of HSS by Flat-Bottomed Cylindrical Punch forming
Yasuhiro Ito, Yoshiaki Nakazawa

157

IDDRG 2010

Research in Deep-Draw Forming of High - Strength Steel Sheet Using a NC Servo Press Machine
Hiroyuki Yamashita, H. Nakai, E. Onose, T. Higaki, M. Sayama

167

Fabrication and Testing of Advanced High Strength Steel Tubes for Hydroforming Applications
Pierre Martin, M. Rashid, R. Soldaat, E. Biro

175

Controlling Factors for Mechanical Property of Ultra HSS

Hiroshi Takechi

185

Determination of the formability of DP-steels by a combination of experimental methods and FE-simulations

Mats Sigvant, Kjell Mattiasson, Mats Larsson

195

Inflateable side impact beams in martensitic steel

Svante Flt, Jan-Erik Hedin, Bjrn Carlsson, Peter Alm, Nelson De Oliveira, Joachim Larsson

205

Innovative high and ultra high strength steel concepts for cold forming applications
Ralf Kolleck, Steffen Raschka, Dieter Krech, Thomas Thlig, Gerald Zwickel

213

Local heat treatment of ultra-high-strength steels an opportunity to extend the range of car body components
Michael Heyde, Karl Roll, Rudolf Kawalla, Georg Bergweiler, Jrgen Kaiser

225

Serial process simulation for deep drawing stainless steel kitchen sinks with a heated research tool
Evelin Ratte, Christian Koroschetz, Ralf Kolleck, Velika Kiroff

235

A method for measuring residual stresses in rollformed hat profiles of ultra high-strength steel
Seyed B. Hosseini, Elisabeth Sagstrm, Peter Ottosson, Lars Troive

245

Study on 3D spring back of ultra high strength steel sheets for rear member model
Koichi Sato, Tohru Yoshida, Eiji Isogai, Koji Hashimoto, Yukihisa Kuriyama

255

IDDRG 2010

Tools Tool degradation during sheet metal forming of three stainless steel alloys
Boel Wadman, Peter Soe Nielsen, Daniel Wiklund, Niels Bay, Erik Madsen, Erik Schedin

265

Concepts using Carbon Firbre Reinforced Plastic for Micro Punching Tools
Ralf Kolleck, Robert Vollmer, Robert Veit, Andreas Zttl

275

Investigation of segmented hydro-elastic blank holder for deep drawing

Bernd-Arno Behrens, Sven Hbner, Claus-Peter Eckold, Peter Groche, Metin Ertugrul

281

Measuring and Simulation of Deformations on Sheet Metal Forming Die

Bernd Haller, Kroly Kardos, Imre Czinege, Attila Buczk

289

Tribological properties of steels and the effect of lubrication when punching UHS sheet
Fredric Bergstrm

295

Characterization of sputtered laboratory scale V - Al - C - N hard coatings and industrial scale-up for deposition on segmented forming tools for the automotive industry
Carlos Ziebert, Michael Stber, Sven Ulrich, Szilrd Kolozsvari, Peter Pesch, Stefan Wstmann

305

Extending Tool Life Using Simulation-Based Wear Prediction

Axel Maurer

315

Strategies to Increase the Tool Performance in Punching Operations of UHSS

Ingrid Picas, Ricardo Hernndez, Daniel Casellas, Isaac Valls

325

Investigation of a composite cast cutting tool for blanking of AHSS sheet materials
Andreas Mackensen, Martin Ostermair, Hartmut Hoffmann

335

Surface topography on trimming dies and the influence of wear

Per Jonsson, Johan Berglund, Kenneth Kjellsson, Bengt-Gran Rosn

345

IDDRG 2010

Hard cutting of tailored hardened 22MnB5

Till Laumann, Ingrid Picas, Marc Gran, Daniel Casellas, M. Dolors Riera, Isaac Valls

355

Formability improvement with independent die and punch temperature control

Reza Bagheriasl, Kamyar Ghavam, Michael Worswick

363

Investigation of Dies Materials in Hot Stamping Operations

Andrea Ghiotti, Daniele Pellegrini, Stefania Bruschi

373

Effect of die roughness on coefficient of friction in hot stamping

Akira Yanagida, Yudai Tanaka, Akira Azushima

381

Integration of an Active Forming Die in a Modular Tool System for Sheet-Bulk Metal Forming
Bernd-Arno Behrens, Sven Hbner, Milan Vucetic

389

Improvements in springback calculation and die compensation taking into account buckling, bottoming and shape control
Martin Skrikerud, C. Borot

399

Springback prediction of high precision thin metallic parts produced by multi-step stamping
Mohamed Azaouzi, Salim Belouettar, Gaston Rauchs, Ahmed Makradi

409

Forming of WC coating structure by electric exploding of contact

Evgeny Grigoryev

417

Special Processes Applasting - Low Pressure Gas Forming Technology For Boron Steel Tubes
Leire Vadillo, Iaki Perez, Izuru Hori, Jose Ignacio Zarazua, ngela Mangas, Juan San Jos, Marian Angeles Gutierrez, Uwe Paar

423

Impulse magnetic cutting of hollow profiles

Paul Maier-Komor, Hartmut Hoffmann, Martin Ostermair

433

High-Strain-Rate Forming of Aluminum and Steel Sheets for Automotive Applications

Aashish Rohatgi, Elizabeth V. Stephens, Ayoub Soulami, Richard W. Davies, Mark T. Smith

441

IDDRG 2010

Fracture Forming Lines in Single Point Incremental Forming

M. Beatriz Silva, Lus M. Alves, M. Leopoldina Alves, Paulo A.F. Martins

451

Determination of Forming Limit Diagrams for Single Point Incremental Sheet Metal Forming
Karl Kuzman, Mikls Tisza, Ales Petek, Pter Kovcs

461

Application of Expert System for Formability Analysis of Extrusion Process

Rahulkumar S. Hingole, V.M. Nandedkar

469

Material Characterization The forming limit curve as a measure of formability Is an increase of testing necessary for robustness simulations?
Joerg Gerlach, Lutz Kessler, Axel Khler

479

New Time Dependent Method for Determination of Forming Limit Curves Applied to SZBS800
Marion Merklein, Andreas Kuppert, Stefan Mtze, Ansgar Geffert

489

Forming limit curve based on shear under tension failure criterion

Mateusz P. Sklad, Jozef D. Verhaeghe

499

Assessment of Test Methods for Mechanical Properties of Steel Sheets

Jae-Wook Lee, H. W. Lee

509

The influence of curvature on FLCs of mild steel, (A)HSS and aluminium

Eisso H. Atzema, Erik Fictorie, A.H. Van Den Boogaard, John M. M. Droog

519

Modeling and Simulation of Formability Tests

Imre Czinege, Kroly Kardos, Szabolcs Szalai

529

Comparison of forming and fracture limits of cold rolled high-strength austenitic stainless steels
Antti Korhonen, Timo Manninen, Jari Larkiola

535

Failure criteria usage when modelling trimming processes

Niclas Stenberg

545

IDDRG 2010

Inverse Identification of Kinematic Hardening Parameters with Bending Tests

Maria Doig, M. Kaupper, M. Kraska, G. Eer, Marion Merklein, Karl Roll, Lutz Kessler

555

Uniaxial tension/compression tests and cyclic bending tests for hardening parameter identification
Per-Anders Eggertsen, Kjell Mattiasson

565

The double bending test: a promising new way for an optimal characterization of cut-edges ductility
Olivier Bouaziz, Stphane Douchamps, Laurent Durrenberger, A. Bui-Van

575

Comparison of bending and tensile properties for automotive grade strip steel
Matthias Weiss, Bernard Rolfe, Peter Hodgson

583

Development of compact biaxial tensile testing apparatus using conventional compression testing machine and evaluation of the test results
Tatsuya Nagayasu, Susumu Takahashi, Toshihiko Kuwabara

593

Application of optical strain measuring systems to determine plastic anisotropy and theoretical forming limit curves in AHSS
David Gutirrez, Antoni Lara, Daniel Casellas, Jos Manuel Prado

603

Fractional behaviour at cyclic stretch-bending

Wilko C. Emmens, A.V. Kazantzis, J.Th.M. De Hosson, A.H. Van Den Boogaard

613

Determination of hole-flangeability for thin sheets

Feliks Stachowicz

623

Investigation of the equivalent plastic strain within a flow formed steel work piece determined by micro-indentation hardness and grain-shape analysis
Meysam Haghshenas, Robert J. Klassen, Jeff T. Wood

631

Indentation Limit Diagram (ILD) assessment of metallic sheets using spherical instrumented indentation test
Philippe Brammer, Grard Mauvoisin, Olivier Bartier, Xavier Hernot, SimonSerge Sablin

641

Tube bulging test: evaluation of errors on material characterization

Nathalie Boudeau, Abdel Hakim Benouirane, Gerard Michel

647

IDDRG 2010

Material Models Advanced Constitutive Laws for Describing Plastic Anisotropy: Material Parameters Identification and their Impact on Finite Element Computation
Salima Bouvier, Simon-Serge Sablin

657

Material modeling of 980MPa dual phase steel sheet based on biaxial tensile test and in-plane stress reversal test
Rena Saito, E. Iizuka, T. Kuwabara

669

A discussion of benefits and challenges by using multiparameter yield locus models in FEM-simulation
Thorsten Beier, Joerg Gerlach, Lutz Kessler, Michael Linnepe

679

Material Modeling for Stochastic Simulation

Vera Gdel, Christoph Annen, Marion Merklein

687

Finite-element modelling of Nakajima tests in due consideration of anisotropic ductile damage

Georg Falkinger, Florence Andrieux, Dirk Helm, Hermann Riedel

697

Forming simulation of aluminum car body sheet with different yield models and comparison with experiment
Christian Lange, Frdric Bron, Paul Hnggi, Dominique Daniel, T. Mller, H. Friebe, H. Gese, Christian Leppin

707

A Modification of Combined Kinematic/Isotropic Hardening Behavior at Elevated Temperatures for Magnesium Alloy Sheet
Nguyen Duc-Toan, Park Jin-Gee, Kim Young-Suk

719

Simulation of Titanium Alloys

Philip Peters, Pavel Hora

729

Applied Finite Element Analysis Advantages & Limitations of Direct vs Indirect Finite Increment Technologies for Blank Size & Trim Line Development for MultiStage Stampings
Victor Apanovitch, Stefan Huhn, Derek Peeling, Dmitriy Medvedyev

739

Finite Element Simulation of Electro Hydraulic Forming

Arne Melander, Aldin Delic, Anders Bjrkblad, Pasi Juntunen, Ludovic Samek, Leire Vadillo

749

IDDRG 2010

Virtual Sensitivity Analysis of the CoolingProcess within the Press Hardening Process
Miloslav Medricky, R. Struck, J. Poelmeyer, P. Olle, B.-A. Behrens

759

Mechanics of Forming Ring Disks

Ernest A. Nazaryan, R. M. Avakyan, M. M Arakelyan, M. A. Kahrizi

769

Numerical investigations in micro hydroforming and design of an experimental set-up for material characterization of micro tubes
Lu Yanxia, Sebastien Thibaud, Boudeau Nathalie

779

Simulation Based Process Optimization of Aluminium Sheet Metal Deep Drawing at Elevated Temperatures
Johannes Winklhofer, Gernot Trattnig, Christoph Lind, Christof Sommitsch, Hannes Feuerhuber

789

Metamodelling based Planning and Control of Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Christoph Annen, Pit Pillatsch, Pavel Hora

799

Fracture and damage behaviour of advanced high strength steels under difference loading conditions
Patrick Schberle, Karl Roll, Rudolf Kawalla, Manfred Stilz

809

How to Accurately Model AHSS in Numerical Stamping Simulation

Xavier Lemoine

819

Numerical Simulation of Rope Roller Hemming in the case of Aluminum Alloys

Xing Hu, Shuhui Li, Yixi Zhao, Z.Q. Lin

829

Numerical Simulation of two types of hemming processes

Amir Oueslati, R. Billardon, O. Hubert, V. Nalewajk

839

New approaches for the validation of the simulaiton of roller hemming processes
Urs Eisele, Karl Roll, Mathias Liewald

851

Joining Improvement of the Welding Process for High Strength Steels by Assistance of Induction Heat Treatment
Martin Mach, Holger Schlbe, Bernard Nacke

861

IDDRG 2010

Influencing Welding Residual Stresses of HSS by Mechanical Post Weld Treatments

M. Rahman, A. Htter, N. Enzinger, C. Sommitsch

871

Joining of Ultra High Strength Steels for Lightweight Body Shell Design in Automobile Manufacturing
Gert Weber, H. Gaul, M. Rethmeier

885

Evaluation and Measurement Predicting the Occurrence of Cosmetic Defects in Automotive Skin Panels
Sumit Hazra, D. Williams, R. Roy, R. Aylmore, A. Smith

899

Online Acquisition of Material Data to Control Perturbations Caused by Varying Material Properties for Forming Processes.
Jrg Heingrtner, Robert Seelos, Marcel Born, Pavel Hora, Anja A. Neumann, Dirk Hortig

907

Digitizing in Optimization of Sheet Metal Processing

Konstantin Galanulis, Carsten Reich

917

Indication of cracking during pressing of advanced thin plates using an AE-based monitoring system
Per Gabrielson, Thomas Skre, Jan-Eric Sthl

925

Numerical comparison and verification of FEA in sheet metal forming by optical measurements of large and complex parts
Harald Friebe, Markus Klein, Konstantin Galanulis

935

On the Role of the Finite vs. Conventional Infinitesimal Incremental Technologies for Multi Stage Stamping Simulation
Stefan Huhn, Victor Apanovitch, Viktor Petchenov

945

Closing Session Proform: Profile Forming Innovation

Maria Angeles Gutierrez, I. Eguia, S. Berner, C. Hennigs, A. Sedlmaier, A. Agnello, J. Bahillo

955

Invited lectures
50th Anniversary of IDDRG 2010 May 31 June 02 Graz |Austria

Resource Efficiency in Forming Technology - Chances for Competitiveness Prof. Dr. Reimund Neugebauer

Alain COL, Consultac, Thionville, France alain.col@arcelormittal.com

How started IDDRG? Abstract: This te xt examines the first years of the well known International Deep Drawing Research Group launched in 1957, the justification of its name and the organisation of the first international conference that was held in 1960 in Paris. Details are first given on the state of the art existing at the time and what were the main problems still remaining that justified this group. Some information also appears about the actors of this birth and the long adventure they started.

Key words: IDDRG, deep drawing, forming, history.

This 2010 year is very important for us because we celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first international conference held by the IDDRG. After such a long time of existence, it is not surprising that many of you completely ignore the exact origin of our organisation and even the reason of its name: International Deep Drawing Research Group. This is to fill this lacuna that I h ave collected and gathered information on the IDDRG birth at the end of the fifties. I will present them now. To replace this event in its context, we must first quickly define the state of the art when it happened.

1. State of the art concerning metallic materials properties Around 1950, the material properties at the origin of formability were not precisely identified and engineers were surprised to observe that all metals having a certain level of ductility were able to make the same parts. As an example, a sauce pan could be made either of mild steel, copper, tin, brass, aluminium, silver, gold, etc . As today, fundamental knowledge of material properties was mainly based on the tensile test and the four basic characteristics that were issued of: yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, uniform and total elongations. The tensile test was known since a long time. Here is a sketch of a machine invented by Leonardo da Vinci around 1500, designed to measure the resistance of wires. It does not seem it was ever realised.

Figure 1 - Leonardo da Vinci and his machine to measure resistance of wires

Some pretend that the first tensile test was performed by Galilei Galileo around 1590 from the Pisa tower: he progressively made a copper wire hanging and just had to weigh the fallen part after it had broken to know its resistance. But the reality of all Galileos experiences is discussed

However, more astonishing, given the experimental possibilities of the times, is the first strain hardening law proposed by Bullfingeri as soon as 1729: e=
n

We know today that it is not the best formula , but it is always easy to criticize later In 1885, Considre published a famous paper of about 200 pages, of which three or four only are dedicated to the explanation of the load instability, just believed at this moment to be the result of local scatter in metal properties. He demonstrated that this instability was not at all the result of hazard but that it appeared when strain hardening was no longer sufficient to compensate reduction of cross section. He thus introduced what we now call true stress and showed that the tangent modulus was equal to this stress at the load instability.

-1

DN

Figure 2 Considre criterion: tangent modulus equal stress at load instability

Contrarily to what is often said, he never posed that true strain at instability was equal to the strain hardening exponent n of the power law:

inst = n
This for two simple reasons: the notion of true strain was not known (later introduced by Ludwik), the n -value of the power law did not exist yet (this was only shown by Hollomon in 1945).

It was not before 1909 that Ludwik proposed his famous law and, in the same paper, the use of logarithmic strains , also called true or natural strains.

= o + k n

2. Knowledge of the stamping process Stamping was a technique, not a science. We can say that it is still true, despite our efforts and even if large progress has been made. Scientific researchers were not so much interested in exploring sheet metal forming because it was obviously too much dependent of many process variables , the influence of which was uncertain: tooling shape, tooling roughness, lubrication, speed, temperature, blankholder pressure, etc. In fact, press forming was more an art, sometimes mysterious, than a technique and it was more useful to be observant and intuitive than having a scientific knowledge. Stamping was essentially studied through the so-called simulative tests, that is to say, small tests reproducing typical forming operations. Such studies existed in Germany, England, Sweden, North America, Japan and France. In Germany, a lot of work had already been dedicated by researchers to sheet metal forming issues and many tests were defined: a theoretical study of wrinkling under the blankholder was published in 1924 by Geckeler, the KWI test was set up by Siebel and Pomp from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut, in 1929, the shrink drawing test of a wedge-shaped test piece was imagined by Sachs in 1930, the Erichsen test, invented in 1912, was already defined by the standard DIN 50101 in 1947 In England, the automotive industry, when passing from hand -made parts to stamped parts, faced many problems of process robustness due to the very irregular quality of the steels then available. Managers of this industry were thinking that a better understanding of the stamping process was necessary or, at least, that universally accepted tests able to evaluate the level of formability of material deliveries were mandatory. As early as 1930, they asked Professor Swift from Sheffield University to study sheet metal stamping. It was, at the time, considered in Great Britain as a first and unique example of cooperation between industry and academy! Cups with flat or hemispherical bottom were intensively studied. Its in the course of this research that Swift also studied in depth bending under tension (1948), thought to be one of the important items of deep drawing because it was one source of the metal resistance to flow into the die cavity. It seems that he was also the first one to design an instrumented press for stamping study. In North America also, many studies were developed concerning sheet metal formability. There were some reputed researchers such as Gensamer, Lankford , Backofen The discovery of the plastic anisotropy influence is a symptomatic example : the first observations were made by Baldwin on copper in 1946, followed by Howald, then Lankford, but without clearly understanding its interest.

A detailed research was started in cooperation between Carnegie-Illinois Steel Co and the Pennsylvania State College at the end of which was published the famous paper by Lankford, Snyder and Bauscher (1950) clearly demonstrating the usefulness of a high R-value 1 for the stamping of automobile front fenders. For circular parts (cups) however, it was still thought that a high planar isotropy was necessary because ears were considered as the source of failure. Only in 1959 did Witheley show that a high R -value was also beneficial for forming round parts. By the way, Lankford also discovered the concept of Forming Limit Curves (that he called Analysis of forming limits) in 1945. However, Lankford was more interested in studying anisotropy and abandoned this although promising clue. This discovery was then forgotten and re-discovered by Keeler in 1963 during its PhD thesis at MIT. It must be emphasized that all the merit of the diffusion of this invaluable tool must be attributed to Stuart Keeler only. We must objectively recognize that he worked hard during his entire career to perfect and diffuse the use of FLCs. In Sweden, the Research Organization of the Jerkontoret had been working on the problem of press forming since 1945. They had clearly differentiated, in 1954, the pure stretch forming from the shrink drawing mode. They were strongly interested by the Swift cup test. In Japan, many studies were driven by Professor Yoshida from RIKEN, who had a large influence by gathering researchers and industrial peoples. They set up a classification of forming operations. A working group was studying the Fukuis test at the end of the fifties. In France, Jovignot had published the definition of his hydraulic bulging test in 1930, Guyot modified and improved the wedge test, etc. It must be remembered that international communication was, before and just after the war, far from being as easy as today and exchanges were mainly the result of missions in which researchers or industrialists met their peers from other countries. There was thus a strong need of cooperation.

3. IDDRGs birth Around 1955, the superiority of aluminium killed steels over rimmed steels was fully recognized for the fabrication of deep drawn parts but the reason for this superiority was not understood, as already mentioned. Many considered that studying cups deep drawing was an absolute priority.

The symbol R used f or plastic anisotropy (then called normal anisotropy) was given by Lankford.

As a consequence, the cup test was standardized in England in 1956. The name Swift test was attributed to it after retirement of Pr Swift, whose modesty was shocked. He did not approve this name. F. Wistreich from the BISRA 2, Pr O. Svahn from Sweden and Dutch researchers simultaneously thought, in 1957, that an international cooperation on this difficult topic would be useful and would help to spread the use of this standard ised test. They met in Amsterdam, 19th & 20 th of March 1957, with representatives from Germany, Belgium, France and Chile 3. At the end of technical discussions, they decided to found a permanent research group strictly dedicated to deep drawing, to which the y already gave the name of International Deep Drawing Research Group: IDDRG was born. The two goals were to study the Swift test and explore the interest of the so-called Limiting Drawing Ratio. We have no traces of the following meetings (if any) before 1960. One of the taken decisions was not to accept individuals but only national delegations at the meetings. It is to fulfil this requirement that in 1959, the Socit Franaise de Mtallurgie (SFM) decided to create the Commission Franaise dEmboutissage dedicated to deep drawing. C harles Crussard was named president, Gilles Pomey being secretary. It was apparently the largest national group concerned by sheet metal forming , so it was decided that it will be in charge of organizing the next meeting of IDDRG as well as its first international conference, open to everybody. Maybe was also playing a role in this choice the fact that it could be organized in Paris. In one issue, Sheet Metal Industry sang the praises of these delightful attributes which have so justly earned for Paris its reputation as the gay city

4. The first international conference This first conference of IDDRG was held from 23rd to 25th of May 1960 (exactly fifty years and one week from today) in the Conference Room of the Association of Automobile Builders, situated in the Etoile district. It was entitled Sheet Metal Forming and Methods of Testing. The fees were of 60 new francs. Like for all international organisms at the same time, official languages were: English, French, Russian a nd Chinese. The event had a considerable success since there were 212 attendees from 15 nations, clearly confirming the need of an international cooperation.

2 3

British Iron and Steel Research Association Some months before, there had been a conference on steelmaking in South America where the interest of Chile was probably aroused. No Chilean representative ever attended the subsequent IDDRG conferences.

Thirty papers were presented and discussed. The introductory lecture was by Dr de Witte, current president, about tests, in which he made a distinction between specific formability (related to a given job in the press shop) and general formability (judging properties of a metal).

Figure 3 Dr de Witte during his speech. Left: C. Crussard, Right: H. de Leiris

A great concern in the forties and fifties was the origin of ears in cups and its relationship with anisotropy. There was some confusion between what we now call plastic and planar anisotropy. This topic was studied by C. Crussard in the first paper of the conference. R.L. Witheley then explained his revolutionary views about the influence of plastic anisotropy upon deep drawing of cups. A classification of the different types of press forming processes was presented by K. Yoshida. One complete day was dedicated to testing methods: Swift and Erichsen tests were lengthy discussed and a new test proposed by Fukui. Concluding remarks were done by Pr O. Svahn. Nothing was said, as you can see, of topics that are now current: - FLCs, to be put on the front of the scene only in 1965, - springback, which mainly became a problem since the introduction of HSLA steels in the seventies, - High Strength steels, - tailored blanks, although they were already used since 1928, - damage, - lubrication, - influence of sheet roughness, - plasticity criteria, - and of course, Finite Element calculation, due to appear at IDDRG in the 1984 conference in Melbourne

5. The technical meeting of IDDRG After the conference itself was a closed meeting of the IDDRG delegates in the laboratories of IRSID, in Saint Germain en Laye (close to Paris). There were 25 attendants from 8 nations: England, Sweden, The Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Japan and France.

Fig. 4. Members of the delegations during the Working Groups in St Germain en Laye

One of the traditions to be long respected by IDDRG was then established: the president of the receiving delegation was set up as the president of IDDRG until next international conference, normally held two years later. This is how C. Crussard became IDDRGs president in 1960. Exceptionally, he kept the function until 1964. John Hooper was elected General Secretary and Gilles Pomey Technical Secretary. They worked together during about twenty years.

Fig. 5. John Hooper, General Secretary, and Gilles Pomey, Technical Secretary

C. Crussard used his influence to convince the other delegates that the initial goal of IDDRG, the study of cup forming tests only (as indicated by the name), was not large enough and that many other questions justified interest: other tests, materials, processes. This was the origin of the three Working Groups that were maintained until 2000.

Conclusion We are gathered here, in the twenty first century, to discuss and study the technical aspects of sheet metal forming. Many problems are not solved, many new ideas are proposed, and we can reasonably think that this will still be true in fifty years But, is it not fantastic that the International Deep Drawing Research Group, founded in 1957, be still active more than fifty years later and organizing a yearly conference? I believe we can be satisfied and proud of it.

Results of IDDRG 2009 Survey on the Most Important Material Property Data for Numerical Analysis
B.S. Levy B.S. Levy Consultants Ltd 1700 E. 56th St., Suite 3705 Chicago, IL 60637 USA bslevycons@ameritech.net

Abstract: During the 2009 IDDDRG conference in Golden, CO USA a survey was conducted, asking attendees to list the three types of material properties that are important for improved numerical analysis of sheet metal forming. The major properties, which received at least 10% of the responses included shape of the yield locus, hardening behavior, failure criteria, friction and microstructural effects. Other properties were listed but at lower levels. The results of the survey raises questions with regard to equipment, accessiblity and variability of data, as well as funding. Keywords: Hardening behavior, Failure criteria, Friction, Microstructrrual Effects

1. INTRODUCTION At the end of the 2009 IDDRG Conference, attendees were asked to indicate the three most important types of material property data that are needed for improved numerical analysis of sheet metal forming. Since different respondents use different words to describe the same material property, the author had to interpret some of the responses. In spite of best efforts, the interpretations may have introduced some limited bias into the results. The attendance at the conference included a large number of doctoral students and research assistants. In summarizing the results, more weight was given to experienced professionals in sheet metal forming (the primary respondents). Due to economic conditions, there was very limited attendance from industrial personnel, particularly from North America. Consequently, the author secured responses from eight leading industrial experts in North America, which were added to the survey as primary respondents. The survey includes 48 primary respondents and 24 secondary respondents. Only primary responses were used in the numerical rankings. While each respondent was requested to give three types of material properties, some respondents provided less than three. To quantify the results, the number of responses for each type of material property and the total number of responses were determined. The ranking is the total number of responses for each type of material property divided by the total number of responses for all material properties.

2. RESULTS

2.1 34.6% Shape of the yield locus and the associated hardening rule as a function of stress path (Kinematic hardening is not included) Many of the responses used words other than the description used in this section of the paper. As an example of the way responses were amalgamated, a response of n value was considered to be a reference to a hardening rule. Many respondents were only concerned with a part of the overall property set. Some of the specific responses in alphabetic order are: Data for strains higher than possible from a standard tensile test. Another way that this was stated was as a need for biaxial tensile testing. Data on the elastic/plastic transition Effect of stress path Effect of change in stress path Effect of anisotropy Need for mathematical models that describe the material behavior Strain rate hardening Use of bending versus curvature to obtain property data. Experimental hardening curves from biaxial/multiaxial deformation Temperature from the heat of deformation. This response came from a leading researcher, who indicated that it is particularly important for the new generation of high strength steels. It is of interest that a number of respondents focused on a specific aspect of the overall problem. In reflecting on the various responses, the following questions arise: 1) is there a general understanding of the scope of the need or 2) is there a divergence of opinion on the extent of the knowledge that is needed to achieve reliable results in numerical simulation of sheet metal forming. This same dichotomy can apply to some of the other responses to this survey. 2.2 20.2% Failure criteria This category includes forming limit curves (FLCs) including stress based FLCs (9.6%), failure criteria in general (8.7%), sheared edge stretching (1.9%), and bending under tension (no responses). It is of interest to the author that after almost 50 years of work on FLCs that it still remains an important topic. 2.3 11.5% Friction The responses generally just mentioned the topic without specifics. It is of interest that one respondent specifically mentioned the need for data on the change in surface topography with deformation.

2.4 10.6% Developing microstructural basis for properties of interest In general, respondents focused on a specific property; while a few respondents indicated a general need to relate microstructure to a wide range of properties. It should be noted that the respondents have both industrial and academic experience. 2.5 8.7% Loading and unloading elastic modulus Where additional information was provided, the need that was mentioned was for prediction of springback. 2.6 6.7% Kinematic hardening including cyclic kinematic hardening As a point of interest, at least one respondent referred specifically to bending and unbending. 2.7 3.8% Anisotropy (R-value) as a function of strain This category includes strains beyond those determined in a tensile test. 2.8 3.8% Grade definition This response was entirely from industrial respondents. The authors interpretation of the responses is that steel grades should be defined to have a tighter range of material properties. 2.9 Outside the scope of the survey There were a small number of responses that stated that work was needed on aluminum, magnesium, and hot forming. With regard to hot forming, it is not clear if all the needed work has been done, if it is a less important topic, or if people involved in hot forming did not attend the conference.

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS After reviewing the survey results, I am left with questions, not answers. 3.1 With regard to equipment: Is there available mechanical testing equipment to generate the data indicated by the survey? What new equipment is needed? Given the interest in relating mechanical properties to microstructure, is there sufficient instrumentation to generate the needed quantitative data on microstructure? Can the tests be run with sufficient rapidity and at an acceptable cost to provide the quantity of data needed to support numerical analysis in industrial applications?

3.2 With regard to knowledge: Is there an accessible database for the available information? Is it grade specific, where grades relate to materials in industrial usage? Are there data on the variability for material grades for the new properties in which there is interest? To what extent have we established cross correlations so that the amount of testing can be reduced? What is the minimum number of properties that need to be specified to meet the needs of numerical analysis? 3.3 With regard to funding: Is the lack of data generation due to ignorance or is it that the cost of generating the data exceeds the benefits from the use of the data? Alternatively, is the issue one of organization? For example, the benefits of the data go to part manufactures, while the costs accrue to material producers, who in general are not paid for their efforts. Furthermore, does anyone know the monetary value of the costs or the benefits?

In conclusion, it remains to be seen if the intellectual benefits of improved material properties have economic value.

Further development of manganese boron steels for the lightweight design of body in white structures
F.-J. Lenze*, J. Banik*, S. Sikora* and T. Gerber* *ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, Eberhardstrae 12 44145 Dortmund, Germany e-mail: franz-josef.lenze@thyssenkrupp.com, janko.banik@thyssenkrupp.com,
sascha.sikora@thyssenkrupp.com, thomas.gerber@thyssenkrupp.com

Abstract: This paper gives an overview about the actual material development tendencies for hot formed structural body in white components. Press hardened parts out of MBW1500 (22MnB5) are used soaring for body in whites of new vehicle generations. To enable further light weight potential ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe has developed manganese boron steels with an increased strength level. A higher carbon content is the fundamentally reason for the strength growth. After press hardening strengths up to 1900MPa are possible. To ensure the workability in serial production processes a lot of investigations were conducted under consideration of the materials, forming and joining properties. The main results of investigation are presented in tis contribution. Furthermore new process strategies like the tailored tempering for partial press hardening are considered. Hereby custom part properties are given despite the usage of monoblanks.

Keywords: manganese boron steel, highest strength, hot stamping, tailored tempering, aluminum silicon coating

1. INTRODUCTION The currently discussed demands for steels in vehicles are in the challenge between cost efficiency, globalization and emission protection. Particularly press hardening steel affords the opportunity of economic lightweight design for body in white structures. The hot forming of manganese boron steels has well-established in the vehicle manufacturing and a majority of the car manufactures using this technology for their products. [Paar et al., 2009], [Dick et al., 2008] Due to the high strength and the excellent processing properties in the heated condition and the outstanding accuracy after quenching this type of steel offers an obvious lightweight design potential. Trough the part weight reduction this technology performs a significant contribution to the CO2 reduction. [Banik et al., 2008]

Up to now the 22MnB5 is the mainly used steel for hot forming applications. A further potential for weight reduction can be received by a part geometry optimizing or a higher strength of the used material. For the potential analysis of new press hardening steels the application technology and the material development of ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe have done widespread investigations concerning material properties and process technologies.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF MANGANESE BORON STEELS The concerted strength increase of steel for hardening and tempering is approachable by the principal raising of the carbon content. Essential investigations have shown that the strength level of 2000MPa can be reached with appropriate increased carbon content. [Bian, 2008], [Naderi, 2007] But it has pay attention to the whole chemistry of the used steels in the body in white. Because of a to high carbon content the welding properties can restrict to such an extent that the further processing steps arent possible with stable process parameters. Under these circumstances the steel development was go ahead with the aim to realize a strength level up to 1900 MPa by the quenching process. After the laboratory extraction and the convincing results concerning strength and elongation of the manganese boron steels, a first field test for the hot rolled strip production was executed. The material was manufactured with a plate thickness of 2.0 mm. The chemical composition of the different steel grades is shown in table I. For the investigations of the different types of manganese boron steels at delivery the MBW1500 is cold rolled on the other hand the MBW1900 is in hot rolled condition. This would imply different types of microstructure but an affect on the strength level after press hardening is not recognizable.
Material MBW 1500 MBW1900

carbon 0,19 0,24 % 0,32 0,38 %

manganese 1,0 - 1,4

boron 0,0008 0,0050

Table I; Chemical composition of the investigated steels (in mass%). 2.1. Testing method Beside the proving of a manganese boron steel with a strength of 1900 MPa the serial material MBW1500 was also investigated as reference. This steel composition is analyzed comprehensively and has established itself in the series production. The basic investigations are necessary for statements concerning the using or the substitution of other steel grades or else materials for structural parts. In the beginning the comparison is supposed to the well proved MBW1500. Typical processing parameters in terms of furnace temperature and dwell time for this material are chosen as standard. The heat

treatment window for the investigations to determine the mechanical properties after the press hardening process is listed in table II.
furnace temperature dwell time furnace atmosphere transfer time 925 C 6 minutes nitrogen 8 seconds tool temperature surface pressure dwell time in the tool RT 4 MPa 20 seconds

Table II; Heat treatment conditions. Beside the inquiry of the mechanical properties after hardening also the bake hardening potential of the materials was investigated. Therefore a temperature of 170C and a dwell time of 20 minutes were chosen. The mechanical properties were determined transversely to the rolling direction. The higher carbon content shows a comparable bake hardening potential like the MBW1500. The tensile test was done with an A80 specimen. The values are shown in figure 1. Yield and tensile strength of MBW1900 are higher compared with the MBW1500 as expected. At a following heat treatment like the cathodic electro deposition increases the yield strength compared with the press hardened state about 100 MPa. The reason of this occurrence is the segregation of carbides. The elongation is in spite of the tensile strength differences for all different steels on the same level. The subsequent tempering has no appreciable influence on the elongation properties.
Yield Stress Rp0,2 [MPa]
MBW 1500 PressHardened MBW 1500 PressHardened+BH MBW 1900 PressHardened MBW 1900 PressHardened+BH

Tensile Strength Rm [MPa]

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

Figure 1; Mechanical properties after heat treatment.

2.2. Fatigue test The mechanical behaviour of materials depends on the type of the material and also the load in the life cycle. This applies to the deformation and the fracture behaviour and especially for the fatigue. An endurance fracture constitutes a material failure, which occurs only under the affect of a changing and pulsatory load. A general way to assess

the fatigue strength is the determination of the maximum number of cycles and the plotting in dependency to the maximum stress as Whler or stress-number curve. For the determination of the stress-number curve the investigated materials were press hardened (parameters according to table I). The results of MBW1500 and MBW1900 are shown in figure 2. Differences in the strength level are not recognizable in the stress-number curves of the materials. The higher carbon content has no influence on the fatigue strength level compared with MBW1500.
MBW1500
1500
1500 1500

MBW1900
1200 1200

900 600

Maximum stress a(stab)

Maximum stress a(stab)

1200

900 600

Zeitfestigkeit stab. Spannung Fatigue strength (stabilized) Fatigue strength Dauerfestigkeit

300
2,477

Zeitfestigkeit stab. Spannung Fatigue strength (stabilized) Fatigue strength Dauerfestigkeit

300 1,0E+02 1,0E+03 1,0E+04 1,0E+05 1,0E+06 1,0E+07

1,0E+02

1,0E+03

1,0E+04

1,0E+05

1,0E+06

1,0E+07

1,0E+02

1,0E+03

1,0E+04

1,0E+05

1,0E+06

1,0E+07

Number of cycles to failure N

Number of cycles to failure N

Figure 2; Stress-number curve of MBW1500 and MBW1900.

2.3. Forming behaviour and part analysis For first statements concerning the forming behaviour of the new steel, the material was tested on prototyping lines as well as serial production lines. The processing followed with direct hot forming. Therefore the blank was heat treated in a furnace and afterwards formed as well as quenched in the forming die. Owing to the direct hot forming the reference was chosen with aluminum silicon coating. The new steel grade was x-tec coated due the material availability. Hereby the usage of a protective gas atmosphere in the furnace was not necessary. Additionally to the making of B-pillars bumper beams were formed supplementary. Like the basic investigations the process parameters are completely the same. As well as the reference the new steel composition have shown a similar forming behaviour and the processing demonstrates no restrictions at all. The bumper prototyping part is depicted in figure 3.

Figure 3; Bumper beam out of MBW1900. The determination of the strength properties was carried out with A50 tensile test specimens. The specimen size results out of the restrictive part dimensions. It follows for the MBW1500 an average tensile strength of 1015MPa and yield strength of 1450MPa. Due to the chemistry the MBW1900 ranges on a tensile strength of

1215Mpa and yield strength of 1815MPa. Beside the tensile test also the microstructure and the hardness in a profile were investigated. A completely martensitic microstructure was detected. The hardness profile (figure 4) demonstrates no irregularities.
MBW1900
700

MBW1500

600

500

Hardness HV

400

300

200

100

Measuring line
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34

Measuring Point

Figure 4; Bumper Beam hardness for MBW1500 and MBW1900.

2.4. Useful properties Beside the production of 1200 prototyping parts also the 1100 MBW1900 crash properties under 1000 MBW1500 dynamic load were tested. The 900 Toughness of a part is an 800 attribute that depends not only 700 on the material properties. 600 Also the state of stress, the 500 forming velocity and the 400 temperature play a decisive 300 role. As a consequence of 200 multiaxial stress and/or abrupt 100 load it has established to investigate the material 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 behaviour in high dynamic displacement [mm] loadings beside the tensile test for characteristic quantities Figure 5; Energy absorption in drop tower tests. like elongation at fracture and reduction in area. On this a middle segment of the B-Pillar was tested on a drop tower. By an adjusted fixation of this segment in the flange area it was possible to avoid the collapse of the sash. Under the clamping it is installed a load cell to determine the deformation force.
deformation energy [J]

For every material were done some replication tests. The average of the deformation energy is plotted on the displacement in figure 5. The results exhibit an energy reduction in dependence of the material strength. Further investigations will be done in the future with a hut profile. Herewith investigations shall be done concerning the material behaviour under dynamic and static load.

3. COATING TECHNOLOGY FOR NEW STEELS Beside the input of uncoated manganese boron steels for body in white structures, the importance of corrosion resistant parts gains clearly. Hot dip aluminized material allows an economical manufacturing process and a corrosion protection. This metallic coating has established in the last years. Hence the steel development has the aim to coat them with an aluminum silicon layer. The MBW1900 was successful hot dip aluminized in hot rolled (blank thickness of 2.2 and 2.0mm) and in cold rolled (blank thickness of 1.5 and 1.6mm) condition. Further tests with thinner strip stocks are in progress. The investigations were done with at the beginning argued parameters. A furnace protection atmosphere was due to the Al-Si coating not necessary therefore. The primary aim was the assessment of the metallic coating after the hot forming. For the diffusion layer assessment are the wet chemical analyse or the Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy (GDOES) the essential methods. A GDOES allows a conclusion regarding the element distribution on the surface. Additional the investigations include the micrograph of the diffusion layer to see possible differences due to the differential chemistry of the substrate. Figure 7 shows no noticeable differences. Investigations concerning the surface roughness exhibit a comparable range.
MBW1500+AS; press hardened
100 90 25
100 90

MBW1900+AS; press hardened

25

Fe; Al - weight per cent [%]

Mn; Si - weight per cent [%]

Fe; Al - weight per cent [%]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

15

15

10

10

0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 depth [m]

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 depth [m]

Figure 6; GDOES of Al-Si coated MBW1500 and MBW1900 after hot forming.

Mn; Si - weight per cent [%]

80

Fe Al Mn Si

20

80

Fe Al Mn Si

20

MBW1500 MBW1900 Figure 7; Micrograph of Al-Si coated MBW1500 and MBW1900 after hot forming.

4. TAILORED TEMPERING - PARTS WITH CUSTOM STRENGHT PROPERTIES An important point for the hot stamping investigations of structural components is the possibility of different mechanical properties in one part. Due to the load cases inside a crash it is necessary to build areas where deformation and energy absorption is possible. Induced to this requirement often ranges with strong properties exist constructional directly alongside to ranges with high energy absorbing potential. Hot stamping offers the possibility to realize these requirements in one process. [Dick et al., 2008], [Paar et al., 2009], [Kolleck et al., 2009] During the Tailored Tempering process, the use of a partially heated tool ensures that a slower cooling of the parts is achieved locally. While the component area within the unheated part of the tool is subjected to a high cooling rate, thus forming a martensitic microstructure, a reduction in the cooling rate in the heated part of the tool produces a ferrite-pearlite or ferritic-bainitic microstructure depending on the process control. [Lenze et al., 2008] An Example for the resulting microstructure is illustrated in figure 8. Thus, via the respective selected process control, requirement-specific mechanical characteristics can be set within the material and the part. The forming microstructure is determined by the selected process control and the mechanical characteristics required. This process ensures a very specific setting of the material characteristics and their local restrictions. [Lenze et al., 2009], [Feuser et al., 2009]

Figure 8; Microstructure after Tailored Tempering of MBW1500 and MBW1900.

With this process B-pillars was produced at the InCar-Project of ThyssenKrupp. [Breidenbach et al., 2009] For that reason, a high cooling rate within the upper area of the B-pillar produces the highest possible strength, thus ensuring high buckling safety. However, within the lower area of the B-pillar, a deformation of the parts must be possible in order to convert the kinetic energy into deformation. Therefore, local yield strength of 15 % was intended for this area and was achieved by a low cooling rate of the parts within the tool. To test the Tailored Tempering process, an innovative MBW1900 was also used as a material in addition to the familiar MBW1500. Due to the increased strength of MBW1900 in particular compared to MBW1500, further weight reduction potential is expected.
yield strength Rp0,2 [MPa] MBW1500+AS TailoredTempering MBW1900 TailoredTempering 300 400 500 600 600 700 800 900 12 16 20 24 tensile strength Rm [MPa] elongation at rupture A80 [%]

Figure 9; Mechanical properties by Tailored Tempering. The calculation of the IIHS load case showed a considerable deformation in the B-pillar lower area. However, this can be compensated through the tailored tempered MBW1500 with a total elongation of 15%. The results of the tensile test are illustrated in figure 9. The adaptation of the B-pillar system ensured that the target values of the crash load cases and the requirements concerning global and local stiffness and natural frequency were met. The properties in the three point bending test (figure 10) verify for the MBW1900 also a sufficient potential.
30000

MBW1900 hardened
25000

MBW1500 hardened

Biegekraft bending force [N]

20000

MBW1900 tempered
15000

10000

MBW1500 tempered
5000

0 0,0 2,5 5,0 7,5 10,0 12,5 15,0

displacement [mm] Biegeweg

Figure 10; Three point bending test of MBW1500 and MBW1900.

5. PROSPECTS The usage of hot formed parts will increase further in the next years. As a consequence of the legislation regarding the reduction of the CO2 emissions the car manufacturer are constrained to apply the lightweight design. For this steel offers the opportunity in an effective and cost efficient way. The further development of steels for hot forming applications with an increased strength is a solution for the mentioned demands. In addition to the materials development it has also pay attention to the whole process chain to ensure an economic production. With partial press hardening procedures the application field for these materials will be enlarged due to customized part properties. Beside the heat treatment procedures the cycle time has to be mentioned as important factor. New heating methods offer the possibility for a process chain shortening. [Kolleck et al., 2009] The cooling rate can be influenced by tool materials with high heat conduction coefficients. [Paar et al., 2007]

REFERENCES [Banik et al., 2008] Banik, J.; Flehmig, T.; Hoffmann, O; Hinz, M.; Lenze, F.-J.; Osburg, B.; Patberg, L.; Sikora, S.; "Neue Werkstoffund Technologieentwicklungen fr modernen Karosseriebau mit Stahl"; In: Proceedings of the 5.th Chemnitz Car Body Colloquium, pp. 113-132; Chemnitz 2008; ISBN 978-3-937524-72-6 [Bian, 2008] Bian, J.; "Entwicklung von Warmumformsthlen fr Automobilbauteile mit hchsten Festigkeiten"; In: ThyssenKrupp Steel Autotag 2008; Dsseldorf 2008 [Breidenbach et al., 2009] Breidenbach, A.; Dams, R.; Gerber, T; Reiter, S.; Sikora, S.; Straube, O.; "Six ways to an optimum B-Pillar"; In: ATZ extra Das InCar-Projekt von ThyssenKrupp, pp. 56-71; Wiesbaden 2009; [Dick et al., 2008] Dick, P. et al; "Warmumformung bei Daimler ein hei diskutiertes Verfahren"; In: Tagungsband zum 3. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung 2008, pp. 41-56; Bamberg 2008; ISBN 978-3-87525-284-2 [Feuser et al., 2009] Feuser, P.; Schweiker, T.; "Tailored Tempered Parts Presshrtbauteile mit mageschneiderten Eigenschaften"; In: Tagungsband zum 4. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung 2009, pp. 127 - 142; Bamberg 2009; ISBN 978-3-87525-298-9 [Kolleck et al., 2009] Kolleck, R.; Veit, R.; Koroschetz, C.; "Hot stamping of car body parts with local strength adjustment; In: Material Property Data for More Effective Numerical Analysis proceedings 2009, pp. 825-834; Golden 2009; ISBN 978-0-615-29641-8 [Lenze et al., 2008] Lenze, F.-J.; Sikora, S.; Banik, J.; Sauer, D.; "Development tendencies as to processing of press hardening und application of coated steel; In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance Steel CHS, pp.15 - 21; Kassel 2008

[Lenze et al., 2009] Lenze, F.-J.; Sikora, S.; Banik, J.; Gerber, T.; Laurenz, R.; "Herstellung von gewichtsoptimierten Strukturbauteilen durch den Einsatz presshrtbarer Sthle; In: Tagungsband zum 4. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung 2009, p. 1-16; Bamberg 2009; ISBN 978-3-87525-298-9 [Naderi, 2007] Naderi, M.; "Hot Stamping of Ultra High Strength Steels; Dr.-Ing. Dissertation; RWTH Aachen 2007 [Paar et al., 2007] Paar, U.; Valls, I.; "Werkzeugsthle und Strategie fr die Warmumformung und Hartbeschneiden; In: Tagungsband zum 2. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung 2007, pp. ; Bamberg 2007; ISBN [Paar et al., 2009] Paar, U.; Prokoph, S.; Sunderktter, C.; Jttner, S.; "Graduierte Eigenschaftseinstellung im Bauteil; In: Proceedings 3rd International Conference on Accuracy in Forming Technology, pp. 191-200 ; Chemnitz 2009; ISBN 978-3937514-93-1

Influence of post uniform tensile and bending properties on the crash behaviour of AHSS and press-hardening steel grades
P. Larour, H. Pauli, T. Kurz, T. Hebesberger. Forschung und Entwicklung Kaltband, voestalpine Stahl GmbH voestalpine Strae 3, 4020 Linz, Austria patrick.larour@voestalpine.com

Abstract: The axial crash behaviour of dual phase DP800 and press-hardening steel grades phs-ultraform is investigated in this contribution with focus on the crash folding capability. The post uniform tensile properties and bending capability yield accurate predictive information about the axial crash folding behaviour. The rupture stress at fracture is an appropriate parameter for local ductility and crash folding assessment, whereas fracture elongation is gauge length dependent and rather accounts for average strain measurements. Some experimental illustrations are given for an optimised DP800 dual phase as well as tempered press-hardening phs-ultraform steels. Improvement in the crash folding properties can be significantly related to post uniform tensile and bending properties. Key words: post uniform tensile properties, bending test, crash folding behaviour, AHSS, phs-ultraform. 1 INTRODUCTION This study is dedicated to investigating how efficiently crash behaviour can be predicted based on small-scale trials. Tensile tests are usually used to characterise mechanical parameters. Some useful post uniform properties can be assessed when considering strength properties rather than elongation properties, which means rupture stress versus tensile strength rather than fracture elongation versus uniform elongation [Walp, 2007], [Schleich et al., 2008], [Rcker, 2008]. Fracture elongation is unfortunately gauge length dependent and cannot account for local ductility behaviour, unless the gauge length is infinitely small [Rcker, 2008]. Local optical strain measurement would yield better results in assessing local true ductility in the post uniform necking zone [Rcker, 2008]. Other testing methods, such as bending tests, are useful in order to more efficiently predict, for example, bending-dominated failure that occurs with AHSS steel grades during folding/bending in axial and side crash tests [Walp, 2007], [Link et al., 2008], [Dykeman et al., 2009]. For press-hardening steels, the effect of annealing is demonstrated more effectively and with less relative scattering by the results of a bending test rather than by tensile elongation properties [Faderl et al., 2009],

[Labudde et al., 2009]. The bending angle at maximum load is a good indicator of the axial crash folding ability [Faderl et al., 2009], [Laumann et al., 2008], [Kurz et al., 2009]. 2 EXPERIMENTAL SET UP 2.1 Sample materials A 1.2mm thick hot dip galvanized dual phase steel DP800 has been investigated, before and after metallurgical optimisation process as reported in [Pichler et al., 2007] and [Hebesberger et al., 2008]. The serial production of DP800 at voestalpine Stahl is performed only with the optimised version. Hot dip galvanised press-hardening phs-ultraform steels have been also investigated in the thickness range 1.5 to 2.0mm, in the hardened and tempered conditions (300C to 500C), as already referred in [Laumann et al., 2008] and [Faderl et al., 2009]. 2.2 Tensile tests The post uniform properties give an indication about remaining ductility after the onset of necking. This information can be used in order to correlate tensile properties with subsequent crash behaviour [Schleich et al., 2007]. Following concepts can be found in literature data in order to characterise the post uniform ductility properties:

Rm postunifor m = ln Rb

[Schleich et al., 2008] [Rcker, 2008] [Rcker, 2008] [Walp, 2007], [VDI, 2007] [Yeh et al., 1999] [Schleich et al., 2008]

(1) (2) (3) (4)

R/R =

Rm - Rb Rb

R.A = (Rm - Rb )(A - Ag ) .

Rb Ag CFS = -ln .1 2 Rm
Rm 2 A - Ag + 1 2 Dv postunifor m = ln + ln Rb Ag + 1

(5)

With Rm: (ultimate) tensile strength, Rb: rupture stress (breaking strength) at sample fracture, Ag: uniform elongation; A: fracture elongation for a 80mm gauge length. tensile strength to rupture stress. DR/R represents the relative strength decrease between necking and fracture. CFS represents the critical true fracture strain in thickness direction. Dvpost uniform criterion mixes post uniform strength and elongation. DR.DA estimates the energy absorption in the post uniform area. Criteria (1), (2), (4) do not consider fracture elongation,

epost uniform describes a fictive logarithmic post uniform elongation based on the ratio of

which may help in case of high relative scattering as this is generally the case for UHSS steels grades. 2.3 Wedge bending tests 3 point wedge bending tests are conducted at voestalpine Stahl (Figure 1) and performed to a great extent in conformity with ISO 7438:2005 [ISO 7438, 2005]. Similar bending test set ups are described in [Walp, 2007], [Konieczny et al., 2008] and [Link et al., 2008]. Free rotating rollers with a radius R of 15 mm are used as shoulders without lubricant and are separated by twice the sheet thickness t. Milled bending sample which measures 6060 mm are tested with a sharp bending punch with a 0.2mm radius R1. Such an instrument-monitored bending test provides a load-displacement curve depending on the immersion depth d of the bending punch. Sample failure occurs in the maximum load range. After reaching the maximum load, the test is not interrupted but is performed until the defined punch stroke is reached. After reaching a bending angle of around 160, which is dependent on the sheet thickness, the required load increases again because the punch is countered by the support rolls. The recorded bending load/displacement curve is used to calculate the bending load/bending angle curve. The parameter typically used for this calculation is the bending angle at maximum load (Figure 1). This simplifies the following analysis of the resulting data. The bending angle of the specimen is not measured in the unloaded condition. The test is performed until full punch stroke, without being shut off at maximum load by a load device control.
Bending punch Punch radius R1 = 0.2mm Bending rolls Roll distance = 2 x thickness Roll radius R = 15mm Bending sample 60 x 60mm
d R1 a t

8000

Maximum bending load: Fmax Bending load [N]

6000

4000

2000

Bending angle at maximum load: amax

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Bending angle []

t d R R1 a L

Sample thickness [mm] Punch stroke [mm] Roll radius [mm] Punch radius [mm] Bending angle [] Distance between rolls [mm]

Figure 1: Device for instrumented 3 point wedge bending test at voestalpine Stahl.

2.4 Crash tests Experimental set-up: voestalpine Stahl operates a horizontal crash unit to perform axial and bending crash tests on components (Figure 2a). The load is measured with a calibrated strain gage load measurement system on the crash plate behind the sample. The crash deformation of the sample is optically measured by means of a contrast grid device. Mean load and energy absorption are measured based on load/displacement measurement data (Figure 2b). The bending/buckling crash behaviour as well as the lightweight capability of AHSS steels can be assessed with such crash tests.
600 20

F max
400

10

200

Faverage =

Emax d max

0 0 50 100 150

dmax
Crash deformation d [mm]

0 200

Absorbed energy E [kJ]

E = F.dd

Emax
15

Load [kN]

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: (a): Crash test set-up; (b): Load/displacement/energy curve in the axial crash. Crash index: A crash index has been developed in order to quantify the axial crash folding ability (Figure 3). The crash folding behaviour is estimated based on the crack length similar to the methodology proposed in [Walp, 2007].

Figure 3: Crash index definition (axial crash folding behaviour).

Crash samples: Double hat and single hat crash box geometries have been used for DP800 and press-hardening steels respectively (Figure 4). Both geometries are spot welded with a 30mm pitch. No triggers have been used. Double hat crash boxes out of DP800 steel have been formed in a bending press. Single hat crash boxes out of phs-ultraform, with the same geometry as described in [Laumann et al., 2008], have been cold drawn, austenitised in a continuous furnace and hardened in a cooled shell die inside a press. The hardened and partially annealed hat-shaped sections are closed with a cover sheet of non-hardened phsultraform with the same thickness that is spot welded on. The single hat-shaped sections are provided with head plates that are fillet-welded onto the ends.
Steel grade Thickness (mm) Impactor weight (kg) Impact speed (kmh) Weld pitch (mm) Sample height (mm) Triggers Manufacturing Head plates phs-ultraform 1.5 / 2.0 268 41 30 400 no Cold deep drawing + quenched + tempered yes DP800 1.2 126 30-60 30 450 no Bending press no

Crash box geometry

single hat

double hat

Figure 4: Crash box geometries and testing parameters. 3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 3.1 Optimised DP800 steel grade A dual phase DP800 steel grade from voestalpine Stahl has been optimised for serial production towards a better post uniform tensile ductility (Figure 5, Figure 7), bending ability (Figure 6) as well as crash folding ability (Figure 7). The metallurgical optimisation process of DP800 steel grade has been reported in [Pichler et al., 2007] and [Hebesberger et al., 2008]. The post uniform ductility (A80-Ag) does not change significantly after DP800 steel optimisation. The post uniform strength decrease (Rm-Rb) however is much more significantly marked (Figure 5). The maximum bending angle increases with the optimised DP800 steel grade (Figure 6). The crash folding behaviour is also significantly improved (Figure 6 Figure 7) with a transition from multiple crash folding breaks (crash index: 20) into a better crash folding behaviour (crash index: 85). Figure 7 shows that all post uniform tensile

properties increase for the optimised DP800 steel grade. Post uniform criteria, which are postulated based on the ratio or difference of tensile strength Rm with rupture stress Rb, are therefore suitable to characterise the optimisation process of DP800 steel grade.
900

DP800 first development

800

Engineering stress [MPa]

DR=Rm-Rb DA=A80-Ag

700

DP800 optimised

600

500

Rp02 MPa DP800 first development 479 Transverse DP800 optimised 519 Steel grade Direction

Rm MPa 843 821

Rb MPa 804 735

Ag A Rm-Rb A-Ag % % MPa % 11.0 14.9 39 3.9 13.1 18.7 86 5.6

400 0 5 10 15 20

Engineering strain [%]

Figure 5: Transverse tensile stress-strain curves, post uniform properties, DP800.

7000

6000

DP800 first development

5000

Load [N]

4000

DP800 optimised

3000

2000

1000

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Bending angle []

Figure 6: Longitudinal bending curves and crash properties, DP800.

0.20

120

Postuniform tensile properties [-]

(Rm-Rb)/Rb ln(Rm/Rb) CFS Dv postuniform (Rm-Rb)*(A-Ag)/10 Bending angle

100

Crash index: 80 5
80

0.10

60

Crash index: 20 5
40

20

0.00

Longitudinal

Diagonal

Transverse Longitudinal

Diagonal

Transverse

DP800 first development

DP800 optimised

Figure 7: Post uniform tensile, bending and crash properties, DP800. 3.2 Tempered press-hardening steel grade Tensile, bending and axial crash tests were conducted on the phs-ultraform steel grade, both in the original quenched hardened condition and after being tempered at temperatures between 300C and 500C (for both 5 and 10 minutes) [Kurz et al., 2009]. Tensile strength decreases significantly as the tempering temperature is increased, especially above 300C (Figure 8). Fracture elongation increases only slightly with heat treatment, with a relatively high relative test scattering, so that such ductility increase cannot be reliably reproduced in individual samples (Figure 8). This problem has already been discussed in [Labudde et al., 2009]. In contrast to fracture elongation, the bending angle significantly increases above 300C, indicating a higher resistance to damage (Figure 8). This coincides with available literature data [Laumann et al., 2008], [Labudde et al., 2009]. Whereas quenched as well as quenched and 300C tempered samples fully break apart in bending tests already after maximum load, the bending samples at higher tempering temperature show only some micro-cracks, but do not break apart during the test (Figure 9). When considering the previously defined post uniform tensile properties, some similar results as for DP800 steel grades can be obtained for phs-ultraform steel grade. The post uniform tensile properties increase steadily with increasing tempering temperature (Figure 10). The scattering of such tensile post uniform properties is also relatively small. The crash folding behaviour, as quantified by the crash index, improves continuously as annealing temperature increases (Figure 10). Splitting and curling failure occurs in the hardened condition, which results in comparatively low energy absorption capacity in spite of

Bending angle [] ; (Rm-Rb).(A-Ag)/10 [MPa.%]

the high tensile strength of the base material. A defined crash folding deformation pattern occurs first at a tempering temperature of 300C. This leads to more effective energy absorption and smaller crash deformation in spite of still existing crash fold breaks and moderate decrease in strength. The crash folding behaviour improves beginning at an annealing temperature of 400C but this can no longer compensate for the loss in strength of the base material. The overall crash deformation increases again, and both energy absorption and mean load are reduced. The optimum annealing temperature with respect to energy absorption capacity ranges therefore between 300 and 400C.
1600 10

amax
1400

Yield & tensile strength [MPa]

Rm

1000 800 600 400 200 0 0

Rp0,2

7 6 5 4 3 2 100 200 300 400 500

A80

Tempering temperature [C]

Figure 8: Longitudinal tensile and bending properties vs. tempering temperature phs-ultraform.
14 12

400C/10min 500C/10min

10

Bending load [kN]

quenched

300C/10min

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Bending angle []

Figure 9: Longitudinal bending curves vs. tempering temperature, phs-ultraform.

Bending angle /10 []; Fracture elongation [%]

1200

0.8

110

0.7

Postuniform tensile properties [-]

90 80 70 60

0.6

0.5

0.4 50 0.3 40 30 20 0.1 10 0 20 300 400 450 475 500

0.2

0.0

Tempering temperature [C]

Figure 10: Longitudinal post uniform tensile, bending properties and crash index vs. tempering temperature, phs-ultraform.

4 CONCLUSIONS The crash folding behaviour of dual phase DP800 and press-hardening phs-ultraform steel grades in axial crash condition can be well quantified by means of a crash index factor. Fracture elongation, as determined in tensile tests as a characteristic variable of material ductility, is not quite suitable in order to predicting the axial crash folding behaviour. There is a correlation between crash behaviour and fracture elongation; however, the high relative scattering of fracture elongation values for UHSS steels overshadows the adequate interpretation of such results. Modified tensile post uniform criteria based on rupture stress rather than fracture elongation deliver much better predictive results with regard to crash folding capability and with less relative scattering as for fracture elongation. The bending test has also proven to be quite suitable for crash folding prediction, as a result of its relatively small variation results. This was demonstrated by a comparison of statistical analyses of numerous crash tests with the corresponding bending angle at maximum load.

Bending angle [] ; Crash index [-]

(Rm-Rb)/Rb ln(Rm/Rb) CFS Dv postuniform Bending angle Crash index

100

5 REFERENCES [Dykeman et al., 2009] Dykeman, J.; Hoydick, D.; Link, T.; Mitsuji, H.; Material Property and Formability Characterization of Various Types of High Strength Dual Phase Steel; SAE Technical Paper 2009-01-0794. [Faderl et al., 2009] Faderl, J.; Kolnberger, S.; Kurz, T.; Luckeneder, G.; Manzenreiter, T.; Rosner, M.; phs-ultraform- Continuous galvanizing meets press-hardening; CHS2 Lule Schweden (2009) pp. 283-292. [Hebesberger et al., 2008] Hebesberger, T.; Pichler, A.; Pauli, H.; Ritsche, S.; Dual-phase and complex-phase: AHSS Material for a wide range of application; Proc. Conf. on Steels in Cars and Trucks Wiesbaden (2008) pp. 456-463. [ISO 7438, 2005] DIN EN ISO 7438:2005 Norm; Metallische Werkstoffe-Biegeversuch. [Konieczny, 2008] Konieczny, A.A.; On the Formability Behavior of Advanced High Strength Steels; Steel Research Int. 79/1 (2008) pp. 47-54. [Kurz et al., 2009] Kurz, T.; Larour, P.; Till, E. T.; Crashperformance und Duktilitt von presshrtenden Sthlen reicht der Zugversuch zur Beschreibung?; Proc. Conf. 4. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung (2009). [Labudde et al., 2009] Labudde, Th.; Bleck, W.; Formability characterisation of press hardened steels; CHS2 Lule Schweden (2009) pp. 127-135. [Laumann et al., 2008] Laumann, T.; Pfestorf, M.; Crash behaviour of various modern steels exposed to high deformation rates; Steel Grips 6. CHS2 (2008) pp. 143-151. [Link et al., 2008] Link, T.M.; Effects of Paint Baking on the Axial Crash Performance of Advanced High Strength Steels; MS&T 2008, Pittsburgh, pp. 1989-2000. [Pichler et al., 2007] Pichler, A.; Traint, S.; Hebesberger, T.; Stiaszny, P.; Werner, E.A.; Processing of thin sheet multiphase steel grades; Steel Research International 78/3 (2007) pp. 216-223. [Rcker, 2008] Rcker, O.; Untersuchungen zur Anwendung hoch- und hchstfester Sthle fr walzprofilierte Fahrzeugstrukturkomponenten; PhD Berlin (2008) pp. 63-66. [Schleich et al., 2007] Schleich, R.; Sindel, M.; Liewald, M.; Potentials of new ductility criterions in car development with lightweight materials; International Journal of Aluminium 3/2007, pp. 80-82. [Schleich et al., 2008] Schleich, R.; Sindel, M.; Keith, T; Liewald, M.; Neue Duktilittskriterien fr die Qualittsbewertung von Leichtbauwerkstoffen; MP Materials Testing 50/9 (2008) pp. 472-476. [VDI, 2007] VDI: Mechanische Eigenschaften; In: Anwendungstechnologie Aluminum Edition 2. ISBN 978-3-540-69451-9 (Online) (2007) pp. 279-398. [Walp, 2007] Walp, M.S; Impact Dependent Properties of Advanced and Ultra High Strength Steels; SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-0342. [Yeh et al., 1999] Yeh, J.R.; Summe, T.L.; Seksaria, D.C.; The Development of an Aluminium Failure Model for Crashworthiness Design; In: AMD-Vol. 237/BEDVol.45, ASME (1999) pp. 97-105.

Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Tailor Welded Blanks in Hot Sheet Metal Forming Processes
K. Lamprecht*, G. Deinzer*, A. Stich*, J. Lechler**, T. Sthr** and M. Merklein** * AUDI AG, 85045 Ingolstadt, Germany ** Chair of Manufacturing Technology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Egerlandstr. 13, 91058 Erlangen, Germany klaus.lamprecht@audi.de, guenter.deinzer@audi.de, anton.stich@audi.de, lechler@lft.uni-erlangen.de, stoehr@lft.uni-erlangen.de, merklein@lft.uni-erlangen.de

Abstract: In the current models of the mid-size car segment, Audi for the first time worldwide applies hot stamped tailor welded blanks in series passenger cars. The combination of two innovative technologies, the application of tailored products on the one hand and hot sheet metal forming on the other hand, allows to achieve final component properties that could not be realized so far. Moreover, hot stamping of tailor welded blanks that combine a modern manganese-boron-alloyed steel with a particular complementary material meets both the requirements of functional aspects of innovative body-in-white concepts as well as of lightweight design. This contribution describes major research activities concerning material technology which have been carried out within the scope of component and process development. This includes basic analyses related to the selection of steel grades. For the finally selected steel grade H340LAD further investigations have been performed in order to characterize the thermomechanical properties of the material subject to the most important process parameters during hot stamping. In addition to a characterization of the basic materials, special emphasis is placed on the description of the weld seam properties. In contrast to conventional sheet metal forming technologies at ambient temperature the final properties of hot stamped components are heavily dependent on the related process parameters. A discussion of the experimental results is given to clarify the major dependencies. Keywords: Hot Sheet Metal Forming, Thermo-Mechanical Properties, Tailor Welded Blanks, Weld Seam, Microstructure 1. INTRODUCTION The current requirements for the development of new automobiles are various and partially even contradictory. In comparison to their respective predecessor models, new passenger cars should offer a more rigid body in white with a better crash behaviour while at the same time vehicle weight has to be reduced. Furthermore, innovative vehicles should be more comfortable and of a higher technical quality, but at reduced costs, and they should offer better performance values, but use less fuel and comply

with stricter emission limits. The reduction of the vehicle curb weight is an important and consistently pursued target during the development of new vehicles. Based on the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) a weight reduction of 100 kg for vehicles with a petrol engine allows a reduction of the fuel consumption of 0.35 l/100 km and a reduction of CO2-emissions of 8.4 g/km respectively, if engine and transmissions are adapted to the reduced vehicle weight. However, despite consistent measures for lightweight construction and significant progress with the obtained stiffness-to-weight coefficient, in most vehicle categories weight is increasing from the predecessor to the succeeding model. The substantial reasons for that are requirements of vehicle safety, legal specifications, comfort, quality and larger vehicle dimensions. So far, the car body is accountable to this weight increase to over 50%, although it contributes only one third to the complete vehicle curb weight [Winterkorn, 2004]. Today, steel is still the dominating material in body manufacturing. In this context, the body structure of the current Audi A4 is an outstanding example of the advancement of lightweight steel design with respect to a consistent lightweight strategy and high passenger safety, Figure 1. While mainly ductile steel grades are used for the front and rear end in order to enable energy absorption, the passenger cell is dominated by high and advanced high strength steels as well as several press-hardened components. Altogether, their portion constitutes about two thirds of the body in white, in which the press-hardened components are involved with 11%. The very high strength of these new materials was utilized for a thickness reduction of sheet metal components. In connection with a conceptual optimization of the body structure these measures result in a weight decrease of about 10% in relation to the predecessor model [Wilde, 2008].

Figure 1: Hot sheet metal forming of tailor welded blanks: components applied in the latest Audi A4. The major disadvantage of high and advanced high strength steels is their limited formability in conventional cold forming processes as well as the increasing tendency for springback. In consequence, the design freedom is decreasing with increasing material strength. However, hot sheet metal forming processes, e.g. press-hardening, permit the production of geometrically complex shaped components at very high

strength levels. For that purpose steel sheets are warmed up to about 950 C in a continuous furnace prior to the forming process. After austenitization of the material the warm blanks are formed in a cooled tool and thus quenched simultaneously. Since it exhibits a comparatively low critical cooling speed for the martensitic transformation of approximately 30 K/s due to its alloying elements manganese and boron, today the heat treatable steel 22MnB5 is used for hot sheet metal forming [Naderi, 2008; Lachmann, 2008]. In addition, after hardening this steel grade meets the demanded strength and elongation requirements of about 1200 MPa in yield strength, 1500 MPa in tensile strength and approximately 5 to 8% of remaining total elongation. In the Audi A4 the interior door sill, the reinforcement main chassis beam and the crossbeam wheel arch are made of press-hardened 22MnB5 mono blanks. The application of tailor welded blanks allows to develop even further lightweight potentials of hot sheet metal forming. An example of this is the tunnel reinforcement in the current Audi A4, which consists of a laser welded blank of 22MnB5 with a thickness of 0.8 and 1.0 mm. Furthermore, by combination of different steel grades within a tailor welded blank it is possible to realize specific locally adapted mechanical properties within a single component. Thus, the heat treatable steel 22MnB5 is combined with the more ductile micro-alloyed steel H340LAD in case of the B-pillar and the rear main chassis beam, in order to force controlled energy absorption in case of a crash and to avoid overstressing within the hardened material sections, Figure 1. Prior to the selection of the micro-alloyed steel as a complementary material to the 22MnB5 numerous experimental trials with different steel grades were conducted [Stopp, 2007; Lamprecht, 2008]. This contribution describes selected aspects of this development process, which the AUDI AG in co-operation with their development partners went through, and which finally led to the world-wide first successful series application of press-hardened tailor welded blanks. 2. MATERIALS 2.1. Material selection for hot sheet metal forming of tailor welded blanks The selection of an appropriate complementary material for the 22MnB5 in tailored blanks is driven by the target mechanical properties after press hardening. The defined target value range regarding yield strength is YS = 350500 MPa, regarding the tensile strength UTS = 500650 MPa and TEl > 10% for the total elongation. In order to attain these specifications, no significant hardening may occur in the material during the process, i.e. the critical cooling speed for the martensitic transformation must be clearly higher than expected during press hardening. Furthermore, the formation of a coarse grain structure during austenitization must be avoided. In order to ensure high process stability in relation to a deviation of process parameters, different cooling speeds during transfer and/or forming should result in minor deviations of mechanical component properties.

2.2. Investigated basic materials Within the scope of this study the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD, the carbon-manganese steel HT440CMD as well as the dual phase steel HXT600XD were regarded as potential complementary materials for application in tailor welded blanks in combination with the heat treatable steel 22MnB5. The mechanical properties of these steel grades in their initial condition are given in Table 1. Regarding the initial condition, the microstructures of H340LAD as well as of HT440CMD are ferritic with a minor fraction of pearlite. The steel grade HXT600XD also shows a ferritic matrix but with an additional martensitic phase which enables strength increase. The material properties according to Table 1 are average values from five individual tensile tests [Deinzer, 2008]. All tested materials were examined in a nominal sheet thickness of t0 = 1.5 mm. Table 1: Measured properties of the investigated materials (initial condition)
Material Sheet thickness t0 [mm] Yield strength YS [MPa] Ultimate tensile strength UTS [MPa] Uniform Elongation UEl [%] Total Elongation TEl [%] H340LAD micro-alloyed steel 1.50 392 0.3 445 0.2 12.3 0.7 25.4 0.3 HT440CMD CMn-steel 1.50 332 2.5 463 3.7 17.4 0.3 32.7 0.1 HXT600XD dual-phase steel 1.50 437 1.8 654 1.9 9.8 0.1 15.7 0.1

2.3. Heat treatment of the investigated steel grades In order to enable the selection of an appropriate steel grade for press-hardening of tailored blanks dedicated hardening trials were carried out. While the austenitization temperature was kept constant at T = 950 C, the austenitization time t and cooling rate dT/dt have been varied. Different cooling rates dT/dt were realized by blowing with compressed air and by double-sided contact between cooled metallic plates using different contact pressures pC. For each material the average cooling rate was calculated in a temperature range between 800 and 500 C. Independent from the regarded material, the experimental results confirm that there is no significant influence on the Vickers hardness for an austenitization time t between 3 and 9 min [Deinzer, 2008]. Within this time interval, also for the heat treatable steel 22MnB5 no influence of t on the resulting hardness may be detected [Geiger, 2005]. Figure 2 shows the measured Vickers hardness values of the three steel grades after the hardening trials. The results are depicted depending on the cooling rate dT/dt8/5. For the dual phase steel HXT600XD higher cooling rates result in a significant hardness increase. This behaviour is also reflected by the materials microstructure which changes from ferritic/martensitic in the initial condition over ferritic/pearlitic at low cooling rates to bainitic at high cooling rates. A comparable hardness increase of about 150 HV10 can also be detected for the steel grade HT440CMD. However, the microstructure of this material remains predominantly ferritic over a wide interval of the cooling rate. For both steel grades a high sensitivity of the mechanical properties for different temperature profiles and process deviations during press hardening may be expected [Deinzer, 2008].

Figure 2: Influence of the cooling rate on the Vickers-Hardness after hardening In contrast to these results, due to its comparably low carbon content of approximately 0.07 %-wt., the micro-alloyed steel grade H340LAD shows a clearly lower hardness increase even for high cooling rates. Here, independently from the cooling rate, the austenite grains are transformed into ferrite only. However, the ferrite grain size decreases with an increasing cooling rate [Deinzer, 2008]. In addition, the measured maximum hardness values of approx. 170 HV10 let assume higher residual elongation values of the final component also for high cooling rates. Furthermore, due to the relatively small influence of the cooling rate on the resulting hardness, high process robustness in series production is expected for the micro-alloyed steel. 2.4. Mechanical properties after heat treatment For a first estimation of the expected material strength the measured hardness values may be converted into tensile strength values according to [DIN EN ISO 18265, 2003]. A minimum tensile strength of 500 MPa, as specified for the selection of the complementary material in tailor welded blanks, corresponds to a hardness value of about 160 HV10. The process cycle during press-hardening of sheet metal components is best described by the quenching tests with double-sided metallic contact after preceding air cooling. The measured hardness values of these test series average approximately 170 HV10 for the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD, 285 HV10 for HT440CMD and 350 HV10 for the dual-phase steel HXT600XD. This corresponds to tensile strength values of 545 MPa, 915 MPa and 1125 MPa, respectively. The results of additional tensile tests show a good correlation with these calculated values for the H340LAD and the HXT600XD, Figure 3. Only in case of the CMn-steel HT440CMD clearly lower strength values between 740 and 840 MPa were measured. Regarding the yield strength and the remaining total elongation of the hardened materials it has to be stated that only the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD meets the required target value range. Due to these results this steel grade was selected as complementary material for the 22MnB5 in any further investigations.

Figure 3: Mechanical properties of the investigated steel grades subject to the contact pressure pC during press-hardening 2.5. Surface Coatings The surface coatings of steel sheets applied in car body manufacturing have to fulfil numerous requirements. Both the chemical composition and the topography of the surface have considerable influence on the tribological conditions during the forming operation. Furthermore, the surface coating significantly affects the applicable joining technologies, painting capability and corrosion protection of the final component. These requirements apply for both conventional (cold) and hot sheet metal forming technologies. Due to the required heat treatment in hot sheet metal forming, the coating of the applied steel sheets is of special importance. Here, the coating needs to offer a sufficient thermal stability in order to guarantee the specified properties within a certain range even under the thermal and mechanical load during the forming process. Besides the thermal stability, the coating system must provide a proper scaling protection during the heat treatment. These requirements are fulfilled by an aluminium-silicon-coating. Today, AlSi-layers with a coating weight of 150 g/m2 are applied in series production. This corresponds to a typical coating thickness of 25 m in the initial condition. Due to diffusion processes different Fe-Al-Si phases develop during the heat treatment and thus the coating thickness increases up to 40 m.

3. THERMO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF H340LAD For the investigation of the forming behaviour of the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD, a modified Gleeble 1500 testing machine, supported by an optical strain measurement system, has been applied. This system allows to determine the flow behaviour in a temperature range of up to 800 C. Using a conductive heating device, the austenitization temperature of T = 950 C is reached during a time of 60 s. The dwell time at austenitization temperature was set to t = 3 min with a subsequent cooling by compressed air at one, three and six bar down to test temperature Ttest. The respective average cooling rates were determined with 16, 50 and 64 K/s. It is known from dilatometric measurements, that the austenitic-ferritic transformation of the steel grade H340LAD starts at an approximate temperature of 810 C for a cooling rate of 10 K/s and at 770 C for 100 K/s. The phase transformation is completely finished in a range of 600 to 550 C. For the tensile tests investigated within this paper, a fully ferritic microstructure can already be detected at the beginning of the tests for Ttest = 500 C and 600 C, whereby the ferrite phase is just starting at Ttest = 800 C. The hot tensile tests were carried out immediately after the cooling stage at a constant temperature with three different strain rates of 0.05 s-1, 0.1 s-1 and 0.5 s-1. 3.1. Influence of the forming temperature on the flow behaviour The flow curves for the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD shown in Figure 4 have been determined for a strain rate of 0.1 s-1 in dependency of the testing temperature Ttest. The cooling from the austenitization temperature down to the testing temperature took place at ambient air-condition.
450 MPa 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 500 C 500 C 600 C 700 C 600 C 700 C

true stress

800 C

800 C

H340LAD
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 true strain 0.7 0

22MnB5
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 true strain 0.7

Figure 4: True stress - true strain curves of 22MnB5 and H340LAD after the austenitization (T = 950 C, t = 3 min) and cooling to Ttest (16 K/s) Respective flow curves have also been determined for the boron-manganese steel 22MnB5, Figure 4. For both materials, a decreasing yield strength as well as a lower strain hardening capacity can be detected with increasing test temperature. The decreasing yield strength can be ascribed to the higher quantity of slip systems and

increasing dislocation movement at elevated temperatures. In contrast, the decrease of the strain hardening capacity with rising temperature is caused by a dynamic recovery process, which balances the material hardening at tensile loading. Obviously, at an equal temperature the true stress level for the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD is lower than for the respective boron-manganese steel 22MnB5. This behaviour can be explained by the reduced mixed crystal hardening caused by a lower content of alloying elements. 3.2. Influence of the strain rate on the flow behaviour Increasing strain rates are leading to a higher hardening capability for the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD. As a result of a lower strain rate sensitivity m of H340LAD (m 0.092) compared to the boron-manganese steel 22MnB5 (m 0.115), the impact of different strain rates regarding higher forming temperatures is more significant for the micro-alloyed steel, which is shown in Figure 5.
400 MPa 300 true stress 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 d/dt = 0.5 s-1 0.1 0.2 d/dt = 0.1 s-1 0.3 true strain 0.4 0.5 d/dt = 0.05 s-1 0.7 800 C

Material: H340LAD

500 C

Figure 5: Influence of the strain rate on the true stress true strain curve of H340LAD after the austenitization (T = 950 C, t = 3 min) and cooling to Ttest (16 K/s) 3.3. Influence of the cooling rate on the flow behaviour Within a further test series, the influence of the cooling rate dT/dt on the flow behaviour of H340LAD was determined. Therefore, the cooling rate has been varied in three stages between 16 K/s, 50 K/s and 64 K/s. The resulting follow curves are shown in Figure 6. As expected, the impact of cooling rates on the true stress-strain progression is not significant within this range. For the manganese-boron alloyed steel 22MnB5, the influence of the cooling rate has not been investigated within this work. Therefore it can be referred to [Hoff, 2008] for according considerations. At a testing temperature of 500 C the hardening at the beginning of the forming process as well as the significantly higher flow stresses in comparison to a forming temperature Ttest = 800 C can be detected, which indicates the onset of a bainitic phase transformation.

400 MPa 300 true sress 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 dT/dt = 64 K/s 0.1 0.2 dT/dt = 50 K/s 0.3 0.4 true strain 0.5 800 C dT/dt = 16 K/s 0.7 500 C

Figure 6: Influence of the cooling rate on the true stress - true strain curve of H340LAD with a respective strain rate of 0.1 s-1

4. PROPERTIES OF THE WELD SEAM OF TAILOR WELDED BLANKS In order to guarantee the appropriate function of components consisting of tailor welded blanks, a high laser weld seam quality is inevitable. To prevent scaling during the thermal treatment as well as corrosion in the later application, the initial blanks are coated with an aluminium-silicon layer prior to the welding process. With respect to the welding process, it has to be considered that aluminium and silicon elements might get into the weld seam and develop brittle intermetallic phases. These Fe-Al-Si phases may under certain circumstances lead to weak spots in the weld seam. Figure 7 displays a micrograph of a tailored blank after a hot stamping process. Here, an intermetallic phase, caused by the AlSi coating, is clearly observable within the weld seam. Therefore, in order to avoid this effect, it is state of the art to remove the AlSi-coating next to the weld seam right before the joining process [Lenze, 2007; Lenze, 2008]. The weld seam and the heat affected zone (HAZ) are developed within a width of approximately 2 mm. However, after the hot stamping process only the weld seam itself is recognizable as the HAZ goes through a complete martensitic phase transformation.
22MnB5 22MnB5 H340LAD

500 m

100 m

Figure 7: Micrograph of the weld seam section of a tailor welded blank after the hot stamping process (welded without removing the AlSi coating)

An impact of the aluminium-silicon coating, leading to intermetallic Fe-Al-Si phases within the weld seam, on the hardness evolution throughout the welded zone is not detectable. The hardness value HM 1.0 (instrumented indentation test according to [ISO 14577-1, 2002] with a testing force of 1.0 kN), which is shown in Figure 8 exemplarily after a welding process, proves this fact. For coated blanks as well as for blanks with a removed AlSi-coating in the welded zone, the hardness profiles are equivalent. The decrease of the hardness in the centre of the weld seam has been approved within several testing cycles and is also detectable for tailor welded blanks of the combination 22MnB5 with 22MnB5.
7000 N/mm2 5000 hardness HM1.0 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 measuring length x 4.0 mm 6.0 Al/Si coated uncoated

22MnB5

Weld seam

H340LAD

Figure 8: Lateral hardness distribution across the weld seam of a tailor welded blank (as-delivered condition with and without AlSi coating) After the hot stamping process of tailor welded blanks with dissimilar materials, a steady decrease of the hardness HM 1.0 in the section of the weld seam from the hardened 22MnB5 to the ductile H340LAD is detectable, whereby recognizable deviations in the weld seam are existent, Figure 9.
7000 N/mm2 hardness HM1.0 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 measuring length x 4.0 mm 6.0 22MnB5-H340LAD 22MnB5-H340LAD 22MnB5-22MnB5 22MnB5 Weld seam H340LAD

Figure 9: Lateral hardness distribution across the weld seam of a tailor welded blank after quenching with a contact pressure pC = 10 MPa

After the hot stamping process of tailor welded blanks of the steel grade 22MnB5 a hardness decrease in the weld seam can be detected, Figure 9. In this case, the width of the weld seam in the centre of the investigated sheets can be quoted to 0.5 mm. Both hardness profiles, for the mono- as well as for the combination of the two steels, have to be taken into account for the functional component design. An impact of the contact pressure regarding hot stamping in a range of 5 to 30 MPa, and therefore the respective cooling rate, on the hardness progression in the welded zone could not be determined. The micrographs depicted in Figure 10 confirm that the boron-manganese steel 22MnB5, due to a direct metallic contact and thus a high cooling rate, passed through a fully martensitic transformation. Compared to that, the H340LAD exhibits a ferritic microstructure. Here, a rising cooling rate causes an increasing content of needle-shaped ferrite and bainite. The weld seam itself consists of a martensitic grain structure.
22MnB5 Weld seam H340LAD

20 m

20 m

20 m

Figure 10: Microstructure in the zone of the weld seam of a tailor welded blank after quenching with a contact pressure pC = 30 MPa 5. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of extensive investigations on different steel grades as co-material for the boron-manganese steel 22MnB5 in the context of hot stamping of tailored blanks, the micro-alloyed steel H340LAD had been chosen. This steel grade exhibits the required material properties after the thermo-mechanical treatment according to the time-temperature profile of hot stamping and is not liable to a deviation of the hot stamping parameters. One of the major aspects to be mentioned regarding the thermomechanical properties is the lower strain rate sensitivity of this steel grade compared to 22MnB5. Before the welding process of tailor-welded blanks, the aluminium-silicon coating is removed from both sheets in the welded zone to prevent the weld seam from the embedding of any intermetallic phases that might weaken the weld seam. 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to take the opportunity to thank the German Research Association for Steel Application (Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e.V., FOSTA) for their financial support of this study within the project Hot sheet metal forming of tailor welded blanks.

REFERENCES [Winterkorn, 2004] Winterkorn, M.: "Herausforderungen im Automobil-Leichtbau"; Speech on the occasion of his appointment as honorary professor at the Institut fr Leichtbau und Kunststofftechnik, TU Dresden, Germany, 30.06.2004. [Wilde, 2008] Wilde, H.-D.; Fischer, M.; Niemeyer, M.; Stopp, R.; Reitmeier, B.: "Body Body Shell, Materials and Production"; The New Audi A4, Special issue ATZ and MTZ, 09/2007, pp. 166-171. [Naderi, 2008] Naderi, M.; Labudde, T.; Uthaisangsuk, V.; Bleck, W.: "New ultra high strength steel grades for hot stamping"; Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Steel in Cars and Trucks (SCT), 01.-05.06.2008, Wiesbaden, Germany, pp. 154-163. [Lachmann, 2008] Lachmann, C.; Eisenberg, S.; Paar, U.: "Press-Hardened Steels in Automotive Applications Chances and Challenges"; Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Steel in Cars and Trucks (SCT), 01.-05.06.2008, Wiesbaden, Germany, pp. 133-140. [Stopp, 2007] Stopp, R.; Schaller, L.; Lamprecht, K.; Keupp, E.; Deinzer, G.: "Warmblechumformen in der Automobil-Serienfertigung Status, Trends, Potenziale"; Tagungsband zum 2. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung, 22.11.2007, Erlangen, Germany, pp. 23-36. [Lamprecht, 2008] Lamprecht, K.; Deinzer,G.: "Hot Sheet Metal Forming in Automotive Production"; Thermal Forming and Welding Distortion, Proceedings of the 2nd IWOTE, 22.-23.04.2008, Bremen, Germany, pp. 145-154. [Deinzer, 2008] Deinzer, G.; Stich, A.; Lamprecht, K.; Schmid, G.; Rauscher, M.; Merklein, M.; Lechler, J.: "Presshrten von Tailor Welded Blanks: Werkstoffauswahl, Eigenschaften und Verbindungstechnik"; Tagungsband zum 3. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung, 19.11.2008, Erlangen, Germany, pp. 1-22. [Geiger, 2005] Geiger, M.; Merklein, M.; Hoff, C.: "Basic Investigations on the Hot Stamping Steel 22MnB5"; Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Sheet Metal (SheMet), 05.-08.04.2005, Erlangen, Germany, pp. 795-804. [DIN EN ISO 18265, 2003] DIN EN ISO 18265: "Metallic materials - Conversion of hardness values"; Beuth, Berlin, 2003. [Hoff, 2008] Hoff, C.: "Untersuchung der Prozesseinflussgren beim Presshrten des hchstfesten Vergtungsstahls 22MnB5"; Dissertation Universitt ErlangenNrnberg, Meisenbach Verlag, 2008. [Lenze, 2007] Lenze, F.-J.; Bian; J.; Sikora S.: "Einsatz pressgehrteter Sthle im Karosseriebau: Stand und Trends der Entwicklung"; Tagungsband zum 2. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung, 22.11.2007, Erlangen, pp. 13-22. [Lenze, 2008] Lenze, F.-J.; Banik, J.; Sikora, S.: "Applications of hot formed parts for body in white"; Proceedings of the IDDRG 2008 Conference, 16.-18.06.2008, Olofstrm, Schweden, pp. 511-520. [ISO 14577-1, 2002] ISO 14577-1: "Metallic materials Instrumented indentation test for hardness and materials parameters (Part 1: Test method)"; Beuth, Berlin, 2002.

Significant Findings and Innovative Procedures for the Process-Secure Press Hardening of Laser Welds in Hotform Blanks
Max Brandt, Christian Dornscheidt, Lukas Korves, Jrg Maas, Dietmar Schaftinger, Stephan Selle, Sascha Sikora ThyssenKrupp Tailored Blanks GmbH, Mannesmannstr. 101, 47259 Duisburg max.brandt@thyssenkrupp.com 1. INTRODUCTION With the development of press hardened, laser-welded components, so-called Hotform Blanks ready for mass production, important potentials for the improvement of structural rigidity, weight and emission reductions opened up for the automotive industry. These advantages are generated by both the applied material MBW1500 as well as by the purposeful combination of different material strengths and qualities in Hotform Blank by means of linear laser or non-linear laser welds. Last but not least with the extensive application of these components in the B8-Plattform of AUDI the product gained its serial consecration. The requirements for the production and processing of MBW based components is complex and in the last years numerous experiences were collected together with the car manufacturers and successful procedure recommendations were developed in order to facilitate the optimal use of these components pointing the way in body structure. During the conceptual consideration of the utilization of Hotform Blanks the following concepts occurred in the market over the last two years: Use of low profiled components completely made of MBW (monoblanks) Use of partially hardened components without thickness deviation Use of low profiled components with laser weld joints in order to combine MBW with ductile components (e.g. HX3xx LAD) Use of laser welded joints of high- and low profiles components made of MBW With the present publication the special requirements both for the welding as well as for the technique of hot forming shall be examined for the first time to that extent for the two lastmentioned components and recommendations for processing shall be generated. By this we would like to contribute to the clarification of questions that occurred with respect to process security in the processing of Hotform Blanks and we would additionally like to invite to the further constructive discussion.

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE INVESTIGATION Tailored blanks could not be used for hot forming over a long period of time. The reason was the coating of the MBW which did not vaporize while laser welding as in contrast the conventional zinc iron coating does. During stamping and drawing operations this resulted in decrease of hardness. With the removal of the coating consisting of an alloy of aluminum and silicon in the weld area this problem was solved. Thanks to our long-term development work this has gained ready for production status. Example B-pillar: The vertical braces in the lower third must be soft so that the impact energy can be partly reduced here. In the upper brace, however, they must be hard in order to protect upper body and head in the case of side impact. In order to resolve this requirement the manganese-boron-steel MBW1500 is joined with more ductile steel qualities by laser welding and the complete B-pillar is produced from a hot formed Tailored Blank. So, in the lower third the tensile strength ranges at approximately 500 MPa after hot forming (see fig. 1). The value for the remaining elongation after fracture is close to 15%. The sheet metal has an overall diameter of 1.5 mm an optimal level of material utilization while saving weight at the same time.

Fig. 1: Hardness shape from base material MBW 1500+AS (1-18 mm) over the weld section (19-28 mm) down to the second base material MHZ 340+AS Other concepts purposefully use the thinner layout in the footing and join MBW qualities with different thicknesses as a Hotform Blank. Here as far technically feasible by means of the thick/thin combination an additional higher degree of material utilization can be realized. In particular this combination puts new challenges on setting a homogeneous hardness shape for larger thickness steps above 0.5 mm. The development of a stable martensite is the prerequisite for this necessary homogeneousness in the weld section. The special challenge for setting such a homogeneous hardening microstructure is the main emphasis of the present investigation.

3. SPECIFIC STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF WELD SECTIONS IN PRESS HARDENED COMPONENTS For the laser welding process the production of a changed microstructure by means of the rapid melting and quenching of the liquid weld is essential. In particular the laser beam welding procedure reaches high cooling rates above 1.000 K/s1. This exerts a substantial influence on the shape of the primary microstructure both in the weld and in the bordering heat affected zone and that needs to be put into consideration in processing press hardened components. 3.1. Special metallurgical features

Due to the specific carbon mass content of 0.19% to 0.38% (MBW1500 to MBW1900), the manganese proportion of 1.0% mass content to 1.4% and the boron proportion of 0.0008% mass content to 0.0050% MBW-steels are especially designed for the hardening with cooling rates above 27 K/s. But not only the quantitative shares of previously mentioned elements but also their specific allocation within the primary microstructure is of great importance for the process-secure adjustment of a martensitic microstructure in hot forming. On the other hand local deviations in the chemical composition and/or in the physical properties of the weld in relation to the base materials bordering on the weld or also within the weld can lead to local weakening in the microstructure. These local areas can be accompanied by a decrease of hardness in the weld section in the process chain welding/hardening or they can be accompanied by decreases in hardness locally restricted to the heat affected zone by means of tempering effects in the process chain hardening/welding (e.g. spot welding after hot forming)2. Local micro hardened areas are confronted by softer spots. In the following course of the investigation the process parameters and influences shall be presented that exert an essential influence onto the formation of such inhomogeneity. 3.2. First investigation results on the impacts of segregation in the welding microstructure and their influence on the development of the hardened microstructure After the hardening of two Tailored Products (22MnB5 with 22MnB5) of nearly the same diameter step and of the same material combination it became noticeable in the
comp. Lpple, V., Drube, B., Wittke, G., Kammer, C., Werkstofftechnik Maschinenbau, Europa-Verlag, 2007, Haan-Gruiten, p. 104 2 Comp. Albert, F., Ganzer, S., Schmidt, M., Hochfester und leicht umformbarer Stahl fr den Automobilbau, LTJ, March 2009, Welnheim
1

metallographic examination that the weld microstructure of the one specimen (further mentioned as 1.3) was developed homogeneously and conclusively in comparison to the microstructure of the base materials (see Fig. 2) and showed the expected homogeneous hardness shape.

Fig. 2: specimen 1.3, conclusive hardening microstructure and corresponding hardness shape In the comparison with the specimen mentioned above the weld of the second specimen (further mentioned as 2.5) in metallographic imaging clearly differs from the microstructure of the first specimen (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Specimen 2.5, hardening microstructure not conclusive This different microstructure is mainly composed of ferritic-perlitic microstructure with the corresponding inhomogeneous hardness shape while both specimens were exposed to the same mode of heat treatment (furnace temperature: 930 C, holding time: 240 s) (Fig. 4). The base materials show an almost conclusive martensitic and in this way hardened microstructure. The weld of specimen 2.5 was not hardened sufficiently in comparison to the weld of specimen 1.3.

The subsequent electron probe microanalysis carried out in order to localize the hardening relevant elements C and Mn of the affected areas showed a significant distinction between the two specimens. Specimen 1.3 shows a homogeneous basic microstructure in the allocation of C (fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Section of the electron probe microanalysis for the element allocation in 1.3 In contrast specimen 2.5 shows an explicit segregated C allocation microstructure (fig. 5).

Fig. 5: Section of the electron probe for the element allocation 2.5 The local segregation in specimen 2.5 results in a locally restricted hardening and/or in almost no hardening in the strongly segregated zones in the process of hot forming, here in the weld section. Although the heat treatment of the specimens displayed above was carried out with identical parameters and identical process control, nevertheless the welding was carried out with differing parameters. So, the development of the primary microstructure was carried

out under different conditions. The decisive different parameters were the welding speed, consequently the austenitisation and/or production of the melting bath as primary microstructure and the cooling of the weld, here the conversion rate of the primary into the secondary microstructure. The laser power was constantly applied in the case of the two specimens considered here. The cooling of the weld was applied by water cooling in the case of specimen 1.3 immediately to the laser weld while the cooling of the weld of specimen 2.5 was carried out at room temperature and/or under the unstable influence of the residual heat of the welding point at lower welding speeds. Unlike the abrupt cooling of specimen1.3, the development of the secondary microstructure of the weld of specimen 2.5 had more time to develop. So, Mn dissolved in the welding bath had significantly more time to segregate within the microstructure when transforming from S S+ at the grain boundaries. The apparently more agile element C attaches to Mn during solidification. If Mn is homogeneously allocated also a homogeneously allocated C structure develops in the overall matrix. On the other hand, when Mn is inhomogeneously allocated since it can segregate at grain boundaries as in the case of the specimen 2.5 due to the sufficient time provided, an inhomogeneous and/or locally segregated structure in C allocation will appear also in the renewed heat treatment. With the austenitisation in hot forming a primary microstructure is newly developed in the overall microstructure. That also applies to the weld, however, on the basis of the consciously or unconsciously set development of the primary microstructure of the welding bath. Unlike the primary microstructure developed in the laser weld, however, the austenitized microstructure is not molten in hot forming. Under standardized furnace holding time conditions, Mn is less capable to diffuse within the matrix since it is a comparably large and inert element and tends to remain at the places in the matrix at which it had allocated during the solidification from the molten state. Unlike the element Mn, the element C is very agile and leaves its lattice sites rapidly during austinitisation and preferably segregates at the element Mn. When Mn is inhomogeneously distributed, C also segregates inhomogeneously. Austenitized areas with higher and lower C concentrations arise accordingly. At same cooling rates of both specimens, no martensite can be developed in specimen 2.5 in C-poor areas since the face-centered cubic lattice of the austenite cannot be transferred into a hexagonal, martensitic lattice that captures carbon. The absence of a coercive encapsulation of the C in the iron lettice prevents pure martensite to be developed. 3.3. Accomplishment of comprehensive investigations of the influence of series welding parameters on the hardenability of the welding microstructure The following image clarifies the decreasing proportion of martensite in the weld dependent on the changing energy input per unit length (in joule/cm).

Fig. 6: Differences in the proportion of martensite dependent on the energy input per unit length A: energy input per unit length = 600 J/cm; B: energy input per unit length = 720 J/cm; C: energy input per unit length = 900 J./cm The results compiled in the preliminary investigation as well as in chapter 3.1 prompted the development of a welding-parameter-dependent experimental matrix that is described in fig. 7 as 9-phases-model.

Fig. 7: schematic structure of the welding parameter experiment The investigation comprising 69 specimens was confined to the welding parameters welding speed (VS), laser power (PS) and seam cooling (NK) (in all cases ceteris paribus). Furthermore the welding procedure was restricted to CO2-laser. The parameters are of essential importance for the development of the weld microstructure and take influence onto the weld when changed.

The differing welding parameters described above under non-series conditions resulted in the described results. In series production these states were not reproducible. Under conditions of series production the parameter bandwidths could be chosen as follows: welding speed (m/min.) 3 m/min. to 10 m/min. seam cooling (ml/min.) 0 ml/min. to 999 ml/min. (max.) laser power (kilowatt) 2.4 kilowatts to 8 kilowatts Fig. 8 exemplarily shows the hardening microstructures of different states in the weld microstructure. Decreases of hardness could not be adjusted; also the crystalline structure develops as a regular martensite microstructure and does not show any local mellow spots.

Serial welding parameters

max. seam cooling

low welding speed

heigh welding speed

low laser power

Fig. 8: metallographic investigation of the development of the hardening microstructures as well as their hardness shapes within the framework of the welding parameter experiment So it is essential to safeguard an energy input per unit length within the range of parameters mentioned above in order to safeguard a flawlessly irreproachably hardenable primary microstructure for hot forming of Hotform Blanks in the subsequent serial process. These parameters are guaranteed by the series production at ThyssenKrupp Tailored Blanks GmbH.

3.4. The importance of the cooling rate and of form-locking processing in hot forming for the development of a homogeneous hardening microstructure in the weld As already described in chapter 3.1, cooling rate and element availability are crucial features for the development of a hardened microstructure. The form-lock hardening in the forming tool is carried out by means of internal water cooling of the tool blocks or through the heat conduction of the tool steel itself according to component complexity and size. In monolithic tools the procedures to guarantee complete form-lock are matured to a large extent. A modular component as the Hotform Blank examined here with thickness steps of above 0.5 mm on the other hand is a real challenge for form-locking while low profiled components (e.g. 0.8 mm joined with 1.0 mm) do not cause any problems due to the factual confected form-lock in the tool. Form-locking between component and tool matrix is of decisive importance in order to guarantee the full cooling effect of the tool steel in form-locking, constant contact of the entire component surface. According to the massive thickness steps mentioned above, forming tools equipped with thickness step are confronted with the problem to display the welding line depending on its offset in the deformation process. We were challenged to discuss opportunities to guarantee the form-locking of tool and component within the framework of a subproject. In cooperation with Braun CarTec GmbH, Schwalbach, Germany, a renowned tool developer and manufacturer for hot forming dies, a prototype tool was set up in which the thickness step of the specimen (a B-pillar transferred from a series B-pillar of 1.25 mm in the footing area and 1.8 mm in the head area; foot to weld 705 mm and 795 mm weld to head) was displayed in the way that form-locking was carried out reliably. The following rough draft schematically clarifies the problem and implementation approach:

Fig. 9: schematic draft for the development of form-locking between tool and work piece at the welding section In total 50 B-pillar specimens were processed. By means of the form-locking of weld and tool suitable for series production positive results could be achieved and employed a satisfactory hardening of the microstructure in the weld section also with big thickness

steps. As expected the degree of martensite development depends on the degree of the form-locking at else same conditions (annealing temperature, transfer speed and inserting temperature):

Fig. 10: Dependence of proportion of martensite (Martensit) in the weld microstructure and form-locking (Formschlssigkeit) The developed method is one out of several different opportunities for the reliable hardening of welds in Hotform Blanks suitable for serial production. Transfer speed and annealing time turned out as critical features also during the experiments. 3.5. First considerations for the targeted local hardening of the weld in the hardening process By the end of 2009 the significant interrelations of primary and secondary microstructures examined above challenged us to think about opportunities of targeted influencing of the welding bath. The challenge is to influence the weld microstructure as an initial microstructure for all further processing stages in the way that this influence maintains its effect also through all subsequent steps. In this regard we succeeded in developing different procedures that approve a targeted hardening of welds or sections of the welds. Following pictures show the first promising results. The opportunities to guarantee form-locking are limited particularly when pressing geometrically highly complex components. In such cases critical areas of the weld could show purposefully higher tensile strengths in order to produce constant martensitic microstructures in the weld. Also the targeted hardening of weld sections that in the finished part are supposed to form predetermined breaking points can be constructively achieved by such measures. In application one can also certainly think of weld areas that must provide a higher tensile strength/hardness due to special impacts.

Fig. 11: joining zone of a higher-tensile weld after hot forming and the corresponding hardness shape 4. CONCLUSIONS

The investigation results elaborated in this study represent decisive findings which we could find within the framework of the examination of numerous influences on the hardening of welds in the hot forming process. They form the crucial basis for the development of work and processing recommendations for the production of Hotform Blanks and their further processing in hot forming. With these findings we can certainly make a contribution to better understand the processes in laser welds. At the same time these results help to invalidate some partly eligibly issues raised from the viewpoint of process development and component design. Also questions of the furnace process control as well as the effect and avoidance of aluminum-enriched external phases in the weld matrix were a part of the investigation next to the tasks presented here. The results of these additional investigations and findings can be provided for the interested reader at any time. The approaches pursued here offer an important basis for the further development of the product Hotform Blanks with our partners from the processing industry. Therefore we eagerly look forward to a further intense discussion.

Improvement of Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of 22MnB5 Steel by Hot Stamping and Direct Cooling
Fernando Aurelio Flandoli* and Sergio Tonini Button** * Centro Universitario da FEI, So Bernardo do Campo SP Brazil 09850-901 ** Universidade Estadual de Campinas Campinas SP Brazil 13083-970 faurelio@fei.edu.br sergio1@fem.unicamp.br

Abstract: In this work it was studied how hot stamping and direct cooling could improve the mechanical properties of stamped parts made with the high strength hardenable steel 22MnB5, Hot stamping of a B-pillar sector was first simulated by finite element method to define the best conditions like blank geometry and stamping temperature. Experimental tests were carried out with four initial temperatures: room (to represent cold stamping), 900, 950 and 980oC, in a hydraulic press with tools cooled to 17oC. Stamped parts were tempered by direct cooling between the tools immediately after hot stamping. Samples taken from stamped parts were analyzed by optical microscopy and micro-hardness Vickers, and other samples were analyzed by tensile tests. Tests results have shown that all hot stamped parts presented mechanical properties higher than cold stamped parts, and that the microstructure and the mechanical properties were obtained with tests carried out at 950oC. Keywords: metal forming, numerical analysis, phase transformation

1. INTRODUCTION Hot stamping presents a wide application in the automotive industry from external components that define the body of the vehicle to internal structural components which require durability, rigidity and impact resistance that conventional cold stamping cannot match without subsequent heat treatment. Many recent researches have been published analysing important aspects of this process, like materials and products quality. [Yanagida, and Azushima, 2009] state that numerical simulation is still not efficient to predict how process variables influence hot stamping because many metallurgical data and especially tribological parameters are not well established. They tested two high strength hardenable steels (SPHC and 22MnB5) and three furnace temperatures and concluded that the new tribological test they developed were effective to evaluate the friction coefficient in hot stamping. [Geiger et al., 2008] present a cup drawing test to evaluate tribological conditions within hot stamping and showed that a significant dependency of blank temperature on

the friction coefficient could be detected. With increasing sheet temperature, decreasing friction values were observed at the interaction contact area. [Barcellona and Palmieri, 2009] considering that little knowledge exists on the continuous cooling transformations (CCTs) that reproduce the typical work conditions of the press quenching process, describe experimental methods they employed to obtain the hardness and microstructural changes of pre-strained and thermally treated microalloyed boron steel. They investigated strains, transformation temperatures, microstructure and micro-hardness of 22MnB5 steel samples under uniaxial tensile tests at temperatures between 873 and 1223 K with a constant strain rate of 0.08 s-1, and concluded that high values of hot deformation during hot stamping, especially at lower temperatures, require a strict control of post-cooling to ensure cooling rates that will result in stamped parts with good mechanical properties. [Bardelcik et al., 2010] present a similar work to investigate the effect of cooling rate on the high strain rate behavior of hardened boron steel. In quenching tests 22MnB5 steel samples were heated to 950 oC and quenched in three different media: water bath at 22 oC, heated oil bath at 85 oC, and compressed air at low and high flow rates. They concluded that mechanical properties and microstructure are strongly dependent on quenching rate, and that ideal conditions can be achieved with the proper selection of furnace temperature and quenching rate. [Lee et al., 2009] present a numerical model based on finite element method to analyze hot pressing considering phase transformation plasticity (TRIP) when stamping a high carbon steel. They also present an extensive experimental procedure to validate the numerical analysis, and concluded that phase transformation significantly influence part strengthening by transforming hard martensitic phase and reducing dimensional change by additional plastic deformation during phase transformation. Numerical simulation has been applied considering more reliable friction coefficients, and material constitutive equations [Naderi et al., 2008], resulting in more effective models to represent hot stamping industrial conditions [Tekkaya et al., 2007], and [Liu et al., 2009]. New procedures have been proposed to employ induction heating of blanks instead of convective heating in continuous furnaces [Kolleck et al., 2009]. The main objective of this work was to study how hot stamping and direct cooling could improve the mechanical properties of a B-pillar sector made of 22MnB5. First, hot stamping was simulated by finite element method to define the best process conditions like blank geometry and stamping temperature to be applied in the following experimental procedure were blanks were hot stamped, and then analysed by optical microscopy, tensile tests, and micro-hardness test.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Numerical analysis Hot stamping of a B-pillar sector (Figure 1) was simulated with software Deform 6 3D based on the finite element method to define the best process conditions, and to evaluate

the forming load and variation of blank temperature along the process. Table I presents the parameters used in the models simulated in this work.

Region X

Figure 1 B-pillar sector.

The material simulated in all models was the 22MnB5 steel, the same tested experimentally, modelled with the constitutive equations provided by [Naderi et al., 2008]. The constant friction factor model was adopted equal to 0.7 considering the tribological conditions within the blank-tools interface. Based on the CCT curves presented by [Naderi et al., 2008] three furnace temperatures were chosen: 900, 950 and 980 oC. For all temperatures rectangular blanks (80mm x 120 mm) were austenitized for five minutes. Blanks were modeled with elasto-plastic tetrahedral elements and the dies were considered rigid and modeled with 45000 tetrahedral elements. Figure 2 shows the initial and final steps of simulation respectively with the blank initially positioned on the lower die, and completely deformed within closed dies.
Material: 22MnB5 steel as cold rolled Width x length x thickness (mm): 80x124.5x1.9 46413 tetrahedral elements Furnace temperature (oC): 900, 950 and 980 Transfer time to press: 15 s Room temperature: 20 oC Hydraulic press Speed: 8 mm/s Stroke: 25 mm Resting time after stamping: 4 s

Blank

Table I Process and material parameters used in the numerical simulation.

Upper die

Blank Lower die

(a)

(b) Figure 2 Numerical simulation: (a) initial step, (b) final step.

2.2 Experimental procedure Some experimental tests were carried out to evaluate the blank material (characteristics shown in Table II) and the stamped products. 22MnB5 steel sheets as received in the condition cold rolled were evaluated by cold and hot tensile tests. Stamped products were evaluated by optic microscopy, tensile test and micro-hardness measurements.
Chemical composition (in weight %): C Si Mn P (max) S (max) Cr Ti 0.24 0.27 1.14 0.015 0.001 0.17 0.036 As received condition: cold rolled Sheet nominal thickness: 1.9 mm

B 0.003

Table II Some characteristics of the blank material before hot stamping. 2.2.1. Tensile testing of the 22MnB5 sheets as received Based on ASTM E8 standard [ASTM, 2009], samples were machined from sheets with axes oriented at 0, 45 and 90o in respect to the rolling direction to evaluate whether the sheets were anisotropic or not. These samples were cold tested at room temperature and isothermally hot tested at two furnace temperatures: 900 and 950 oC. Cold tensile tests were carried out to evaluate anisotropy and also to compare the mechanical properties of the sheets used in this work to those presented by [ArcelorMittal, 2010]. Hot tensile tests were also carried out to evaluate anisotropy at were hot stamping temperatures and to compare the flow stress curves to those obtained by [Naderi et al., 2008]. 2.2.2. Hot stamping tests Stamping tests were carried out with the same conditions used in numerical simulation (Table I). Each blank was held in a furnace for five minutes at the austenitizing temperature (900, 950 or 980 oC). Then, the blank was taken off the furnace and transferred to the stamping tooling assembled in a hydraulic press (Figure 3-a) a).

The dies were lubricated before each test with a mixture of mineral oil and molybdenum grease to facilitate the extraction of the stamped product. Stamping load was measured during the process with a load cell and a digital data acquisition system. At least three stamping tests were carried out at each furnace temperature. After stamped the part rested during four to five seconds within the tools to complete the martensite transformation and then extracted to cool to room temperature (Figure 3-b). (a)
Upper die

(b)

Lower die

Figure 3. (a) Hot stamping tooling assembled in a hydraulic press (b) stamped part.

2.2.3. Analysis of hot stamped products Samples were cut off the stamped products to evaluate mechanical properties, microstructure and micro-hardness. Tensile tests were carried out based on ASTM E8 standard [ASTM, 2009]. Samples were machined from strips cut off from the region X in Figure 1. These tests were replicated at least twice for each furnace temperature with testing machine MTS model 810. Samples were cut off in a transversal plane, grinded, polished and etched with Nital 2% to observe, with a optical microscope Olympus model BX51M, the microstructure obtained after stamping and direct cooling near to points R1 (upper fillet), R2 (wall half height) and R3 (lower fillet) shown in Figure 4 which represents a half of cross section B-B in Figure 1. These samples were finally evaluated by Vickers micro-hardness measurements with hardness tester Buehler model 2100 and an indentation load of 3 N.

R1

R2 R3

Figure 4 Stamped part half cross section - regions R1, R2 and R3.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION DISCUSSI 3.1. Numerical analysis The simulations with the rectangular blank (80x124.5x1.9) formed a product with (80x124.5x1.9) irregular shape and edges with a wrong length as seen in Figure 5-a. To solve this a. sol problem the blank shape had to be modified and after many trials the shape shown in Figure 5-b was chosen because it formed products with correct shape and dimensions. with All numerical and experimental results shown in this work were obtained in simulations with this modified blank. ations (a) (b)

Figure 5. (a) Misshaped part stamped with a rectangular blank, (b) modified blank. Figure 6 shows the load curves obtained in simulations of cold stamping, and hot stamping at furnace temperatures of 900, 950 and 980 oC. As expected, cold stamping o stamp presented the highest loads. Hot stamping load did not show a significant variation at stamping the different temperatures simulated, what can be explained for the small difference in simulated, yield stress (Table IV). All temperatures presented curves with the same aspect, and during simu emperatures simulation it was observed that each load variation was related to a specific deformation geometry as shown in Figure 6: the high load found in the beginning is merely a numerical problem associated to the first contact blank-tools and can be neglected in this analysis. ated blank tools A first steady state is related to the free bending of the blank by the upper tool. Then the load is reduced to a second steady state corresponding to the bending inside the lower tool. In the third stage, after the blank edges touch the upper die, there is a r slight increase of the stamping load, and finally a rapid increase near to the end of stroke when the dies are closed and the part completely formed.

6 5 Furnace Temperatur e [oC] Cold 900 3 2 1 0 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 950 980

Stamping load [105N

Process time [s] Figure 6 Stamping load x process time numerical results. 3.2. Experimental results 3.2.1. Tensile testing of the 22MnB5 sheets as received Table III shows the mechanical properties of the as received sheets in the directions tested. Yield and ultimate tensile strength obtained at room temperature are similar to those indicated by [Saltzgitter, 2005].
Sample orientation to rolling direction 0o 45o 90o Yield strength (0.2% offset) [MPa] 418 13 424 17 415 15 Ultimate strength [MPa] 463 20 468 16 462 14 Elongation [%] 333 353 322

Table III Mechanical properties of 22MnB5 sheets as received cold tensile tests. There are no significant differences among the three directions and therefore the material is anisotropic so the blank may be cut off in any position of the sheet regardless the rolling direction. Table IV shows the results of hot tensile tests. The material is anisotropic for both furnace temperatures. By increasing temperature the tensile properties decrease significantly, what is expected considering that softening mechanisms are most effective at higher temperatures. These results are significantly smaller than those obtained by [Naderi et al., 2008], maybe because the smaller strain rate used in these tests.

Sample orientation to rolling direction 0o 45o 90o

Furnace temperature [oC] 900 950 900 950 900

Yield strength (0.2% offset) [MPa] 272 232 272 203 292

Ultimate strength [MPa] 442 383 452 352 462

Area reduction at fracture [%] 856 785 795 785 766

950 222 352 less than 754 Table IV Mechanical properties of 22MnB5 sheets as received hot tensile tests. 3.2.2. Results of tests with the hot stamped products Table V presents the mechanical properties obtained in the tensile tests with the samples extracted from parts stamped at room temperature, 900, 950 and 980 oC. Cold stamped parts present properties higher than the as received sheets (Table III) because of work hardening caused by cold stamping.
Furnace Temperature [oC] Cold 900 950 980 Yield strength (0.2% offset) [MPa] 436 24 1156 34 1296 28 1273 14 Elongation at fracture [%] 26.6 5 6.4 3 6.1 4 7.5 5

Ultimate strength [MPa] 491 16 1543 24 1700 27 1734 31

Table VI Mechanical properties of stamped products. Hot stamped samples presented the highest properties, especially when stamped in tests with furnace temperature at 950 or 980 oC that presented similar results, significantly higher than those presented by one producer of 22MnB5 steel which shows that after quenching a cold rolled sheet (without hot stamping) this steel can reach 1100 MPa (yield strength) and 1500 MPa (ultimate strength) [ArcelorMittal, 2010]. Table VII presents the micro-hardness Vickers measured in the regions R1, R2 and R3 of the stamped parts. Higher micro-hardness values were found in samples of tests with furnace temperature at 950 and 980 oC confirming the best results found for yield and ultimate strength of these samples. Furnace temperature [o C]
900 950 980

Region R1
41430 42135 404 49

Region R2
46827 52948 549 26

Region R3
32928 45537 46132

Table VII Micro-hardness Vickers indentation load 3 N.

Each region presented different micro-hardness and microstructures (Figure 7) ach depending on local deformation, and cooling rate during hot stamping. According [Bardelick et al., 2010] micro-hardness less than 450 HV is obtained with cooling rates micro under 25 oC/s, not enough to form a microstructure completely martensitic [Naderi et al., 2008], as observed in Figure 7 for furnace temperature at 900 oC , (martensite+bainite). Otherwise, th se authors observed that samples with m those microhardness near to 470 HV are related to a cooling rate of 45 oC/s and presented microstructures only formed by martensite, as resulted in tests with temperature furnace marten at 950 and 980 oC.
Furnace temperature [o C] Region R1 Region R2 Region R3

900

950

Figure 7 Microstructures of hot stampe and cooled samples Nital 2% - 500X. stamped

4. CONCLUSIONS Numerical simulation proved to be an important tool to design the best blank sh shape and to choose the ideal processing conditions. With simulation it is possible to analyze stress and temperature distribution and therefore define the best furnace temperature to achieve a martensitic microstructure and consequently the higher mechanical properties. mechanical Experimental results show that all hot stamped parts presented mechanical properties higher than cold stamped parts, and that the best microstructure (martensite without bainite colonies) and the best mechanical properties were obtained with tests carried out at 950 and 980 oC, being the lower furnace temperature preferred regarding the lower energy necessary and less surface oxidation.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Authors wish to thank FAPESP and CNPq for the financial support to this work.

REFERENCES [ArcelorMittal, 2010] ArcelorMittal Flat Carbon Europe S.A., A54 Quenchable boron steels http://www.arcelormittal.com/fce/prd_web/A54_EN.html; February 2010. [ASTM, 2009] ASTM International, ASTM E8 / E8M - 09 Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Mateials; DOI: 10.1520/E0008_E0008M-09. [Barcellona and Palmieri, 2009] Barcelllona, A. and Palmieri, D., Effect of Plastic Hot Deformation on the Hardness and Continuous Cooling Transformations of 22MnB5 Microalloyed Boron Steel; Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 40A, pp. 1160-1174. [Bardelcik et al., 2010] Bardelcik, A., Salisbury, C.P., Winkler, S., Wells, M.A., Worswick, M.J.; Effect of cooling rate on the high strain rate properties of boron steel; International Journal of Impact Engineering, 37; pp. 694702. [Geiger et al., 2008] Geiger, M., Merklein, M. and Lechler, J.; Determination of tribological conditions within hot stamping; Production Engineering Research Development., 2; pp. 269-276. [Kolleck et al., 2009] Kolleck, R., Veit, R., Merklein, M., Lechler, J., Geiger, M., Investigation on induction heating for hot stamping of boron alloyed steels, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 58 (2009) 275278. [Lee et al., 2009] Lee, M.G., Kim, S.J., Heung, N.H., Jeong, W.C.; Application of hot press forming process to manufacture an automotive part and its finite element analysis considering phase transformation plasticity, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51 (2009) 888898. [Liu et al., 2009] Liu, H.S., Xing, Z.W., Bao, J. and Song, B.Y.; Investigation of the Hot-Stamping Process for Advanced High-Strength Steel Sheet by Numerical Simulation, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Published online DOI: 10.1007/s11665-009-9510-y. [Naderi et al., 2008] Naderi, M., Durrenberger, L., Molinari, A. And Bleck, W.; Constitutive relationships for 22MnB5 boron steel deformed isothermally at high temperatures, Materials Science and Engineering A 478 (2008) 130139. [Salzgitter, 2005] Salzgitter Flachstahl, Cold-rolled quenched & tempered steel, boron alloyed, for cold forming and subsequent hot forming, (suitable for press hardening), Material data sheet 11-112, pp. 1-4. [Tekkaya et al., 2007] Tekkaya, A.E., Karbasian, H., Homberg, W. and Kleiner, M., Thermo-mechanical coupled simulation of hot stamping components for process design; Prod. Eng. Res. Devel. (2007) 1:8589. [Yanagida and Azushima, 2009] Yanagida, A., Azushima, A.; Evaluation of coefficients of friction in hot stamping by hot flat drawing test; CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, 58; pp. 247250.

Transformation kinetics of the hot stamping steel 22MnB5 in dependency of the applied deformation on the austenitic microstructure
M. Merkleina,T. Svecb Chair of Manufacturing Technology, Friedrich-Alexander University ErlangenNuremberg, Egelandstr. 13, 91058 Erlangen, Germany a m.merklein@lft.uni-erlangen.de, bt.svec@lft.uni-erlangen.de

Abstract: Increasing demands regarding security aspects and light weight construction design require new manufacturing technologies like the hot stamping process. In this process the boron-manganese steel 22MnB5 is hot formed and quenched in one process step. The resulting components exhibit a tensile strength of 1500 MPa and a ductility of approximately 6 to 8 % total elongation. In order to realize components with locally lowered tensile strengths and increased ductility the mechanical properties have to be adjusted in specific areas whereby crash performance is improved due to optimized load paths and post processing operations are simplified because of locally reduced strength. For manufacturing of functional optimized parts it is essential to know about the transformations kinetics of the quenchenable steel 22MnB5 and how it is influenced by different process parameters. In this contribution the influence of true strain, strain rate and cooling rate in dependency of different forming temperatures is presented. Keywords: Transformation kinetic, 22MnB5, hot stamping 1. INTRODUCTION In the scope of light weight construction design and rising security requirements the hot stamping process gained more importance in the last decades. In the direct hot stamping process austenitized blanks of the ultra high strength steel 22MnB5 are simultaneously hot formed and quenched in one process step. Thus, parts with high complexity and a tensile strength of 1500 MPa can be manufactured. Because of the high strength, post processing operations, like cutting, are complicated due to high process forces and the associated high wear of the tools. Therefore it is necessary to use expensive methods like laser cutting [Kolleck et al., 2009; So et al., 2009; Paar et al., 2007]. Another disadvantage is the reduced ductility of hot stamped parts which is especially critical regarding the crash-performance in security relevant components like the b-pillar. Hence, current investigations focus on the modification of the hot stamping process to manufacture components with functional optimized mechanical properties to get a better crash-performance and optimized load paths [Steinhoff et al., 2007]. Therefore the

knowledge of the transformation kinetics and the process parameters influencing the phase transformation behavior of the boron-manganese steel plays an important role. In the scope of this contribution the influence of an isothermal deformation of the austenitic microstructure on the transformation behavior of boron manganese steel is investigated. Therefore tensile tests with austenitized specimens in dependency of true strain, strain rate and cooling rate conducted at different deformation temperatures were performed. This is important because the deformation of the austenitic microstructure, as it is appears within the hot stamping process, causes a distortion which shifts the position of the noses in the TTT-diagram due to changed diffusion behavior and nucleation rates [Gottstein, 2007; Ahrens 2003]. 2. DETERMINATION OF THE TRANSFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF 22MNB5 IN DEPENDENCY OF PROCESS RELEVANT PARAMETERS 2.1. Investigated Material In the automotive industry the quenchenable, boron-manganese steel 22MnB5 is the commonly used material within hot stamping. In the scope of this work a aluminumsilicon coated cold-rolled strip manufactured by ArcelorMittal, so called USIBOR 1500P, has been used. It consists of a fine grained, ferritic-perlitic microstructure in the as-delivered condition [N.n., 2003]. The used sheet thickness is 1.5 mm. 2.2. Experimental Setup and Methodology To investigate the influence of different process parameters on the transformation behavior of the boron-manganese steel isothermal tensile tests at elevated temperatures according to DIN 10002-5 are peformed using a modified Gleeble 1500 system. Therefore the specimen is heated above the Ac3 temperature by conductive heating. The temperature is controled with Ni/Cr-Ni-thermocouples (Type K). The strain is measured optically using the optical strain measurement system ARAMIS (GOM, Braunschweig). Therefore a stochastical pattern using a bornitride spray is applied to the specimen. The different cooling rates are realized by compressed air in the range of 2 and 5 bar led onto the specimen through nozzles. For a detailed description of the process setup it is refered to previous publications of Merklein et al. [Merklein et al, 2008]. In detail, the prepared specimens are heated up to 950 C and dwelled for 180 s to guarantee a homogeneous austenitic microstructure. Afterwards the specimen is cooled down to a certain temperature Tz where the isothermal deformation takes place. Here the testing temperature Tz, the true strain , the strain rate and the cooling rate TA is varied. Aim of the tensile test is to reach a certain true strain in order to determine the influence of the different process parameters on the transformation behavior of the ultra high strength steel 22MnB5. For scheduling and to evaluate the experiments the methodology Design of Experiment (DoE) is used [Kleppmann, 2006]. The factor level

combinations of the full factorial design and the resulting process parameter configurations applied on the specimen at TZ 800 C and 600 C are shown in. In order to characterize the developed microstructure microhardness tests HV 0.1 according to DIN EN ISO 6705-1 using the FISCHERSOPE HM2000 are performed. The load of 0.9807 N is applied within 8 s and hold constant for 10 s to compensate creaching effects. For validation of the measured hardness values metallographic analyses with selective phase etching (Nital 3 %) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM) were accomplished. The resulting hardness values are the target value for the determination of the significance of the process parameters and their interactions regarding the developed microstructure. Based on this results it is possible to conclude on the deformation induced shift of the phase transformation noses in the TTT-diagram.

Table I; Factor level combinations, parameter adjustments and specimen used for the experiments performed at TZ = 800 C and TZ = 600 C 3. RESULTS 3.1. Cooling curves of the isothermal deformed specimens Figure 1 and 2 show the exemplary cooling curves of the performed tests in dependency of the parameter configurations starting with the isothermal deformation of the specimen and subsequently cooling down on room temperature. The development of a martensitic microstructure can be identified by the latent heat which occurs because of the phase transformation and the associated changing lattice structure whereby the cooling rate is reduced. As it can be seen in Figure 1, which contains the cooling curves deformed at 800 C, the martensitic microstructure is developed at different temperatures in range between 366 C and 320 C. The martensite start temperature (MS) with a low and are the highest ones (Figure 1: V1, V5). The lowest Ms-temperatures are identified in the experiments preformed with high and low (V3, V7). Based on the fact that the differences between the temperatures are small no defined conclusions regarding the

influence of the process parameters and their interactions on the martensite start temperature can be drawn.

Figure 1; Exemplary cooling curves of the specimens isothermal deformed at 800 C in dependency of the parameter configurations In Figure 2 the cooling curves of the specimens deformed at 600 C are shown. The parameter configuration V2 which was performed with high and small and cooling rate exhibits with 415 C the highest MS-temperature. In comparison the MStemperature of the other process parameter configurations begins at circa 360 C. As well as at 800 C deformation temperature the Ms-temperatures are varying in dependency of the parameter configuration. Excluding V2, the Ms-temperatures of the parameter configurations with a high cooling rate are slightly higher than those cooled down with 2 bar compressed air. In comparison to the specimens deformed at 800C the temperature range shows nearly the same magnitude. In case of the configurations V3 and V7 no latent heat is observable, so it can be concluded that no martensitic transformation has taken place. Furthermore, it is noticeable is that the configuration which has a small and a low in case of V1 and a high and a high in V4 results in smaller, nearly comparable Ms-temperatures. The same is observable with V5 and V8 with the difference that the Ms-temperature is a little bit higher than with parameter configuration V6. So it can be assumed that there is an additional effect of the interaction between and beside the impact of the cooling rate. Due to the fact that the differences between the martensite start temperatures by a deformation temperature of 600 C are also small no conclusions regarding the influence of the process parameters on the MS-temperature can be drawn.

Figure 2; Exemplary cooling curves of the specimens isothermal deformed at 600 C in dependency of the parameter configurations 3.2. Determination of the microhardness The microhardness HV0.1 was measured along three parallel lines positioned over the cross-section at three specimen per parameter configuration. Afterwards out of the measured values the aritmethic average was calculated. The resulting values are shown in Figure 3. The specimens deformed at 800 C exhibit the highest hardness values. Parameter configuration V1 shows the highest hardness of the specimens cooled with 50 K/s. The HV0.1-value of V2 is compared to V1 slightly smaller but due to the scattering no defined differences, which sign the influence of the higher strain rates , can be detected. The same behavior is observed with the configurations V3 and V4. The values of V3 and V4 compared with V1 and V2 show a lower average value of hardness. So it can be concluded that there is an influence of the higher in case of V3 and V4 whereby a shift of the phase transformation noses to higher cooling rates occurs which is reasonable for the lower microhardness of the microstructure. V4 compared to V3 shows a lower hardness value which indicates an influence of the strain rate . It has to be noticed there is no clear difference because of the large scattering of V4. The microhardness values of the configurations V5 to V8 are higher than those of V1 to V4. The reason for this is the higher cooling rate. On the contrary to V1 to V4 in both cases the higher strain rate leads to a smaller value of hardness. So the influence in this case seems to be an interaction between cooling rate and strain rate. Concerning the specimens isothermal deformed at 600 C more differences are observable than at 800 C. In contrast the hardness increases with the higher which is noticeable by comparison of V1 with V2, V3 with V4 and V5 with V6. In case of the parameter configurations V8 and V7 no significant influence of is observable because of the scattering.

Comparing V1 and V2 with V3 and V4 it is observable that a higher in case of V3 and V4 leads to a lower hardness. The large scattering of V4 has to be investigated by metallographic analyses. The same influence is recognizeable with higher cooling rates by comparing the configurations V5 and V6 with V7 and V8. The higher cooling rates result in higher average values of hardness as it has been also detected at a deformation temperature of 800 C. In comparison between the two temperatures it is obvious that the deformation temperature has a significant influence on transformation behavior because the differences at 600 C are more distinctive as at 800 C and even disagree partly. This is a sign that there exist a interaction between the deformation temperature and the other process parameters.

Figure 3; Average values of the microhardness in dependency of the deformation temperature and the parameter configuration 3.3. Metallographic Analyses Additionally metallographic analyses where performed in order to characterize the developed microstructure. Therefore selective phase etching and SEM were performed. The pictures shown below are taken from the middle of the cross-section of the tensile specimens. The microstructure of the specimens deformed at 800 C is nearly full martensitic (Figure 4). Comparing the microstructure configurations V2 has a more coarse microstructure than V1 which is responsible for the minimal lower value of hardness. This is a sign for a low impact of a high on the development of the microstructure. So a high results in a more coarse microstructure. With configuration V3 their is some bainite found although the cooling rate is much higher than the critical cooling speed of 27 K/s, which is needed for fully martensitic transformation. Therefore it is assumed, that an increased leads to a shift of the noses of the phase regions to higher cooling rates. Because of the fact, that configuration V4 shows no bainite units obviously impacts the phase regions by a shift to lower cooling rates. The experiments which were

performed with configuration V5 to V8 show a fully martensitic microstructure. Due to that there are nearly no differences between the hardness values. This and the more dense structure are caused by the higher cooling rate of 80 K/s.

Bainite

Figure 4; Metallographic analysis of the specimens isothermal deformed at 800 C in dependency of the parameter configurations Apart from that the specimens tested at 600 C show more significant differences concerning the microstructure (Figure 5). As it can be seen, configuration V1 exhibits a mixture of mainly ferrite, bainite and some isles of martensite (MS). The microstructure of V2 is pure martensitic. In case of configuration V3 the microstructure is a mixture of ferrite and bainite, while V4 consists of bainite and isles of martensite. Configuration V5 has the same contents but a higher fraction of martensite than V4. So the higher scattering of the results with configuration V4 is due to the different content of martensitic units in the microstructure. This fact confirms the suspicion, that a higher influences the phase transformation. An increased shifts the phase regions to the right of the TTT-diagram and so to lower cooling rates. Comparing the configurations V1 and V2 with V3 and V4 show quite clearly that higher strain values shift the noses of the phase regions to higher cooling rates. A similar behavior appears with the configurations V5 to V8 which result due to the higher cooling rate in higher values of hardness. V5 has a microstructure out of bainite and martensitic isles while V6 has a pure martensitic microstructure. With parameter configuration V7 a bainitic-martensitic

microstructure has developed while V8 shows a martensitic microstructure containing fractions of bainite. The assumed impact of and looking at V1 to V4 is confirmed. In order to quantify the influences of the single process parameters and their interactions on the phase transformation behavior analysis regarding the significance of the process parameters have to be done.

MSIsles Ferrite, Bainite MSIsles Bainite MSIsles Bainite MSIsles Bainite MSIsles Bainite Bainite

Figure 5; Metallographic analyses of the specimens isothermal deformed at 600 C in dependency of the parameter configurations 3.4. Significance Analyses The following diagram (Figure 6) shows the effects of the single process parameters and their interactions sorted by relevance regarding the target value hardness. The biggest impact can be related to Tz, where the deformation of the austenitic microstructure took place. The higher the TZ the higher is the resulting value of microhardness which is confirmed in the comparison between the values of the tests performed at 800 C and 600 C. Furthermore, a higher cooling rate increases the hardness of the microstructure. On the contrary to that an increased lowers the level of hardness if it is raised from 0.1 to 0.4 as it has been seen in the comparison between configuration V1 and V2 with V3 and V4. Also the interaction of TZ and is significant. Due to the fact that the single parameters are of opposite impact the influence of the interaction is decreased compared

to TZ alone. The interaction between TZ and is surprising because it has in contrast to the single process parameters a negative effect concerning the hardness value. Furthermore, there are low influences of the interactions between and cooling rate and and . The parameter and the interactions between TZ and cooling rate are not significant as well as the interaction between and cooling rate. Therefore the changes in the microstructure assumed to be caused by must be a result of another parameter or interaction which cannot be identified right now.

Figure 6; Effects of the process parameter; t-Test; confidence interval 95 % 4. CONCLUSION In order to manufacture components with local adjusted mechanical properties in the direct hot stamping process using the UHSS 22MnB5 the knowledge of the transformation kinetics of the steel is very important because the forming step happens at elevated temperatures. As shown by metallographic analyses and in the microhardness measurement a isothermal deformation of the austenitic microstructure with a higher true strain results in a shift of the noses in TTT-diagram to higher cooling rates. Therefore it is possible to increase the critical cooling rate of 27 K/s for a full martensitic microstructure. The temperature where the deformation of the austenitic microstructure occurs is the most important factor. A deformation at low temperature levels results in a more distinctive shift of the transformation regions as the deformation at higher temperatures. Furthermore, the cooling rate has a great impact on the resulting microstructure. The higher it is the higher the hardness of the microstructure. The strain rate has in respect to this results no significant influence on the transformation behavior.

The results considering the influence of the transformation kinetics by an isothermal deformation of the austenitic microstructure will be used as a basis for the local adjustment of mechanical properties within the hot stamping process. Based on this results and further investigations a process control strategy to manufacture functional optimized parts within the hot stamping process will be developed. 5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The experiments were done in the scope of the project hot stamping of components with local adjusted mechanical properties . The authors thank the DFG for the financal support. REFERENCES [Ahrens, 2003] Ahrens, U.;"Beanspruchungsabhngiges Umwandlungsverhalten und Umwandlungsplastizitt niedrig legierter Sthle mit unterschiedlich hohem Kohlenstoffgehalt"; Berlin; ISBN 978-3-540-71104-9 [Gottstein, 2007] Gottstein, G.;"Physikalische Grundlagen der Materialkunde"; Berlin 2007; ISBN 978-3-540-71104-9 [Kleppmann, 2006] Kleppmann, W.; "Taschenbuch Versuchsplanung", Mnchen 2006; ISBN 3-446-22319-3 [Kolleck et al., 2009] Kolleck, R..; Veit, R..; Koroschetz, C.; "Hot Stamping of Car Body Parts with local Strngth Adjustment"; In: Proceedings of the IDDRG 2009 Conference, pp. 825-834; Golden 2009 [Merklein et al, 2008] Merklein, M., F.N.; Lechler, J., S.A.;"Determination of Material and Process Characteristics for Hot Stamping Processes of Quenchenable Ultra High Strength Steels with Respect of a Numerical Process Design" In : SAE World Congress, Detroit 2008; Paper No. 2008-0853 [N.N, 2003] N., N.;"USIBOR 1500P"; ArcelorMittal 2003 [Paar et al., 2007] Paar, U.; Valls, I.; "Werkzeugsthle und Strategien fr die Warmumformung und das Hartbeschneiden "; In: Tagungsband 2. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung, pp. 73-92; Erlangen 2007; ISBN 978-3-87525263-7 [So et al., 2009] So, H.; Hoffmann, H.; Golle, R.,; "Blanking of the press hardened ultra high strength steel"; In: Tagungsband 2nd Internetional Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of high Performance Steel, pp. 137-145; CHS 2009; ISBN 978-3937524-84-9 [Steinhoff et al., 2007] Steinhoff, K.; Maikranz-Valentin, M.; Weidig, U., T.A.; "Bauteile mit mageschneiderten Eigenschaften durch neuartige thermomechanische Prozessstrategien in der Warmblechumformung"; In: Tagungsband 2. Erlanger Workshop Warmblechumformung, pp. 1-12; Erlangen 2007; ISBN 978-3-87525-263-7

Experimental and Numerical Investigations on Micro structural Evolution during Hot Stamping
Bernd-Arno Behrens*, Philipp Olle*, Grygoriy Gershteyn** and Kathrin Voges-Schwieger* * Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, An der Universitt 2, 30823 Garbsen, Germany ** Institute of Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, An der Universitt 2, 30823 Garbsen, Germany olle@ifum.uni-hannover.de

Abstract: During and after the hot stamping process phase transformations from austenite to other phases occur. For the prediction of the resulting component properties by means of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) it is essential to consider these complex effects of phase transformation. After a short introduction in the field of hot stamping two hot stamping processes for forming a cap profile and a rectangular cap are analyzed. In respect to the numerical investigations relevant aspects of the developed material model are presented. For the first time, the transformation-induced stresses and the plastic anisotropy are considered simultaneously in this model. The results of the numerical simulation agree with those of the experimental investigations. Moreover the simulation results demonstrate a significant influence of the plastic anisotropy on the calculated sheet thickness distribution. Keywords: Hot Stamping, Micro structural Evolution, Numerical Simulation, Plastic Anisotropy 1. INTRODUCTION The hot stamping process for forming boron alloyed heat-treatable steels, e. g. 22MnB5 (1.5528), has become more important in the last years. This process combines the forming and heat treatment of a sheet metal material with the objective of hardening [Lenze et al., 2005]. At the beginning of the process a blank or a preformed component of temperable steel is heated up to a temperature of about 950 C to achieve austenitic microstructure. Afterwards it is formed with a cooled punch to quench the blank to get ultra high strength martensitic microstructure. Currently this procedure is used by many automotive manufacturers to produce body structure components like crossbeams, side impact reinforcements, A- and B-pillars. In

figure 1 are given some examples for automotive parts of the VW Passat which are produced by hot stamping.

Figure 1; Application areas for hot-stamped components, using the VW Passat as an example Commercial FE-systems which are adequate for simulation of hot stamping do not consider effects of phase transformation by default. In kerstrm [2006] and [Behrens et al., 2008] material laws for considering phase transformation effects during hot stamping are presented. In order to model the thermo-elasto-plastic-metallurgical behaviour the total strain increment (1) is described by the sum of the elastic (el), the plastic (pl), the thermal (th), the isotropic transformation (tr) and the transformation-induced plasticity (tp) strain increment. In these models the plastic behaviour is based on von Mises plasticity. But according to [Lechler, 2008] manganese-boron steels show a temperature and strain-rate dependent, anisotropic plastic behaviour (normal anisotropy). The aim of this paper is to extend the material model described in [Behrens et al., 2008] to take the normal plastic anisotropy of the material into account. 2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS Within the framework of the experimental investigations hot-stamped parts are manufactured. Hot-stamped cap profiles are investigated with respect to the microstructure distribution. Moreover rectangular cups are drawn. Because of the multiaxial stress state in this part a more complex material flow occurs than in the cap profile. So it is possible to verify the developed material model with respect to the modelling and the influence of the plastic anisotropy.

The hot stamping experiments are carried out on the hydraulic press Hydrap HPDZb 63 and by using a heatable tool system. To achieve high cooling rates a water cooling system is applied in the punch. The blank holder and the drawing die can be tempered by heating cartridges up to 300 C. For the tool lubrication a graphite emulsion is used which is adequate for the occurring process temperatures. The blanks are heated up to 950 C in a furnace in five minutes. To avoid oxide scale blanks with a x-Tec coating are used. The unloading out of the furnace and the transport to the tools is done manually. For hot stamping of the cap profiles blanks with a thickness of 1.25 mm are used and the distance between blank holder and drawing die is adjusted to 2.5 mm. The tool velocity is 27 mm/s and the blanks are drawn to a drawing depth of 65 mm. The hardening of the blanks takes a time of 60 s in the closed tools. The tool temperature is 20 C. The blanks for hot stamping rectangular caps have a sheet thickness of 1.25 mm and a fictive drawing ratio of f0 = 1.6. The drawing die and the blank holder temperature are adjusted to 300 C for supporting the material flow from the flange into the edge. To avoid wrinkling a blank holder force of about Fbh = 80 kN is necessary. When drawing the parts with a tool velocity of 20 mm/s the maximum drawing depth is 22 mm. The heat treatment after the forming operation takes a time of 20 s. This time is lower than for hot stamping the cap profiles because of the higher heat transfer caused by the blank holder force. In figure 2 a hot-stamped cap profile and a hot-stamped rectangular cup are shown.

Figure 2; Hot-stamped parts

The microstructure in the hot-stamped cap profiles is investigated with respect to the occurring phase fractions. As it is shown in figure 3 the phase fractions are determined at six measuring points in the middle of the cap profile. In the flange (MP 6) only martensite occurs due to the high cooling rates which are caused by the two-sided tool contact. In the measuring points MP 3 to MP 5 bainite fractions up to B = 11 % are existent. In these areas the cooling velocities are lower than in the flange. Moreover the plastic deformation affects the critical cooling velocity in these part areas. The highest bainite fractions are in the bottom of the cap profile. Here the slowest cooling velocities occur and so bainite fractions up to B = 57 % are existent.

Figure 3; Microstructure Distribution

The sheet thickness distribution in the rectangular cap along three contour lines is shown in figure 4. Along the contour line 90 only a small change of the sheet thickness is detected. The maximum sheet thickness s = 1.34 mm is measured on the contour line 0. The largest sheet thickness reduction is determined along contour line 45 in the edge (relative sheet thickness reduction 20.8 %).

Figure 4; Sheet thickness distribution in the rectangular caps 3. MATERIAL MODEL In the following the material model presented in [Behrens et al., 2008] is extended to anisotropic plasticity. For this the Hill (1948) yield criterion is used. Because the plastic model only affects the deviatoric stress tensor it is shown in the following passage how to model this part. The modelling of the hydrostatic part of the stress tensor is exactly the same as in the mentioned literature. In tensor notation the Hill (1948) yield criterion can be described by the equation . (2)

Here the variable s is the deviatoric stress tensor and the variable kf the yield stress of the material. The variable H the Hill anisotropy tensor (fourth order tensor) which is defined in matrix notation by

[H]=

(3)

with the normal anisotropy r that is temperature and strain rate dependent. According to [Lechler, 2008] in this paper the normal anisotropy is calculated by . (4)

Here the variables ri, cr, i and c are material parameters and the variable is the temperature and the factor the plastic strain rate. The parameters used in this paper are taken from [Lechler, 2008]. In case of the Hill yield criterion the plastic strain increment in equation 1 can be determined by . (5)

Here the variable d pl is the equivalent plastic strain increment and s1 the deviatoric stress tensor at the end of the time step.

Leblonds model for the transformation induced plasticity is modified to take into account the Hill anisotropy. It is described by . (6)

The phase fraction of the product phase k is represented by k (k = 1: ferrite, k = 2: pearlite, k = 3: bainite, k = 4: martensite). Furthermore, the yield stress of austenite is and the equivalent stress according to Hill is H. The factor (dV/V)A,k describes the volume change due to a phase transformation from austenite to the product phase k. Because in the used microstructure model, which is presented in [Behrens et al., 2007], more than one new phase can develop within one time step, the sumation is done over all product phases k. The correction function h is defined according to [Leblond, 1989]. After some mathematical conversions the deviatoric stress tensor s1 at the end of the time step can be calculated by

4 -1 tp pl s1 = (1+ c1 ) I+ c1 H str,el .

(7)

The factors are defined as and . The factor is the fourth order unity tensor and the variable G is the shear modulus. Moreover the elastic trial stress str,el can be calculated by str,el = s0 + 2Gd D from the deviatoric stress tensor s0 at the beginning of the time step and the deviatoric strain increment d D. By these modifications the transformation-induced stresses and the plastic anisotropy are considered simultaneously in one material model for the first time.

4. SIMULATION OF THE HOT STAMPING PROCESSES Below, the presented material law is implemented into the simulation of the hot stamping processes for forming a cap profile and a rectangular cap. The results are compared with the experimental data. The used Fe-model of the process for hot stamping the cap profile is shown in figure 5. Because of symmetries to the x-z plane and the y-z plane only a quarter of the real process is calculated. The tools are modelled as solids and a contact dependent heat transfer coefficient is considered. For the simulation of the hot stamping of the rectangular cap the same model is used with another blank.

Figure 5; FE-model of the hot stamping process for forming a cap profile

The simulated microstructure distribution in the cap profile is shown in figure 6. The calculated values agree with the experimental data very well. The small deviations can be partly explained by the complex contact conditions which significantly affect the temperature history and can not be modelled exactly.

Figure 6; Comparison of measured and calculated phase fractions To investigate the influence of the plastic anisotropy on the calculated sheet thickness distribution in the rectangular cap two kinds of simulations are shown. In the first simulation the material is modelled with a temperature and strain rate dependent normal anisotropy r. In the second simulation an isotropic material behaviour is assumed (r = 1). A comparison of the calculated sheet thickness distribution to the experimental data along the contour line 45 shows that the normal anisotropy has a significant influence on the calculated sheet thickness. If the temperature and strain rate

dependency of the normal anisotropy is taken into account the calculated maximum thinning fits the experimental data better than the calculated thinning assuming isotropic material behaviour (figure 7).

Figure 7; Calculated sheet thickness in the rectangular cap along contour line 45 5. CONCLUSION For a realistic prediction of final component properties, for instance residual stresses and distortion, it is essential to consider the complex effects of phase transformation in the simulation of hot stamping. The extended material model which takes into account transformation-induced stresses and the plastic anisotropy simultaneously was used to simulate the hot stamping processes. As the results show the calculated phase fractions agree with those of the experimental data. Moreover it was shown that the normal anisotropy has an significant influence on the calculated sheet thickness distribution of the simulated hot stamping process for manufacturing rectangular caps.

REFERENCES [kerstrm, 2006] kerstrm, P.; "Modelling and Simulation of Hot Stamping"; Lule University of Technology (Sweden), PhD thesis, 2006 [Behrens et al., 2007] Behrens, B.-A.; Olle, P.; "Consideration of Phase Transformations in Numerical Simulation of Press Hardening"; In: steel research, 78 (2007) No. 10-11, pp. 784-790 [Behrens et al., 2008] Behrens, B.-A.; Olle, P.; "Consideration of TransformationInduced Stresses in Numerical Simulation of Press Hardening"; Plasticity Conference, Kailua-Kona, 03.-08.01.08 [Leblond, 1989] Leblond, J. B.; "Mathematical modelling of transformation plasticity in steels II: coupling with strain hardening"; In: International Journal of Plasticity 5, pp. 573-591, 1989 [Lechler, 2008] Lechler, J.; "Grundlegende Untersuchungen zur Beschreibung und Modellierung des Werkstoffverhaltens von presshrtbaren Bor-Mangansthlen"; Friedrich-Alexander Universitt Erlangen-Nrnberg, PhD thesis, 2008 [Lenze et al., 2005] Lenze, F.-J.; Heller, T.; Sikora, S.; "Herstellung von Karosseriebauteilen aus warmumgeformten hchstfesten Stahlwerkstoffen"; EFBKolloquium: Multifunktionale Bauteile und Verfahren zur Erhhung der Wertschpfung in der Blechbearbeitung, Fellbach, Germany, Febuary 15-16, 2005

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in the Transition Zone of a Low Carbon Boron Steel after Partial Hardening
Hochschule Darmstadt / University of Applied Sciences Department of Mechanical and Plastics Engineering Schoefferstrae 3/C12 64295 Darmstadt, Germany e-mail: mario.saeglitz@h-da.de, Web page: www.fbmk.h-da.de Benteler Automobiltechnik GmbH An der Talle 27-31 33102 Paderborn, Germany e-mail: karsten.bake@benteler.de, Web page: www.benteler.de/automobiltechnik Technical University of Berlin ZE Elektronenmikroskopie Strae des 17. Juni 135 / Sekr. KWT2 / Abt. ZELMI 10623 Berlin, Germany e-mail: ulrich.gernert@tu-berlin.de, Web page: www.tu-berlin.de/zelmi 3 2 1

M. Saeglitz1, K. Bake2 and U. Gernert3

Abstract: Martensitic microstructures provide the highest strength obtainable in a steel, and are increasingly being used in ultra-high strength sheet steels (UHSS) for automotive applications. Driving force for this are basically safety and weight reduction reasons. Moreover new developments deal with the individual localized setting of strength and ductility parameters within partial zones of just one single structural component. Thus this paper presents results of a systematic evaluation of the transition zone of a partial hardened center pillar manufactured by hot stamping according to the process documented in the patent DE 10 2007 057 855 B3. The material used is a commercial low-carbon boron steel grade. It is shown the effect of changing hot-forming temperatures and changing cooling rates within the transition zone on the microstructure and mechanical properties. Tensile specimens were taken from the center pillar in traverse direction. Ultimate tensile strengths (UTS) ranged from ca. 1,500 MPa in the upper high strength region to 550 MPa in the lower region of the center pillar. Keywords: low-carbon boron steel, partial hardening, transition zone, high resolution SEM, mechanical properties

1. INTRODUCTION A recent approach to satisfying continuing needs, especially safety and weight reduction, are the ultra-high strength sheet steels (UHSS) with largely martensitic microstructures. Thus martensitic steels are increasingly being used in applications that require high strength for side-impact and roll-over vehicle protection. Hot Stamping of boron containing lowcarbon steels and die quenching here is the state-of-the-art production process [Schiesl et al., 2004] [Naderi et al., 2008] [Hein et al., 2008] [Maikranz-Valentin et al., 2008] [Lechler et al., 2008]. There Figure 1; Partial hardened center pillar [Benteler, are many ongoing innovative ac2007] tivities that aim for more flexible and distinct adjustment of strength and ductility properties within sub-sections of a single structural component (->Tailored Blanks). Recent approaches are based on the attempt to use blanks that are made from just one single steel grade. The individual trimming of blank sections with regard to the mechanical properties can then be achieved by variations of the microstructure. By using UHSS blanks there is a great range of mechanical properties achievable. Against this background microstructure adjustment by Partial Hardening in combination with Hot Stamping turns out to be a promising new technique; first repetition parts have recently become placed on the market. An example is the special version of a center pillar manufactured by Benteler Inc. The production technology for this part as illustrated in figure 1 - is in accordance with the patent specification DE 10 2007 057 855 B3 [Benteler, 2007]. As a result the upper part of the center pillar is characterized by high-strength values whereas the lower section of the component features high values of ductility. As a consequence there exists a transition zone in between with a gradient of microstructure and of mechanical properties. This paper focuses on the evaluation of the characteristic microstructure within the transition zone as well as the according effects on mechanical properties. By using a high-resolution FE-SEM conclusions can be drawn from nanoscale features of the microstructure. Mechanical properties will be determined by tensile and hardness tests.

2. MATERIALS The chemical composition of the aluminized low-carbon boron alloyed sheet steel USIBOR 1500 used in this study is given in Table 1. C = 0.22 % Mn = 1.2 % Cr = 0.15 % B = 0.002 %

Table 1; Chemical composition of the low-carbon boron steel in wt pct (excerpt).

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The hot-stamped and partial hardened center pillar was taken from serial production at Benteler Inc. Sheet steel tensile specimens with 1.7 mm thickness (and 5.0 mm width) were taken from the transition zone at the beginning of the hardened region (Figure 2). Subsamples cut off from the grips of the tensile specimens were polished and etched in Nital, and examined in a high resolution Hitachi S-4000 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Secondary electron SEM images are presented. The heating process of the blank prior to hot forming was performed in a continuous annealing furnace according to a time-temperature schedule well documented in [Benteler, 2007].

Figure 2; Schematic drawing of the area of interest within the partial hardened center pillar.

4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

4.1. Hardness and tensile testing within the transition zone Figure 3 shows the hardness gradient within the transition zone of the partial hardened center pillar. Hardness data in general was measured in hardness Vickers (HV30). In the diagram the high plateau to the left belongs to the upper part of the pillar, characterized

by hardness values of at least 500 HV30. Diequenching here started at high temperatures within the austenite field of the FeC phase diagram to attain a high strength martensitic microstructure. Within the transition zone the hardness values then reveal a well developed continuous decrease. The transition zone in this study comprises per definition an area of decrease in hardness from 400 Figure 3; Hardness gradient in the transition zone of a HV30 to 200 HV30. Interpartial hardened low-carbon steel. estingly there are variations of hardness within a single tensile sample in longitudinal direction when hardness level is above ca. 300 HV30. This might be explained by local variations of the quenching conditions (starting temperature and/or rate of quenching) even in lateral direction of the center pillar in combination with the appearance of martensite as a microstructural constituent. Because of the distinct effect of martensite on hardness, variations in the amount of martensite are indicated very well in the hardness data. Hardness on the ductile side of the pillar (at bottom) only shows values around 180 HV30. Figures 4+5 represent the results of tensile testing. As proposed there is a clear gradient in Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and Yield Strength (YS) data: As shown in Figure 4 UTS values decrease from 1,500 MPa down to about 550 MPa. The corresponding YS values exhibit a similar shape of gradient. The offset between UTS and YS represents the strain hardening capacity of the steel. It is of interest

Figure 4; Yield and ultimate tensile strengths in the transition zone of a partial hardened low-carbon steel.

that there is even at lower strengths a still substantial degree of strain hardening when deformed plastically. With regard to the ductility the high strength region exhibits moderate values of Total Elongation (TE) which are situated around 10%. The TE values then increase steadily within the transition zone up to values of more than 20 % at the beginning of the high ductility zone (Figure 5). Interestingly there is no significant indication of embrittlement within the transition zone. It is noticeable, however, that there might be a slight decrease in ductility - if any where the high strength region ends and the transition zone begins. Beyond that and probably of more importance - the corresponding hardness Figure 5; Total elongation in the transition zone of a partial and strength data here hardened low-carbon steel. already started to decrease. Hence in that region the reductions in strength are not accompanied by increases in ductility. Anyway, in summary there can be derived from results so far that the transition from high strength to ductile regions is developed very nicely without any abrupt changes in hardness and tensile test data. However, the quantitative data has to be interpreted carefully because of the very limited number of samples used in this study. 4.2. Microstructure 4.2.1. High strength section Figure 6 shows the as-quenched martensitic microstructure of the high strength (upper) region of the center pillar. As the die-quenching process here started at an elevated temperature cooling rates were sufficient to mostly produce martensite from the austenite. However, micrographs show evidence that there are also small amounts of bainite, carbides and retained austenite in the microstructure. On the smallest scale the martensitic microstructure consists of single lath-shaped crystals oriented parallel to each other. Lath widths vary but range is around 200 nm, typical of lath widths of lowcarbon martensite reported in the literature [Krauss, 2005]. At higher magnifications, Figure 6(b), small precipitations can be resolved in the martensitic microstructure, what is a typical indication of tempered martensite. Obviously the final process temperature after die-quenching is still high enough to produce smallest transition carbides and/or cementite within the matrix of martensite. With regard to the appearance of those

particles (size, shape, distribution) it can be reasoned a quench finish temperature in the Low Temperature Tempering (LTT) range of at least 150C. For comparison reasons SEM images of tempered low-carbon martensite in [Saeglitz et al., 2009.1] are helpful. (a) (b)

Figure 6; Microstructure in the high strength section of a partial hardened low-carbon steel (a) Martensite + Granular bainitic ferrite + Retained austenite + Carbides. (b) Carbides in the martensitic matrix.

Due to the existence of bainite as well as tempered martensite in the microstructure the measured UTS of ca. 1,500 MPa is below the maximum possible UTS of about 1,700 MPa, which could be realized in a 0.22 pct C steel by virtue of its carbon content [Krauss et al., 2008] [Saeglitz et al., 2009.2]. This situation definitely is for the benefit of ductility behavior. Interactions among dislocations and the well-developed fine transition carbide dispersions are responsible for the continuous yielding and the distinct strain hardening rates of the high strength region of the center pillar, as indicated in Figure 4. However, the strain hardening rates are lower than those of fully martensitic microstructures [Krauss et al., 2008]. 4.2.2. Transition zone Starting at the high strength plateau (left hand side in Figures 3-5) and entering the transition zone, hardness and strength data decrease significantly whereas ductility clearly improves. Figure 7, exemplary, shows the microstructure when hardness values reach about 350 HV30. Due to a hot-forming temperature in the transition zone between ca. 900C (high strength plateau) and 600C (high ductility plateau) with decreasing tendency towards the more ductile section of the center pillar it can be assumed that hot-forming and die-quenching even in the transition zone took place and started, respectively, when the material here was in the austenitic state. By taking also into account the thermo-dynamic characteristics of that zone continuous cooling intermediate to relatively slow cooling rates phase transformation at intermediate temperatures

it can be concluded that a major constituent of the microstructure is granular bainite, which is nicely described in [Ohmori et al., 1971] [Bramfitt et al., 1990] [Bhadeshia, 2001]. A typical attribute of granular bainite is the co-existence of (a) (b)

Figure 7; Microstructure in the upper section of the transition zone of a partial hardened low-carbon steel. (a) Martensite + Granular bainitic ferrite + Retained austenite. (b)Carbides in the martensite matrix.

granular ferrite together with islands of retained austenite and martensite [Ridal et al., 1965]. The granular appearance of bainitic ferrite is a characteristic of low-carbon steels which have been cooled continuously [Ridal et al., 1965] [Habraken, 1956] [Habraken, 1957] [Habraken et al., 1967]. Figure 8 shows the microstructure more distant from the high strength plateau but still within the transition zone. It clearly reveals the granular bainitic structure which now became the major structural component. It can be clearly seen the retained prior austenite grain boundary structure (Figure 8, right). The prior austenite grain size is in

Figure 8; Microstructure in the lower section of the transition zone of a partial hardened low-carbon steel. Granular bainitic ferrite + Pearlite + Retained Austenite + Carbides.

the range of 5-10 m. Another feature that is increasingly apparent when hot-forming temperatures and cooling rates decline is the banded appearance of the microstructure. Banding is a well known feature in steels and can be due to invariably present segregations in combination with slow cooling rates. For example, Manganese segregations are often associated with banding. Manganese stabilizes austenite and lowers Ar3 temperatures. Thus ferrite first forms in the low-manganese bands. Carbon is rejected from the growing ferrite crystals and concentrates in the austenite with high-manganese concentrations where pearlite eventually forms if cooling rates are slow enough [Krauss, 2005]. As Manganese is a constituent in the steel grade used in this study banding seems to be caused by the aforementioned effect. 4.2.3. High ductility zone Prior to hot-stamping the section of the center pillar designated for high ductility was first austenitized (at ca. 900C) and then cooled to approx. 600C. According to continuous cooling-transformation data of a 0.22 pct C steel it can be assumed that hotstamping even here took place when the material was in the austenitic state, even though at a lowered temperature level. The corresponding slow cooling rate within the die then mainly caused the formation of granular bainitic ferrite and pearlite (Figure 9).

Figure 9; Microstructure in the high ductility section of a partial hardened low-carbon steel. Granular bainitic ferrite + Pearlite + Retained Austenite + Cementite.

The pearlite is very fine-lamellar which is for the benefit of toughness and ductility. There are also dispersed spotted particles noticeable, which is assumed to be retained austenite and/or cementite. A certain degree of banding is clearly apparent. Taking into consideration the typical microstructure found in the high ductility section of the center pillar the mechanical properties as aforementioned can be correlated very well.

5. CONCLUSIONS 1. Time-temperature schedules of a hot-stamping process (heating, hot-forming, diequenching) in general have a strong effect on the mechanical properties of a boroncontaining 0.22 wt pct C steel. By realizing two sections of different temperature levels in the blank prior to hot forming partial hardened structural components can be produced by hot-stamping. The tensile test results presented in this study show that the Ultimate Tensile Strength values range from 1,500 MPa in the high strength section to 550 MPa in the high ductility section. Total Elongation values range from less than 10 % to more than 20 %, respectively. The investigation was exemplarily performed using a partial hardened center pillar. The mechanical properties correlate well to the microstructure characterized by high resolution SEM. In the high strength section martensite dominates the microstructure. Due to the elevated die temperature after finishing the hot-stamping process the martensite is sort of tempered and thus contains small precipitates. The high dislocation density as well as the existence of small precipitates within the microstructure leads to continuous yielding and distinct strain hardening rates. The broad transition zone is characterized by a smooth and continuous change of mechanical properties without any significant indication of embrittlement. The microstructure mainly consists of varying fractions of martensite and bainite. The section of the center pillar designated for improved ductility shows high values of Total Elongation but lowered hardness and strength characteristics. The microstructure mainly consists of ferrite, pearlite and bainite. REFERENCES [Benteler, 2007] Benteler Automobiltechnik GmbH; "Verfahren zur Herstellung eines Formbauteils aus mindestens zwei Gefgebereichen unterschiedlicher Duktilitt; Patent DE 10 2007 057 855 B3, 2007. [Bhadeshia, 2001] Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H.; Bainite in Steels; Second Edition; The University Press; Cambridge, 2001. [Bramfitt et al., 1990] Bramfitt, B.L.; Speer, J.G.; A Perspective on the Morphology of Bainite; Metallurgical Transactions A; Vol. 21A; 1990, pp. 817-829. [Habraken, 1956] Habraken, L.J.; Rev. Met.; 53; 1956, pp. 930. [Habraken, 1957] Habraken, L.J.; Compt. Rend.; 19; 1957, pp. 126. [Habraken et al., 1967] Habraken, L.J.; Economopolous, M.; Transformation and Hardenability in Steels; Climax Molybdenum; Ann Arbor; Michigan (USA); 1967, pp. 69-107. [Hein et al., 2008] Hein, P.; Wilsius, J.; Status and Innovation Trends in Hot Stamping of USIBOR 1500 P, Steel Research International; Vol.79; 2008, pp. 85-91. [Krauss et al., 2008] Krauss, G.; Saeglitz, M.; Matlock, D.K.; Tempering and Mechanical Properties of Low-Carbon Boron-Containing Martensitic Sheet Steel;

2. 3.

4. 5.

In: Proceedings of International Conference on New Developments in Advanced High-Strength Sheet Steel; AIST; Orlando / Florida (USA); 2008, pp. 147-154. [Krauss, 2005] Krauss, G.; Steels: Processing Structure, and Performance, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2005. [Lechler et al., 2008] Lechler, J.; Merklein, M.; Geiger, M.; Determination of thermal and Mechanical Material Properties of Ultra-High Strength Steels for Hot Stamping; Steel Research International; Vol. 79; 2008, pp. 98-104. [Maikranz-Valentin et al., 2008] Maikranz-Valentin, M.; Weidig, U.; Schoof, U.; Becker, H.H.; Steinhoff, K.; Components with Optimized Properties due to Advanced Thermo-mechanical Process Strategies in Hot Sheet Metal Forming; Steel Research International; Vol. 79; 2008, pp. 92-97. [Naderi et al., 2008] Naderi, M.; Uthaisangsuk, V.; Prahl, U.; Bleck, W.; A Numerical and Experimental Investigation into Hot Stamping of Boron Alloyed Heat Treated Steels; Steel Research International; Vol. 79; 2008, pp. 77-84. [Ohmori et al., 1971] Ohmori, Y.; Ohtani, H.; Kunitake, T.; Bainite in Low-Carbon Low-Alloy High-Strength Steels; Trans. ISIJ; 11; 1971, pp. 250. [Ridal et al., 1965] Ridal, K.A.; McCann, J.; Physical Properties of Martensite and Bainite; Special Report 93; Iron and Steel Institute; London; 1965, pp. 147-148. [Saeglitz et al., 2009.1] Saeglitz, M.; Krauss, G.; Berger, D.; The Effect of Tempering on Martensitic Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 22MnB5 Steel used for Hot Stamping; In: Proceedings of IDDRG 2009; NADDRG / ASPPRC; Golden / Colorado (USA); June 1-3; 2009, pp. 637. [Saeglitz et al., 2009.2] Saeglitz, M.; Krauss, G.; Matlock, D.K.; Niegel, M.; Untersuchungen zum Einfluss der Anlassintensitt auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften eines borlegierten Stahls mit niedrigem Kohlenstoffgehalt; Journal for Heat Treatment and Materials; HTM 64 (2009) 3; pp. 136-143. [Schiesl et al., 2004] Schiesl, G.; Possehn, T.; Heller, T; Skikora, S.; Manufacturing a Roof Frame from Ultrahigh-Strength Steel Materials by Hot Stamping; In: Proceedings of IDDRG 2004; Sindelfingen, 2004, pp. 158-166

Simulation techniques for robust process layout of hotforming processes

T. Schnbach AutoForm Engineering Deutschland GmbH D-85276 Pfaffenhofen, Ingolstdter Strasse 102, Germany e-mail: thomas.schoenbach@autoform.de, Web page: www.autoform.com

Abstract: Recent years have seen an increasing number of hot stamped, or press hardened, parts in a vehicles body-in-white structure. These parts are critical to achieving ever more stringent safety and weight reduction targets. Effective simulation tools are essential to support the development and production of these complex parts. Starting early in the design phase, feasibility analyses are required to iteratively improve and finalize product design. Subsequently, simulation techniques are required to support the manufacturing engineer in the definition of process layout, followed by optimization of process parameters until final validation of the entire press hardening process typically before starting to mill the die surface. This paper presents the effective application of the AutoForm Tooling/Tryout solution for layout and engineering of hotforming processes, and the AutoForm Robustness solution for the validation of its robustness in production. Besides enabling early planning and layout of the process by method planners, the Tooling/Tryout solution facilitates the development and finalization of form surfaces and trimlines by identifying complex forming issues early. This reduces the time and cost of physical tryout in the press, reducing lead time to start of production and ensuring panel quality. Following the engineering and optimization of the forming process, the AutoForm Robustness solution is used to investigate stamping robustness issues during engineering, and prior to start of die construction. In other words, this solution supports the engineer in developing not just an optimized product and tool design, but also one that is stable / robust in production. This paper illustrates a real life application of the above described simulation based design approach. Keywords: Hotforming, Simulation; Process lay-out; Robustness

1. INTRODUCTION In the sheet metal forming industry, application of simulation for new developments is now routine, and represents the current state of the art. Until about 4 5 years ago, forming simulations were relied upon only to predict and countermeasure splits and wrinkles during deep drawing operations. This by itself significantly enhanced quality of stamped parts, reduced tryout times, and enabled the use of new and advanced materials. Since then, however, the application of forming simulation has matured even further, and is now strongly entrenched along the entire stamping process chain:

Reliable and actionable feasibility analyses are now routine, starting from a very early design stage. Material cost calculations facilitate the planning phase. It is now possible to quickly generate alternate process layout concepts, starting from product geometry, and to develop 3D die layouts for each concept; the 3D die process can be simulated quickly and easily for validation and optimization. The entire forming process, including all secondary operations, can now be simulated. Simulation results can be evaluated in detail to understand and improve all aspects of stamped product quality. All components of the full forming process including draw/form station geometries and process parameters can be modified inside the simulation environment, and each of these components can be improved/optimized, and validated through simulation, to achieve the desired quality targets. Stochastic analyses assure a robust forming process. For this purpose, AutoForm offers four solutions along the process chain (see Figure 1).

Figure 1; AutoForm Hotforming full integrated in the AutoForm software Hot stamped products and the hotforming process are fully integrated and supported in each of the four AutoForm solutions along the process chain. Both direct and in-direct hotforming operations can be simulated by AutoForm providing the following advantages for the user: Minimal instruction efforts, High degree of user-friendliness, Fast productive benefit. The principle procedure to optimize a hotforming process with AutoForm along the process chain is illustrated on the basis of a typical example below in this paper.

2. EFFECTIVE USAGE OF INCREMENTAL FORMING SIMULATION ALONG THE PROCESS CHAIN FOR HOT-FORMING PROCESS LAYOUTS AutoForm-Incremental is used for the virtual validation of complete forming/hotforming processes. It incorporates an implicit solver, and is used in the AutoForm solutions along the process chain in different ways to develop, optimize and validate hotforming processes. It is a special purpose program designed for stamping simulations. Fast and accurate results enable significant time and cost reductions in the development process and in tryout. Effective and intuitive pre-processing tools and easy-to-use post-processing functions support the user in the layout and optimization of hotforming processes. AutoForm-Incremental is used for advanced feasibility analyses as part of the AutoForm Feasibility solution, and for die face and process engineering & validation as part of the AutoForm Tooling/Tryout solution. To fulfil the different needs in the different phases of the process chain, AutoForm-Incremental offers two different element formulations: A bending enhanced membrane (BEM), which is specially designed to simulate deep drawing processes with high accuracy and computational speed, and an elastic-plastic shell (EPS), which simulates all forming processes and springback with the highest level of accuracy. The BEM and EPS formulations are fully compatible with each other. The user may select the element type appropriate for the type of forming process (deep-drawing, forming/bending, crashforming) and based on the required accuracy level at different times in the process chain. For most parts, it is recommended to start with the BEM during concept development (see Figure 2). With very short computational times, it is possible to quickly check different tool concepts and select the best for further optimization. In particular, during concept development for hotforming processes, a lot more process parameters such as tool opening, tool velocity or heat transfer significantly influence the forming results and may need to be optimized upfront.

Figure 2; Effective usage of different element types for hotforming simulation After initial selection and pre-optimization of process conditions, the accuracy level may be enhanced for finalization and validation of the process. EPS guarantees the highest level of accuracy necessary during these later stages of process finalization.

AutoForm-Incremental in combination with AutoForm-Sigma a unique combination of statistical process control techniques and forming simulation - is used to check and improve the robustness of the hotforming process. This ensures that the production stamping process is reliable, and capable of repeatable production of parts that meet quality targets, thereby minimizing production line down-time and reject rates.

3. ADVANCED FEASIBILITY ANALYSES OF A HOTFORMING PROCESS During the phase of advanced feasibility assessment, the focus is on identifying and countermeasuring product geometry conditions/features leading to major formability issues. This assessment needs to be carried out in the context of the plausible die process plan to establish the correct die tip, and whether the part can be made doubleattached or only as a single piece in order to meet quality requirements for the stamped part. Even at this early stage, it is also valuable to establish whether the die process plan, and product geometry, are suitable for robust final production. Although one-step codes are commonly used for early feasibility assessments of conventional stamped parts, the behaviour of the sheet material of 22MnB5 during the hotforming process is highly non-linear due to the continuously changing contact conditions resulting in significant temperature changes in the part [Merklein, 2006]. As consequence it is recommended to use AutoForm-Incremental with the BEM, in combination with AutoForm-DieDesigner, for feasibility studies on hotformed parts. For such feasibility studies, the AutoForm Feasibility solution offers the following functionality for hotformed parts: Rapid generation of the binder surface and addendum for the draw die Rapid generation of the input data set for the calculation run Simulation of all secondary operations Short computation time Reliable results covering all forming issues which are relevant in practice Rapid and reliable evaluation of the simulation results If necessary modification of the process parameters and tool geometries which can immediately be verified by a simulation.

Figure 3; Advanced feasibility analyses

Starting with the part geometry of the discussed carrier, a first draw die concept was developed using AutoForm-DieDesigner in a matter of minutes. Simulation input data including the special hotforming-related data such as temperature, heat transfer and temperature and strain rate dependent material data are intuitively and quickly defined. AutoForm also offers the possibility to define a pressure dependent heat transfer coefficient for the heat transfer from blank to tools. Various experimental tests show that the contact pressure between the sheet and the tool significantly influences the heat transfer [Hoff, 2007]. Having set up the simulation, first simulation results are available within 15 minutes. The results of the initial simulation are displayed in the upper area of Figure 3. This simulation shows splits at both ends of the part. Based on the results observed in this first simulation, optimization of the forming process was initiated to get a feasible part. After some loopsmodification of the blank outline, tool geometry, tool velocity and positiona feasible forming process was established, displayed in the lower area of Figure 3. The following outputs were derived from the final, formable process: required blank size, and material utilization based on embedding of the blank on the coil. The material cost for the part was also calculated; this was the starting point for further optimization to reduce blank size, increase utilization and thereby reduce cost, while retaining desired part quality.

4. TOOL AND PROCESS OPTIMIZATION BASED ON SIMULATION TECHNIQUES Once a feasible part design and hotforming process were established for the part in AutoForm, process parameters such as binder force, friction, heat transfer, tool position and velocity and blank shape were optimized further rapidly and easily based on simulation using the BEM. EPS was used in the later phases of engineering to finalize and validate all details of the process to achieve the desired part quality targets. Switching to the EPS from BEM did increase compute time although not significantly in practical terms. It was possible to accomplish further optimization loops within a single day. During the process optimization it was also possible to reduce the blank size significantly. In order to ensure that the forming process finalized above is capable of repeatable part quality in production, a stability/robustness assessment was made. Forming process simulations based on a single parameter set, or based on limiting parameter sets, cannot guarantee stability in production where material and process conditions may vary randomly, or in a stochastic manner. Therefore, AutoForm-Sigma, coupled with AutoForm-Incremental, was used to evaluate the effect of randomly varying (scatter) input parameters upon the quality metrics of the final formed part. AutoForm-Sigma is a special tool that creates scatter in the process simulation inputs, manages the robustness analysis, and extracts sensitivity relationships, and statistical capability/stability indices for any desired part quality metric. Such a study is called a

robustness analysis; an initial robustness analysis was set up by varying the following process parameters: Initial blank thickness Initial blank temperature Tool temperature Lubrication Heat transfer coefficient X and Y position of the blank

Figure 4; Influence of the Y position of the blank on thinning and process capability Analyzing the AutoForm-Sigma results, Figure 4 shows the Y position of the blank is seen to have the greatest influence on observed thinning at the specific location on the part: 47% of the scatter in thinning values is produced by scatter in the Y position of the blank. In the right area of Figure 4 it is seen that cracks occur at different radii, dependent on the Y position of the blank, i.e. this process is not capable of repeatable production in the stamping plant. Repeatable/robust part production is possible only after minimizing the influence of Y position on thinning, or by restricting the Y location of the blank on the die. The forming method for the serial production must be revised to get an accurate, well defined position of each blank. In the final tool concept, two locator pins added on the punch to position and hold the blank. Blank was modified to include two holes where the pins hold the sheet during the whole forming process (see Figure 5).

5. FINAL VALIDATION AND ROBUST PROCESS LAYOUT OF A HOTFORMING PROCESS In the next step, the blank shape was finally optimized with the AutoForm Tooling/Tryout solution to reduce material and production cost. For hot stamped parts, laser trimming is often used to trim the parts. By reducing the trim length of the laser cut, the cutting time can be reduced and more parts can be produced in the same time. The concept of trim optimization used here is to determine an initial blank outline which allows for elimination of the laser trim in the front area of the part (Figure 5).

AutoForm-Trim is designed to accomplish this optimization of the initial blank outline (or initial trim) automatically, so that sheet edge after forming is at or close to (within acceptable tolerance) designed part boundary. AutoForm-Trim works analogous to tryout procedure. During the optimization, the trim is shortened in areas where the formed sheet still is too long after the forming operations, and vice versa. Subsequently, the forming operations are re-simulated automatically and the deviation with respect to the target contour is measured (see Convergence plot in Figure 5). These iteration loops are run until the above deviation falls below required tolerance with respect to the target contour. Compared to trim processing in CAD systems, significant time reductions and an increased accuracy in areas with large amounts of plastic strain can be achieved, besides allowing for simultaneous development of forming and trimming tools. Tool development time can significantly be reduced by this trim optimization.

Figure 5; Automatic blank determination Despite all these analyses, simulations and optimization loops, downtimes, tool failure, unrealized production targets, quality loss etc. do occur in reality during production. How can that be explained? Why do you still have to be worried about the part quality after a coil change or why do you still have to accept quality deficiencies after thousands of manufactured parts? The answer to these questions is the instability of the process. During series production, a lot of process parameters tend to scatter, e.g. Friction binder force initial blank temperature tool temperature heat transfer to tools blank position (with new smaller tolerances of the new tool concept using locator pins)

To guarantee a robust hotforming process, a final robustness analysis is set up in which the parameters described above are automatically varied and the statistical results on the capability of the process are extracted. Analyzing the AutoForm-Sigma results, it turns out that lubrication shows the greatest influence on thinning results - 48% of the scatter in thinning is caused by variation in lubrication. However, using a maximum allowed thinning of 23% in the real production, the stochastic analysis shows a reliable process capability, i.e. less than 0.04 defects in 1000 parts (Figure 6 right). It is after this final validation of the hotforming method that die construction should be started.

Figure 6; Influence on thinning and process capability

6. EFFECTIVE TRYOUT SUPPORT BASED ON SIMULATION RESULTS Usually the responsibility of the method planner ends with the start of NC machining of the tool. However, even after optimization of the forming process by simulation techniques, there are often forming problems observed in the first phase of the tool tryout. These problems could be related to non-accurate blank insert, non-optimal binder spotting or due to additional finishing/grinding that may be required on drawbeads. Currently these early tryout problems are solved in a trail-and-error method. This leads to expensive tryout loops. Today the experience and the knowhow of the tryout people are critical to success and cost reduction in tryout. The idea of the simulation based tryout support is to introduce a systematic method to solve tryout problems, to increase the efficiency of the tryout, and to reduce the number of tryout loops. Based on this method there exists a big potential to reduce the tryout costs significantly. In the following section the simulation-based tryout support will be described based on the Numisheet2008 Benchmark 3 example [Hora, 2008]. Based on the last Green part simulation a sensitivity analysis - varying typical process parameters which can be influenced during the tryout is run. For our example, the following parameters were used in this sensitivity analysis: Blank position in X- and Y-direction Blank radius in the top area of the B-pillar

Relative position of the binder to the punch

Other typical parameters like binder force or drawbeads cannot be used here since the gap in the binder area will impact heat transfer and also make the beads ineffective. This analysis can be submitted directly after the last Green part simulation, but has to be done definitely before tryout starts. In the case of this b-pillar, when the first part in the tryout was stamped, a necking issue was observed in the tryout panel (Figure 7). Reviewing the results of the sensitivity analysis, it was observed that there is nearly no influence of the relative binder position on the thinning in zone 1. But reducing the blank size in this area (Blank_R1) and moving blank position in the X and Y directions (increasing Blank-X and Blank-Y position) improves the thinning condition in zone 1.

Figure 7; Necking in the part and influence of the process parameters to thinning There is the opposite influence in zone 2. With virtual tryout sliders these 3 parameters were changed directly in the interface, and the corresponding changes in the results (thinning) were established, displayed directly in the 3D-window on the part geometry. The next step was to double-check the minimum thinning in zone 2. After modifying the blank shape in the radius area and position the blank 6mm in +X and 6mm in +Y the minimum thinning in zone 1 was reduced from 23% to 20,5% (Figure 8). In zone 2 the minimum thinning increased from 12% to 17%, but this was acceptable in production. The knowledge of the influence of the process parameters and the resulting changes in forming process were used for the direct tryout support. The following step-by-step action plan was established for tryout: Modify the guide pins of the blank 6mm in +X- and 6mm in +Y-direction Reduce the blank size in the radius area can be done in both areas or only in the lower radius area

This systematic simulation based tryout approach was able to reduce tryout time significantly, and was also critical to avoiding ad-hoc changes to die and process that may have other undesirable consequences in production.

Figure 8; Process modifications and virtual tryout results

7. CONCLUSIONS This paper describes the effective usage of simulation techniques for the layout of a hotforming process. Using different accuracy levels and element types along the process chain guarantees the requested accuracy level of the results with a minimum usage of time and resources. Based on these results the correct decisions can be taken or part or process modifications can be initiated. To use all potentials of simulation techniques AutoForm offers four solutions along the process chain. These solutions include a fully integrated and interacting geometry modeller, a solver, analyzing tools and stochastic tools. Based on an industrial hotforming example, the successful usage of all these tools is presented to realize a feasible part, to develop and optimize the forming method and to guarantee a robust production with maximum output and minimum of rejects of stamped parts.

REFERENCES [Merklein, 2006] M. Merklein, J. Lechler, M. Geiger: Characterization of the flow properties of the quenchable ultra high strength steel 22MnB5. In: Annals of the CIRP 55(1), 2006, p. 229-236. [Hoff, 2007] C. Hoff: Untersuchung der Prozesseinflussgren beim Presshrten des hchstfesten Vergtungsstahls 22MnB5. Meisenbach-Verlag Bamberg, 2007. [Hora, 2008] P. Hora, W. Volk, K. Roll, B. Griesbach, L. Kessler, W. Hotz: Numisheet 2008 The Numisheet Benchmark Study. Institute of Virtual Manufacturing ETH Zurich, 2008.

Cooling of Tools for Hot Stamping Applications

Ralf Kolleck*, Wolfgang Wei*, Peter Mikoleizik** Graz University of Technology, Institute Tools & Forming, 8010 Graz, Austria wolfgang.weiss@tugraz.at ** Siempelkamp Giesserei GmbH, Siempelkampstrae 45, 47803 Krefeld, Germany
*

Abstract: The cooling performance of hot forming tools is a crucial factor for the strength of hot formed components. Insufficient cooling power leads to hot spots (local overheating) on the surface of the tool. A lack of knowledge of expected temperatures on the tools surface makes it impossible to predict the properties of a component in an accurate way. This work gives an overview of state-of-the-art cooling technologies. Cooling with bores, surface shells and cast-in pipes is described in this paper. In the main part, an alternative cooling technology called near-surface cooling channels with laser cladding is explained and tests with a prototype tool are performed. The temperatures of the real tool are compared with the result of a multiphysics-simulation. In order to demonstrate the differences of the proposed cooling methods, the simulation result of the near-surface approach is compared with the technology of cast-in cooling pipes for the same tool. Keywords: hot stamping, simulation, cooling, CFD

1. INTRODUCTION From literature it is known that the cooling rate for the blank in a hot stamping process must not fall below a critical value of 27 K/s [Merklein et al., 2006]. This is to generate the desired martensitic microstructure of the material. A second boundary condition of the process is the maximum tools surface temperature of 200C to achieve the claimed cooling rate [Hoffmann et al., 2007]. In order to fulfil these boundary conditions, the topology of the cooling channels must be well designed to ensure a uniform temperature distribution on the surface of the tool. The overall thermal resistance Rt of the thermo-mechanical system consisting of the blank and the tool influences the heat flux from the blank to the cooling channel and hence the local temperature of the system. The overall thermal resistance Rt is expressed as the sum of the thermal resistances of the sub-layers, represented through the standard model in Figure 1.

Rt = Rt ,c +

1 + h

(1)

Here, Rt,c is the thermal contact resistance between the tool and the blank, h is the convective heat transfer coefficient between the tool and the fluid in the cooling channel and (/) is the total thermal conductive resistance through the blank and the tool. According to the standard model, the share of the thermal resistance of each layer related to the overall thermal resistance is shown in Figure 1. The values for the calculation are given in Table 1. The heat conduction of the tool and the thermal contact resistance are those parts with the biggest influence on the overall thermal resistance. It is obvious, that these are the parameters which have to be minimized in order to improve the overall thermal performance of the tool.

Figure 1: left: Standard model for the thermal system; right: share of the single thermal resistances on the overall thermal resistance

Rt,c 1/3000 mK/W

h 12000 W/m/K

b 1 mm

t 10 mm

b
40 W/m/K

t
33 W/m/K

Table 1: Physical values for the calculation of the thermal resistances According to the standard model, reducing the distance between the cooling channel and the surface of the tool t by 50% leads to an improvement of the overall cooling performance by 25%. Thereby the overall cooling performance is measured as the time for cooling the blank from 800 C to 200 C. Doubling the conduction coefficient t from the standard model improves the overall cooling performance by 27%. In both cases, the overall thermal resistance Rt is reduced by 20%. These basic calculations should emphasize the importance of the mentioned parameters. In a hot forming tool, the thermal conduction coefficient is defined via the material of the tool. So, this parameter cannot be influenced in most cases. What can be optimized is the design of the tool according to the spatial adjustment of the cooling channels. It is obvious to minimize the distance between the cooling channel and the active surface of the tool in order to gain a good thermal performance. Currently, cooling of tools is mainly performed by segmented tools with drilled cooling bores, or by tools with milled cooling channels in a surface shell. With the first

approach, the cooling channels are drilled into the tool-body, which, in most cases is built up from segments. The single segments can be connected to each other, enabling a continuous water-flow through the whole tool body. The second possibility is to seal each segment at its faying surface. By that, every segment has its own cooling circuit. This second approach leads to fewer sealing efforts but reduces the cooling power at the faying surfaces of the segments. Due to the fact that the axes of the bores must follow a linear path, the channels can hardly be aligned to the freeform style of the surface of a common tool. This is a disadvantage according to the cooling performance. Figure 2 shows a cross section of a cooled tool with cooling bores.

Figure 2: Problematic geometric boundary conditions in hot stamping tools with cooling bores. The approach with milled cooling channels in a surface shell overcomes the problem of varying distances between the active surface and the cooling channel but leads to a very high milling and sealing effort. Designing the shells in segments also leads to an interruption of the cooling circuit at the faying surfaces, decreasing the cooling performance as well.

Figure 3: Segmented surface shell for cooling a hot stamping tool

2. INTEGRAL CAST COOLING CHANNELS A third method for building up a cooling system for hot stamping tools is to cast in cooling channels within the body of the tool. The manufacturing of the tool is

performed as a lost-foam casting process with spheroidal graphite iron EN-GJS-700-2. Therefore, a network of mild steel pipes is built up on a carrier and enclosed by a polystyrene foam model, which represents the near-end shape of tool. Figure 4 shows such a foam-model surrounded by moulding sand. Polystyrene shows a residue-free gasification during the casting process, what is a basic requirement for the lost-foam casting process. Experiments showed that the integration of pipes with an inner diameter of 10 mm and wall thicknesses of 1,5 mm is feasible [Kolleck et al., 2005]. The minimum distance of the cooling channel from the active of surface of the tool is 10 mm. This value is derived from basic investigations at the Institute Tools & Forming.

Figure 4: Prepared model for lost-foam casting The method of cast-in cooling pipes not only overcomes the problems with cooling bores to a certain extend but also eliminates the need to segment the tool body. However, attention should be paid on the topology of the cooling pipes. Considering a punch for a B-pillar, there are three possible methods in directing the channels, shown in Figure 5. The overall cooling performance of the variants differs significantly due to the different number of cooling pipes resulting in different cooling areas.

Figure 5: Possible cooling pipe topologies with cast-in cooling pipes left: longitudinal, middle: transversal; right: mixed To optimize the pipe topology on behalf of the cooling performance, a multiphysics simulation with flow- and heat boundary conditions is necessary [Kolleck et al., 2008].

3. NEAR-SURFACE COOLING CHANNELS Near-surface cooling channels are a new method for manufacturing hot stamping tools with a cooling system. This method combines a cutting and a laser cladding process. The cooling channels are milled into the active surface of a tool, covered by custom-fit inlays from mild steel and coated with a laser cladding layer in order to seal the inlay and to produce a leak-proof connection to the material of the tool (see Figure 6). Laser cladding is an innovative technology to combine a base material with layers of dissimilar coating materials. In the case of a hot forming tool, the base material can be mild steel with a relatively high thermal conductivity (compared to high-alloyed tool steels). The clad layer then can be a brittle, heat resisting hot working steel to meet the needs of a hot stamping tool.

Figure 6: Production steps of near-surface cooling channels. This new technology can be combined with other cooling methods mentioned before in order to achieve an optimized cooling performance for problematic components. Since the cooling channels are milled into a finished surface, it is also possible to adapt this technology to existing tools in order to eliminate hot spots.

Figure 7: Cross section of the realized near-surface cooling channel The feasibility of the technology and the applicability on press hardening tools was proven on an existing cold forming tool of mild steel (1.0570). The coating was Stellite21 alloy, a heat resistant CoCr alloy. The dimensions of the cooling channels are shown in Figure 7. The thickness of the inlay is 1 mm. The clad layer in finished conditions measures 2 mm.

Figure 8: Hot stamping tool with rough milled laser cladding layer. Figure 8 shows a picture of the rough machined tool. It can be seen clearly that only the area of the cooling channels is machined, whereas the rest of the surface remains unchanged. Hot stamping tests have been performed with 22MnB5. The blanks were heated in a chamber furnace up to Tblank = 900 C for five minutes. Afterwards the blanks were transported to the tool manually. The punch speed during the test was 150 mm/s. Due to the manual handling of the blank, a cycle time of 80 s was achieved. The series was limited to five blanks because of the capacity of the furnace.

Figure 9: Temperature courses during the press cycles. During the hot stamping process the temperature was measured at two positions (Figure 8), 2 mm below the surface of the tool. The temperature courses of the press cycles are shown in Figure 9. Although the curves did not reach a stationary level due to the mentioned limitations, the difference of the temperature between the uncooled and the cooled area rises significantly. The temperature of the uncooled area reaches a maximum of Ttool = 180 C, whereas the temperature of the cooled area reaches only Ttool = 90 C.

With these investigations the feasibility of the technology of near-surface cooling channels could be proven. Hereby, the applicability to a hot stamping process was shown. Further investigations with different coatings and base materials are necessary.

4. SIMULATION OF THE COOLING PERFORMANCE The expected cooling performance was simulated with the multiphysics software CFDACE+ from ESI, based on the finite volumes method. Three different modules were coupled numerically: flow, heat transfer and turbulence. The calculation was done assuming stationary conditions because the run-in period of the tool is of no importance for the real process. Convection and radiation to the surroundings were neglected. An average flow velocity of v = 4 m/s was assumed, leading to a turbulent flow condition. This led to the necessary consideration of the turbulence module. The turbulence model used was a standard k--model with a standard wall function since this is an effective and stable model. The heat flux from the blank to the tool q is expressed by a convective boundary condition. The heat flux coefficient hq is calculated from the heat flux withdrawn from the blank in a real process extended to the real cycle time.

q' = hq (Tblank Ttool )

(2)

Thereby the blanks temperature is set to Tblank = 900C, the temperature of the tool Ttool is calculated through the energy balance of the system. For the simulation of the near-surface approach, the setup shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8 is taken. The lateral position of the cast-in cooling pipes was retained; the distance of the pipes to the surface is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Position of the cast-in cooling channels The material properties for the near-surface approach were taken from mild steel (t = 40 W/m/K; cp =450 J/kg/K). The material properties for the cast-in cooling pipes were taken according to standard values for spheroidal graphite iron (t = 30 W/m/K; cp =500 J/kg/K).

Figure 11: Simulated temperature distribution of the punch left: near-surface cooling channels, right: cast-in cooling pipes. Figure 11 shows the result of the stationary simulation of the expected temperature distribution for the realized punch with near-surface cooling channels compared to castin cooling pipes. The punch with near-surface cooling channels shows significantly lower temperatures at the cooled areas, compared to the punch with cast-in cooling pipes. However, the cooling performance is sufficient for both approaches since the temperature at the cooled area does not exceed 200C. In fact, the temperature stays below 100C. Tests with the realized tool showed good accordance to the simulation results (see Figure 9).

5. CONCLUSION Two standard technologies of cooling tools for hot stamping were described: cooling bores and surface shells. Both technologies are widely used in the industry but have significant disadvantages. The alternative method of cast-in cooling pipes has been investigated by the authors in the past and shows improvements compared to the standard technologies. The new technology of near-surface cooling channels has been proposed and tests have been performed successfully. The surface-near position leads to a good cooling performance. The big advantages are the easy application to existing tools and the nearsurface position. With the laser-cladding technology, brittle and tough coatings can be applied on the surface in order to gain a good abrasive resistance of the active surfaces. Thermal simulations have been performed to compare and evaluate the two approaches with near-surface cooling channels and cast-in cooling channels. First, the simulation result with the near-surface cooling shows a good accordance to the physical tests. Second, the comparison of the surface temperatures of both approaches shows clearly the characteristics of the two methods. While the near-surface cooling produces an intense, local cooling, the cast-in cooling pipes with the bigger distance to the surface are a better method for areal cooling. Therefore, an intelligent combination of the

mentioned cooling approaches can help to improve the cooling performance of hot stamping tools.

REFERENCES
[Merklein et al., 2006] M. Merklein, J. Lechler, M. Geiger; Characterization of the flow properties of the quenchable ultra high strength steel 22MnB5; In: CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 55-1, pp. 229-232; 2006 [Kolleck et al., 2005] R. Kolleck, S. Pfanner, E.-P,.Warnke, R. Ganter; Neues Konzept zur Temperierung von Blechumformwerkzeugen; In: Car Body Colloquium; 2005 [Kolleck et al., 2008] R. Kolleck, H. Lscher, R. Veit, W. Wei; Alternative approaches for the simulation of the hot forming process; In: Numisheet 2008, pp. 621-626; Interlaken 2008 [Hoffmann et al., 2007] H. Hoffmann, H. So, H. Steinbeiss: Design of Hot Stamping Tools with Cooling System; In: CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 56-1, pp. 269272; 2007

Further Results in Blanking form - hardened ultra high strength Manganese-Boron-Steels with Innovative Tools and Tool Steels
B. Krnauer, M. Hirsch, R. Golle, H. Hoffmann, M. Golle2, G. Jesner3, G. Pelloso4, L. Baron4 and M. Hermann4 1 Institute of Metal Forming and Casting, Technische Universitt Mnchen, WaltherMeiner-Strae, 85748 Garching, Germany, email: benedikt.kroenauer@utg.de 2 Institute of Punching and Blanking, Pforzheim University, Pforzheim, Germany 3 Bhler Edelstahl GmbH & Co KG, Kapfenberg, Austria 4 FAIB S.p.A., Bassano del Grappa, Italy

Abstract: One substantial goal of modern vehicle construction is to reduce weight at a high level of crash safety. The process of press hardening of boron-alloyed steels can be of great importance. The heat treatment during hot forming process increases the materials tensile strength to a level of approximately 1500 MPa. The increased tensile strength needs to be considered in subsequent manufacturing processes, such as punching operations. One aim of the present project has been the investigation of tool steels as well as the different damage mechanisms occurring during the blanking of presshardened sheet metal. A new tool concept has therefore been realized, which comprises the entire expertise of the Institute. Thus, the tool developed is a very good basis for assessing tool steels and their damage behavior. On basis of optimized process parameters fatigue tests with innovative tool steels in different heat treatment conditions are accomplished. Keywords: Tool steel, press hardening, wear, blanking, UHSS 1. MOTIVATION

Due to economic and safety-related reasons, lightweight construction is gaining significance in numerous sheet metal forming processes. Besides high-strength sheet metal, press-hardened sheet metal (Figure 1) is increasingly used in the field of lightweight construction [Griesbach, 2008] as it exhibits high strength combined with a low degree of elastic springback. Press-hardened sheet metal can have a significantly lower thickness than conventional steel grades and therefore offers a very high potential for reducing weight [Jonsson, 2008]. In order to prevent scaling on the surface of the material due to the high temperatures involved in the hot forming process, the material is often provided with an aluminum-silicon coating, which partly diffuses into the inner of the material as the temperature rises.

Conventional dividing processes (blanking or punching by use of the shearing process), in combination with the increased strength of preformed presshardened blanks lead to an extremely high level of tool wear, which usually makes these processes inefficient. Figure 1; (a) B-pillar reinforcement 1.85 mm, (b) A-pillar rein- In recent time, inforcement 1.2 mm, (c) bumper sup-port 2.3 mm, [Arcelor, 2008] dustry has restricted all efforts to the minimization of wear occurring on dies by using different tool materials exhibiting especially adapted carbide characteristics and by stiffening the tool design. 2. APPROACH

Although there is a wide range of new tool materials available now which possess an increased wear resistance, intensive preliminary tests at the Institute of Metal Forming and Casting at Technische Universitt Mnchen as well as practical experience from industry have shown that when using dividing processes with conventional tool design strategies, no existing tool steel can meet the requirements with respect to tool life when blanking sheets thicker than 1.5 mm, in dry state and without lubrication. In order to avoid time-intensive maintenance work at the dies, nearly all manufacturers use the laser blanking process for batch production, which, however, leads to high investment costs for the cutting lines at a significantly lower stroke rate compared to conventional dividing processes even though the speed of the laser cutting process has increased. Although this difficulty is known, there has been no systematic research into the shear cutting of press-hardened sheet metal. The reliable use of mechanical cutting processes, however, offers a huge potential for a significantly increased output when using presshardened steel. The tests carried out have shown possibilities of qualifying tool steels for certain blanking tasks with optimized tool design and manufacturing process. The influencing factors of press, tool and blanking process have been minimized to the best extent possible by use of a high-performance stamping press and an extremely stiff test tool.

3.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

3.1. Stamping Press and Measurement Instruments The blanking tests were carried out by use of a single-active mechanical highperformance stamping press of type BSTA 1600-181B from Bruderer AG, Frasnacht, Switzerland. The ram is supported by four circular guides, which are located at the level of the sheet infeed with the lowest degree of clearance possible. The best equilibrium of rotating forces and horizontally and vertically vibrating masses is achieved by a special design of lever and guidance in combination with counterweights. This press possesses a nominal press force of 1600 kN and a stroke rate of 60 to 600 strokes per minute with high precision and stiffness. The use of an extremely oversized press will eliminate the risk of impact shock occurring during the blanking operation. The press is driven by an eccentric shaft and a multi-part lever system, which considerably decreases the punch speed in the area of bottom dead center compared to that of press systems with simple eccentric kinematic forces. Although the output during the wear tests has been high, the gating velocity has been comparable to that of industrial car body presses. The press control has been provided with circuits for evaluating external signals and makes it possible to control the forces acting at the four press pillars. A profile measurement station from Mahr GmbH, Gttingen, Germany, has been used to measure the geometry of cutting edges and to determine burr formation at the blanked parts. The outer contours of the test piece have been determined along a line in accordance with the profile method. A conical feeler with a total height of 33 mm and a radius of 25 m was used for scanning the geometry of the cutting edge, while the geometry of the cutting area was scanned using a two-point feeler, each point having a height of 9 mm and a radius of 25 m. Microhardness tests have been carried out in accordance with measuring scale HV0.1 using a deadweight microhardness tester of type LECO AMH-43 from LECO Instrumente GmbH, Mnchengladbach, Germany. A motor-driven x-y-table allowed the fully automated measurement of the hardness gradient. The indentations were automatically measured by the computerized process control, which was connected to a digital camera. 3.2. Experimental tool An extremely stiff 4-pillar test tool with dimensions of 750 x 600 x 400 mm has been used to blank the sheet metal with a width of 50 mm to qualify tool materials suitable for the blanking of press-hardened components. The cross section of the tool is depicted in Figure 2. During the tool designing process, utmost attention was paid to the prevention of displacement involved in the blanking process as described in [Paar, 2008].

Not only guide pillars with increased diameter (50 mm) have been used in combination with a high-precision roller cage free of clearance from Agathon, Switzerland, but also a locking bolt (diameter 80 mm) and a massive supporting block were incorporated in order to convey the flux of forces occurring during the blanking process between upper and lower die. The punch started blanking shortly after the test tool had been clamped by the locking bolt. An s-shaped cross section was chosen for the wear tests, which includes linear as well as curved areas Figure 2; Cross section of the test tool: (a) upper (minimum radius 5 mm) with a proplate, (b) guide plate, (c) clamping plate, (d) truding and a recessed edge (Figure base plate, (e) lower die, (f) upper die, (g) punch 3a). Figure 3b depicts the tangential holder, (h) guide pillars, (i) locking bolt, (j) transition of the lateral surface tosupporting block, (k) spring elements wards the base area of the dies which provides support for the cutting forces involved. Notching of the cutting edges was prevented by circular grinding of the punch in this area. The width of the dies needed to be increased in order to leave space for drill holes for clamping the punch remote from the area subjected to direct strain. The accuracy of fit of the dies is determined by ground mating surfaces on the solid clamping plate and within the punch holder block of the tool. Except for upper plate (Figure 2a) and base plate (Figure 2d), all components of the test tool are made of hardened tool steel. Two inductive feelers are used for identifying tilting or double blanks, and a one-way light barrier was utilized for controlling the sheet infeed. Another inductive sensor is used to detect joint areas between the presshardened sheet metal strips in order to eliminate the risk of increasing the punch strain by cutting through these joint areas. After the finishing of the die geometry with the help of circular grinding, the sharp cutting edge was chamfered to a radius of 50 m by an iterative grinding and measuring Figure 3; (a) test piece geometry used for test- of the contours in order to achieve a ing wear, (b) dies with tangential transition on predetermined initial state. the lateral surface.

3.3. Sheet Metal The sheet metal of type 22MnB5 had been press-hardened especially for the wear tests. The chemical composition can be derived from Table I. Blanks (with dimension of 1750 x 600 x 1.8 mm) were heated within an external furnace and subsequently quenched in cooled plates in a hydraulic press to form the desired martensitic structure and thus to provide for constant material characteristics. In order to prevent accelerated oxidation due to the high temperatures involved, the blanks are supplied with a double-sided AlSi coating. Investigations into the hardness and microstructure of automotive components produced in batch production have proven that if the cooling process is close to production, the material characteristics are identical too. The microhardness of the test materials used is homogeneous along the sheet thickness with a value of 460 HV0.1. After removing the AlSi coating, the macrohardness of the tested sheet metal amounts to 44 HRC. Ultimate tensile strength in tensile test is 1500 MPa. As the geometry of the cross section was tailored for strips with a width of only 50 mm, the sheet metal was trenched into strips of these dimensions using laser cutting. At the same time, the strips are provided with groove and tongue at their ends to permit a continuous sheet infeed. Sensors prevent a trenching of the joint areas.
22MnB5 C 0.25 Si 0.40 Mn 1.40 P 0.025 S 0.010 Cr + Mo 0.50 Ti 0.05 B 0.0050

Table I; Chemical composition of the sheet material in max. percent by weight 3.4. Tool Steels In this research project, tool steels from Bhler Edelstahl GmbH & Co KG have been used for the blanking of press-hardened sheet metal strips. The wear mechanisms of different steel grades have been tested using three different steel grades, namely conventionally produced cold working 12% chrome steel, a cold working steel produced in accordance with the electroslag remelting technique with a chrome content of 8%, and a powder metallurgical high-speed steel, which can also be used for cold working applications. The chemical composition of the tested materials can be seen in Table II.
C K110 (1.2379) K340 ISODUR S390 MICROCLEAN 1,55 1,10 1,60 Cr 11,00 8,30 4,80 Mo 0,75 2,10 2,00 V 0,75 0,50 5,00 W 10,50 Co 8,00 Others Al, Nb -

Table II; Chemical composition of the tool steel grades in percent by weight In order to reach a Rockwell hardness value of 60 respectively 62 HRC, the dies have been subjected to a heat treatment in accordance with the temperature and time settings given by Bhler Edelstahl GmbH & Co KG.

4.

RESULTS

The test facilities described above have been used for testing wear occurring when blanking press-hardened sheet metal strips. The tests have proven the positive effect with respect to the achievable life time of the dies, when the tool concept is adapted to the process forces, combined with the use of a high-precision machine tool and a stable process control. For each test run, upper and lower dies of the same material were produced and incorporated into the tool. In preliminary tests, conventional cutting clearances ranging from 3.5 % to 15.0 % of the sheet thickness were investigated utilizing different dies. The optimum cutting clearance was found to be 8 % of the sheet thickness, which was determined as the offset of the cutting lines of upper and lower die. Compared to the sharp-edged initial state, stress peaks and possible serious damage can be prevented by an initial preparation of the cutting edges. Also the influence of the blankholder force on the process was investigated in preliminary tests with the help of helical springs having different spring characteristics and pretension. The blanking tests have then been carried out in a pre-tensioned system by use of four helical springs with a diameter of 50 mm and a blank holder force of 40 kN. This corresponds to about 30 % of the required blanking force needed to trench the investigated sheet metal strips having a thickness of 1.8 mm. The test material exhibits a low ductility when press-hardened. Therefore, it has to be expected that the material will crack already when the dies immerse in the blank, even before the blanking operation has been completed. In order to define the lower dead center and therefore the shut height of the dies, that point has been chosen, at which the upper edge of the lower die Symmetry plane and the lower edge of the upper die are in line. In accordance with the above-described boundary conditions and predetermined process parameFigure 4; v.Mises Stresses on upper die (high- ters, blanking tests have been carried out. est level is signed with a circle) In a first test run tool steels K340 ISODUR and K110 were tested up to 64,000 respectively 38,000 strokes. In the second test run, a tool steel of type S390 MICROCLEAN was tested with two intervals of up to 30,000 strokes in total. The wear pattern is more distinct at the upper dies than at the lower dies. This phenomenon corresponds to experiences from earlier wear tests conducted at the Institute using different tools and sorts of sheet material. Flat chipping occurred at upper dies in the crossover area between strip and die. In Figure 4 once can see qualitative simulation results of a simplified elastic mod-

el (Abaqus/Stand ard) with symmetry plane. In crossover area strip-die (marked with circle) v.Mises-Stresses are highest. Here chipping initiates. In Figure 5 once can see the level of wear occurring at the cutting edges for tested tool steels. For the diagrams, these are the values measFigure 5; Wear on cutting edges of upper dies measured at ured for the proprotruding edge (caution: different scaling factors on axes) truding radius of the upper dies cutting edge (see also Figure 3b). Due to the different influencing factors prevailing in the face and lateral areas, it was not possible to choose identical scales for the axes of the diagrams. After 64,000 blanking operations, steel of type K340 ISODUR shows distinct abrasive wear. Within the face area, abrasion of up to 3.5 mm could be measured, the lateral area showed abrasion of approximately 0.25 mm. For tool steel K110 which reached 38,000 strokes, similar performance can be presumed. Subsequently, 30,000 blanking operations were carried out with the same test setup using steel of type S390 MICROCLEAN. Employing the same test setup, the degree of wear occurring at the cutting edges at 30,000 strokes is well below than that of K340 ISODUR and K110. Besides abrasion in the lateral area of up to 0.1 mm, this test run also shows a significant influence of up to 0.9 mm in the face area of the dies. According to the knowledge gained in these wear tests, it was expected that S390 MICROCLEAN shows a better performance when blanking press-hardened steels of grade 22MnB5 than tool steel K340 ISODUR and K110. Cutting edge geometry changed heavily through abrasion on face area in case of K340 ISODUR. This leaded to a slight pre-bending of the strips. Thereby blanking forces reduced round about 50 kN. Thus a specific preparation of cutting edge will reduce forces right from the start.

The quality of the cutting area was evaluated on basis of the burr height in both test runs by use of the above-described profile method according to [DIN9830]. In intervals of 1,000 strokes a number of test pieces were taken out from the test run. In order to consider the scattering of the characteristic value of burr height, four test pieces of batch taken out were measured to calculate an average value. Figure 6 shows the development of the averaged burr height for all tested tool materials compared to the number of parts. In the investigated area the diagram shows a similar Figure 6; Burr height (average value) over all test series behavior with respect to burr formation. Tool steel K340 ISODUR and K110 exhibit a continuously increasing burr height of up to 0.08 mm after 64,000 respectively 38,000 strokes. Burr height for S390 MICROCLEAN at 30,000 strokes is smaller due to lower wear. Therefore the burr formation for all tested tool steel is not a critical stop criterion for the test runs.

5.

CONLUSION

Already at this stage of testing, the investigations carried out have shown that the c blanking of press-hardened sheet metal components can be realized using mechanical stamping processes. Results can be achieved, which show that blanking of presshardened sheet metal is realizable with high quantity for sheet thickness over 1.5 mm. The test tool developed during this project exhibits specific characteristics with respect to the support of the lateral forces acting during the blanking operation and was designed to solidly integrate the dies without notching effect. Using customary tool steels, this concept has already made it possible to produce 64,000 blanks with a thickness of 1.8 mm without requiring subsequent finishing operations at the dies. Tests have been stopped because of chipping in crossover area between strip and upper die. The burr height always was uncritical. On the basis of the results gained during this project, the test runs will be repeatedly carried out in order to confirm the results using new die sets and other grades of tool steel and heat treatments with the objective of preventing chipping for a further increase of the reachable number of strokes. 6. REFERENCES

[Griesbach, 2008] Griesbach, B.; Hochfeste Sthle in innovativen Karosserien Herausforderungen und Chancen in der Produktion, Mnchener Kolloquium, 2008. [Arcelor, 2008] N. N.; Steels for Hot Stamping, Extract from the product catalogue European edition, ArcelorMittal, 2008. [Jonsson, 2008] Jonsson, M.; Presshardening, from innovation to global technology, 1st International Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance Steel, Kassel, Germany, 2008. [Paar, 2008] Paar, U.; Hartbeschneiden von formgehrteten Strukturteilen: Eine Herausforderung fr die Zukunft, Mnchener Kolloquium, 2008. [DIN9830] DIN 9830; Schnittgrathhen an Stanzteilen, Berlin: German Institute for Standardization, 1988.

Roller Hearth Furnaces for Hot-Form Hardening

Dipl.-Ing. Harald Lehmann Schwartz GmbH; Edisonstr. 5; D-52152 Simmerath h.lehmann@schwartz-wba.de

Abstract: Hot-form hardening of sheet metal has proven successful in large-scale production of automotive manufacturers'. It has been found that roller hearth furnaces offer the best results in terms of economic efficiency and process reliability.

INTRODUCTION Tremendous strength improvements, excellent crashworthiness and significant weight reduction by hot-form hardening permits the production of light-weight but extremely strong auto body components through a combination of heat treatment, forming and simultaneous controlled cooling. From an economical point of view it is very important that this process does not only deliver a considerable increase in material strength. In addition, the ductility at high temperature is 20 times more than that of a high-strength steel sheet. This process, therefore, enables the forming process to be completed in one step, whereas cold forming requires several press strokes. The best results in terms of economic efficiency and process reliability are achieved by martensitic hardening in furnaces with a ceramic roller hearth. For optimum results in hot form hardening the interactions of several factors need to be taken into account: heating and conveying through the furnace, surface finish and coating of the sheet metal parts and their heat treatment. HEATING SYSTEMS: RADIANT TUBES COME OUT ON TOP Due to the fear that open flames do have a risk of hydrogen embrittlement, actually all roller hearth furnaces are equipped with radiant tubes. In this way such furnaces can also be used for heat treatment under controlled atmosphere, be it dried air or protective gas.

Fig 1; Recuperative burners for thermal efficiencies up to 75%

In furnace sections with lower energy demands, open electric heating systems are preferred as they are less expensive than gas-fired radiant tubes and offer highly accurate temperature control. FURNACE CONVEYOR SYSTEM: ROLLER HEARTH FURNACES WIDELY USED Over the years, several furnace concepts turned out to have specific advantages and disadvantages. In hot form hardening applications, roller hearth furnaces have found the most widespread use. In comparison with other furnace systems their multiple-deck design with two our three tiers of roller conveyors allows the furnace to be made much shorter. Subdivision of each deck into different heating zones makes temperature control virtually as close as in single-deck furnaces.

Fig 2; Rollerhearth Furnace The latest development are so called micro hot-form hardening systems. They are a small manufacturing unit made up of roller hearth furnace and press. These systems are used in small-part and small-lot productions. Such a system can be viewed as a machine tool. Thanks to its compact design the system is readily relocated to other production shops.

Fig 3; Micro Press Hardening Line Roller hearth furnaces are easy to maintain: internal parts such as rollers or radiant tubes are serviced or replaced through openings in the sides

Fig 4; Schwartz Roller and Bearing System

SHEET METAL SURFACES: MAKE YOUR CHOICE Uncoated Sheets To the extent that the equipment user has a choice between different sheet metal surface characteristics, four variants are currently available: The uncoated surface is the easiest and least expensive, and also unproblematic with regard to welding. However, it requires a good protective atmosphere with accurate atmosphere control inside the furnace. With the developed Schwartz endogas reformer integrated in the furnace this technology has become just as simple as nitrogen input. Up to hydrogen contents of 30 per cent, it has the capability of compensating for oxygen and moisture entering the furnace with the product. A customized protective atmosphere flow regime inside the furnace ensures correct separation of the zones as required for the process. Blanks are conveyed through the furnace on ceramic rollers, pre-formed parts on product carriers.

Fig 5; Scheme of Schwartz Endo-Gas-Catalyser System A further easy way to create good protective atmosphere, is by mixing nitrogen (> 95 Vol%) and natural gas (< 5 Vol.) However which type of system for producing protective atmosphere will be chosen depends on price difference between nitrogen and naturral gas. The resulting parts are free of scale and in most cases require no sand blasting. This technology has found the approval of many automotive manufacturers and their subsuppliers. Coated Sheets Sheet metal coated with a layer of aluminium-silicium alloy is diffusing in the austenitising furnace at temperatures between 400 and 750C. The austenitising furnace oxidises the surface which provides reliable protection against scaling and to a limited extent against corrosion during the service life of the vehicle. There is no formation of electrochemically active layers as the coating metals are shielded by cohesive and dense oxide layers. This technique is also approved by automotive manufacturers. Parts are conveyed through the furnace on ceramic rollers or on product carriers. Pre-forming of such sheet metal is not possible as the coating presents a brittle, intermetallic phase with the base metal as delivered.

SUMMARY: For the combined hot forming and heat treatment of sheet metal made mainly of 22MnB5 (coated or uncoated), experience from large scale production shows that a furnace with ceramic roller hearth and martensitic hardening achieves the best economic efficiency and greatest process reliability. New developments such as partial bainitic heat treatment improve toughness properties such as elongation, contraction and impact strength as well as bending behaviour and fatigue strength. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF CONVEYING ROLLERS: Hot-form hardening parts are currently heat treated predominantly in roller-hearth furnaces. In the indirect process, for one, product carriers are used with preformed parts.

Fig 6: Preformed parts on product carrier Fig 7: Blank directly on the roller hearth Alternatively, in the direct process, blanks are placed directly on the roller hearth. The use of AlSi-coated sheet metal is becoming increasingly widespread in direct processes. However, it has been found that a very strong thermochemical reaction takes place when AlSi-coated sheet metal comes into direct contact with the rollers during heat treatment

Fig. 8: Thermochemical attack on a roller The rollers currently used are either hollow and made of sintered mullite (3Al2O3:2SiO2), or solid and made of fused silica material (>99% SiO2). The fused silica rollers consist of over 99% SiO2 and have a temperature application limit of around 1100C. However, they have the disadvantage of bending under their own weight at approx. 700-800C while in a stationary condition. Rollers made of sintered mullite can be used under load at up to 1350C without significant bending but exhibit a poor thermal shock resistance. Both materials have a high affinity for reacting with molten aluminium, forming aluminium silicate or even silicide compounds. Since the AlSi coating tends to melt during the heat treatment, this molten metal is free to react with the roller material.

In the course of this reaction, melt penetrates into the porous rollers and solidifies there. The result is a pronounced partial density difference within the roller which causes it to fail (i.e., fracture). To resolve the task of minimizing or even preventing this thermochemical attack, Schwartz commissioned the Institute of Mineral Engineering (Institut fr to develop a coating or substitute roller material. This Gesteinshttenkunde, GHI) project is supported by the German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology
(BMWi).

APPROACH 1 - COATING: Based on a sol-gel method, a suspension is being developed for application to the conveying rollers by spray coating.

Fig 9; Molten AlSi coating reacting with roller Fig 10; Principle of sol-gel method From a total of around 40 different suspensions, 3 suspensions were selected for further investigations.

Fig. 11; Zero ("0") specimen = uncoated roller specimen It is readily evident from Fig. 12 how the coating protects the roller matrix from reaction with the Al melt molten Al from the AlSi coating coating roller matrix: sintered mullite Fig. 12; Accretion due to corrosion test

Fig. 13: Results of 3 layer coated rollers APPROACH 2: ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS: Rollers have been fabricated from a non-oxidic aluminium-repellent ceramic material. After 1,500 hours of production operation in contact with AlSi coated blanks, accretions on the roller surface were noted. molten aluminium from the AlSi coating thin layer of molten Al from the AlSi coating roller matrix Fig 14; SEM image of non-oxidic aluminium-repellent material

Fig. 15: Roller made of non-oxidic aluminium-repellent material On the other hand, the microscopic investigations showed that no significant reaction with the roller matrix occurred. Moreover, this material exhibits a very high thermal shock resistance and a good high-temperature withstand capability (mullite: approx. 10 Mpa at 900-1000C; non-oxidic material: approx. 180 Mpa at 900-1000C). The accretions could be removed from the dismounted roller by means of a grinder. The roller could thus be re-used. It is also conceivable to employ a roller cleaning machine (already developed) which removes these accretions in day-to-day industrial service.
Roller surface after grinding; fully reusable Roller surface before grinding;

Fig 16; Non-oxidic roller before and after grinding

The disadvantage of this roller material is its very high purchase price which may be around 10 times more than for a mullite roller of same size. CHAIN CARRIER FURNACE FOR HEAT TREATMENT OF GALVANIZED PARTS IN HOTFORM HARDENING LINES: Here the objective was to build a heat-treatment system capable of austenitizing galvanized parts (cathodic/anodic corrosion protection) for hot-form hardening. Other specifications included the following: pre-formed parts (indirect process) had to be heat-treated; pre-finished parts had to be heat-treated so as to lie within specified tolerances after the hot-form hardening process (i.e., requiring no trimming).

In order to meet these requirements, the chain carrier furnace was developed. The system involves the use of special product carriers which are advanced through the furnace on a chain running outside the heating chamber. These product carriers are of a special design capable of accommodating different parts without requiring any laborious and time-consuming set-up work. Moreover, the product carriers ensure that the parts will exit the furnace in the same position in which they entered the furnace. This permits accurate positioning of the parts in the downstream hot press.

Fig. 18a: Product carrier at furnace entry

Fig. 18b: Loaded product carrier at furnace entry

Fig. 18c: Product carrier at furnace exit with robotized transfer to the press

Fig. 18d: Product carrier on return conveyor

The new product carrier system also makes it possible to design heat treatment systems of a large useful width. It also proves that it is quite possible to build short furnaces with rapid operating cycles (down to 12 seconds). The furnace systems currently in operation are 24 m long and achieve a throughput of 4.5 tonnes/hr. Further advantages clearly increased useful width ( >> 3,000 mm); substantially reduced furnace length (thanks to item 1 above) despite a short cycle time; form-fit product carriers eliminate part displacement at the point of transfer to the press (at furnace exit);

no need to position product carriers at the furnace exit for transfer to the press (thanks to item 3 above), facilitating facilitates cycle time reductions;

A refinement of this configuration will consist in eliminating the return operation in its present form. Instead, the furnace heat-up zone will be located in the area now accommodating the return conveyor. The product carrier will be conveyed down to floor level by a heated product carrier lift. From here it will be moved into the hightemperature zone where the parts are heated to the austenitizing temperature. This system has the furnace entry and exit on the same side but on different levels. Obvious benefits of this design include the following: further reduction in equipment length; avoidance of unnecessary heat loss from product carriers during the return movement. Moreover, a product carrier set-up area may be provided on a second level. USE OF REGENERATIVE BURNERS IN HEAT-TREATMENT SYSTEMS: Given worldwide political demands for a reduction in energy consumption (e.g., almost 40% of all industrially used energy in Germany is today consumed in industrial furnaces) and CO2 output levels, European Union legislation regulating the energy efficiency of industrial furnaces is due to be adopted in the next few years.

Fig 20; Change in emission loads in Germany Fig 19:Development of global energy consumption in Gtoe = gigatonnes of oil equivalent; 1 kgoe = 11.63 kWh

Equipment manufacturers and users alike will then be required to verify the energy efficiency of their systems and to implement improvements where necessary. The energy efficiency of industrial furnace systems can be enhanced in various ways. One is to use the most advanced burner technology. The aim is to use the burner exhaust gas in the most efficient manner for preheating the air for combustion that is supplied to each burner. The fuel efficiency (fuel-to-heat conversion) of the burner system can thus be increased, with attendant improvements in the equipment's energy efficiency. In furnaces of the type used, e.g., in hot-form hardening, burners without air preheating will typically achieve fuel efficiencies of around 50%. Central recuperator systems provide efficiencies of just over 60%, due to the high losses incurred during transfer of the hot exhaust gas to the central recuperator.

The state of the art is currently represented by recuperative burners, which are already quite effective. Each of these burners incorporates its own recuperative air preheater. Fuel efficiencies in excess of 70% are achieved with this burner technology.

Fig 21: Operation of a recuperative burner

Fig. 22: Efficiency comparison of various burner technologies

The use of regenerative burners makes its possible to achieve fuel efficiencies of more than 80%. Regenerative air preheaters can heat the combustion air to higher temperatures, which may yield 15 25% potential savings when compared to a recuperative burner.

Fig 22; Schematic operation of a regenerative burner Part of their superior efficiency is due to the fact that regenerative burners can be built with much larger heat exchanger surfaces.

Fig 23; Relative air preheating performance as a function of heat exchanger surface (NTU)

Regenerative burners with less than 100 kW output have not yet been made commercially available. However, the company is dedicating intense efforts on the development of appropriate burners that will also be suitable for use with a radiant tube.

Fig. 24: Example of a regenerative burner USE OF WASTE GAS FOR PRODUCING COOLING ENERGY: The first thought, what can be done with hot waste gas to use it for other applications, e.g. heating other areas, water or different other things. But not everybody has the idea to use hot waste gas to use it for creating cooling energy, e.g. for air condition or for cooling the dies used for the press hardening.

Fig 25; Scheme of using wast gas for cooling energy Actually Schwartz Company is working together with some well-known companies to buildup such a system on an existing furnace line. It is planned to have the first results until mid of 2011.

Potentials of Induction Heating used in Industrial Applications for HSS-Material

Holger Schlbe*, Bernard Nacke* * Institute of Electrotechnology, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Wilhelm-Busch-Str. 4 ,D-30167 Hannover, Germany schuelbe@etp.uni-hannover.de

Abstract: High strength steels are more and more established in industrial applications. Their excellent mechanical properties recommend them for applications for example in mobile cranes, construction vehicles or trucks. But especially for cars, where the controversial requirements as maximum reduction of weight and best crash behavior can be achieved by the use of high strength steel grades, the use is increased. The mass production in the automotive industry with short cycle times demands the most effective heating method. Therefore, induction heating becomes interesting for the heating tasks of high strength steel materials. One important heating task can be found inside the press hardening process of high strength steel plates, which is combining heat treatment, forming and controlled cooling. This process allows production of lightweight but extremely stiff car body components. The heating task for this process with complex workpieces demands a proper design of the heating equipment. Keywords: heat treatment, induction heating, numerical simulation, high strength steels, press hardening.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays conventional heaters with oil or gas are mainly used in industry for the heating of high strength steel workpieces. All of them are working by the principle of heat transfer through the surface. Theoretically, this principle has significant disadvantages and restrictions: limited power density, low speed of motion, large size of installations, originally intensive scale formation on the material surface because of long heating time, environmental pollution. Long time is needed to warm up and cool down these huge installations with enormous thermal losses and high energy consumption. Furthermore, they have a huge thermal inertness and require big efforts of service. Beside all of these disadvantages the benefit of the conventional heaters is the homogeneous heating of the workpieces. Nearly independent on geometry or preforming of the sheets a homogeneous temperature is realized quasi automatically. The heat transfer through the surface leads to an uniform heating over the complete workpiece. This principle of heating requests long heating times which help also to equalize the temperature inside the workpiece by heat conduction. At the same time,

this big advantage limits the process variability. An inhomogeneous heating, which is necessary for applying different mechanical properties inside one workpiece, cannot usually be realized. It is mainly connected with big efforts and unsatisfying results.

INDUCTION HEATING

In comparison with conventional heating methods the induction heating offers a lot of advantages, which are mainly based on the principle of direct heating. The heat is generated contactless directly within the heated material. The advantages are theoretically unlimited power density, short heating times, high efficiency, easy and fast process control, low floor space needs, high flexibility in processing, etc. There are two variants of induction heating for flat material. They differ by the direction of resulting electromagnetic flux provided by the induction coil - longitudinal and transversal. Beside these two variants for complete workpieces adapted induction heaters for local increasing of temperature are also possible. 2.1 Concept of longitudinal induction heating For longitudinal induction heating an induction coil encloses the material to be heated. A current in the coil provides the electromagnetic field with a flux orthogonal to the cross section of the material. (see Figure 1). By this electromagnetic field eddy currents on the surface of the material are induced, which are closing in the cross

Figure 1; Principle of longitudinal flux induction heating

section (shown as S in Figure 1). The depth of this current flow is influenced by different material properties and mainly by the frequency of the coil current. This depth is called penetration depth. It is given by:

, - specific electrical resistance, - permeability, f frequency.

Consequently, the induced current heats up the material by Joule heat. For nearly flat materials with constant cross section the longitudinal induction heating concept can be applied, ensuring a homogenous temperature profile. Unfortunately, the application range is limited. If the needed temperature of steel material is above the Curie-point (around 750 C depending on the material), the minimal material thickness which can be heated sufficiently is limited to approximately 1 mm. This is caused by maximum achievable heating frequencies of the power supplies which are below 1 MHz. As the material properties change extremely above Curie-point, higher frequencies are needed to get desired penetration depth, which should be at most half of material thickness. However, this effect on the Curie-point can be advantageously used for self-controlled temperature limitation at this temperature. 2.2 Concept of transverse induction heating An example of the second variant of induction heating, the transverse induction heating concept, is shown in Figure 2. The material to be heated is positioned between two inductors located above and below the strip. The electromagnetic field created by a certain frequency current in the induction coils is mainly oriented orthogonally to the material surface. Because of this field, eddy currents in the strip are induced. They produce Joule heat in the strip material. Depending on particular requirements, the TFH installations can be accomplished by magnetic flux guiding elements. By the appropriate design of the induction coil it is possible to influence the currents in the

magnetic core
z y x

direction of motion pole pitch t B induction coils Ist Iind

strip

Figure 2; Principle of transverse flux induction heating

strip and herewith the temperature for a concerted non-uniform heating. This is due to the natural features of induced eddy currents, which are, in principle, a direct projection of currents in the induction coil. This opportunity of influencing the temperature distribution is not given by the longitudinal heating. However, to reach well homogeneous temperature profiles with transverse induction heating, the system has to be accurately designed. The transverse induction heating has advantages even against the induction longitudinal heating principle. On one hand this is indicated by working conditions like two decades lower frequency, higher efficiency and the induction coils which do not enclose the heated strip. On the other hand it has a unique process advantage to heat extremely thin non-ferrous metals without limitations. Application of induction heating for HSS-materials For the heating of HSS-materials the induction methods feature advantages in the energy consumption and in the ability of achieving inhomogeneous temperatures. To get finally a homogeneous temperature distribution on a high temperature level is especially for the transverse induction heating slightly difficult. The induction heating is primarily benefiting for moving workpieces. A batch heating without movement is possible as well, but the design becomes more complicated. It has to be considered, that the heating of sheets in a continuous furnace with transverse induction concept provides not completely homogeneous temperature distribution. In a small region at the beginning and at the end of the workpieces the temperature can differ extremely from the goal temperature. The dimension of these regions and the temperature difference can be influenced by the design, but not eliminated. For the longitudinal heating the influence on the borders in direction of motion is very small, because the induced current is flowing in the cross section and not in the plane like in transverse flux induction heating. Induction heating is not predestined for the task of temperature holding, which can be required e.g. for metallurgical aspects. It is rather a method for fast heating up. According to its principles, it is not adequate for compensating thermal losses only. An induction holding furnace could be realized by several cycles of short heating period with smoothly overheating and following cooling period. Conventional furnaces with adapted radiation temperature are more effective to realize compensation times. Furthermore, holes or notches in the sheets are in general a problem for the induction heating, because the induced current in the material is concentrated to the boundaries. This can lead to an extreme overheating of these points. This fact has to be considered by the design of the heating process. 2.3

DESIGN

For all induction heating systems the design is very important. Usually, very exact temperature distribution is required. To overcome these requirements is possible only by the use of numerical methods. The Institute of Electrotechnology has been carried out the design of the heating process for a wide range of tasks. For sufficient results a concept has to be applied, which links the experiences of experts, analytical dependences, numerical simulations and modern automatic optimization techniques together. The numerical simulation with commercial packages like ANSYS allows to get exact knowledge about the thermal behavior during the heating and cooling process. At each geometrical point of the simulation model for every time of the transient process it is possible to get the temperature. This provides for example the knowledge

temperature in C
300 200 100 0 -0.15 -0.05 0.05 strip 0.15 0.25 -0.6

0 -0.2 -0.4

0.2

0.4

width x in m normalized temperature

direction of motion y in m

1,1 1,0 0,9 -0,3

fzh= 0,6 %

-0,2

-0,1

0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

strip width x in m
Figure 3; Temperature distribution in the strip of fixed width passing a transverse flux heater of heating and holding times, which are important for determination of scale formation or further description of metallurgical processes.

outlet temperature

It is also possible to connect the thermal simulation with mechanical or metallurgical simulation. The mechanical simulation provides information about elastic and plastic deformation of the material and the metallurgical simulation can give facts concerning the material microstructure. Figure 3 presents the results of a booster optimization for an annealing line realized with a transverse induction heater. It describes the temperature behavior of the strip by passing the heater. The goal temperature was only 300 C. To get the distribution for a higher final temperature the values has to be scaled. In Figure 4 the corresponding power density distribution is shown. It demonstrates how ambitious the design of

power density pA in kW/m 2

900 600 300 0 -0.15 -0.05 0.05 strip 0.15 width

place of induction coil

0 -0.2 -0.4 0.25 -0.6

0.2

0.4

x in m

direction of motion y in m

Figure 4; Power density distribution in the strip of fixed width induced by a transverse induction heater transverse flux heaters is. The power density distribution of the heater is extremely inhomogeneous, but the final temperature distribution features nearly homogeneity with only 0.6 % deviation. By systematic design of the heating system even inhomogeneous heating is realizable, which is needed for example for resulting inhomogeneous mechanical properties after the press hardening process.

HEATING CONCEPT

Regarding the above explained background it is obvious that induction heating can improve the heating processes of HSS-material. But it is not an easy panacea for replacing conventional heaters. The combination with other heating methods for example for the press hardening process is very promising. In this case the induction heating can be used as a booster, because of very high power density. Other heat sources will provide the final temperature with a possibility of temperature equalization in the workpiece. For example powerful infrared heaters are available nowadays.

Figure 5; Possible heating concepts for the press hardening process 1) combined process of longitudinal induction heating and conventional furnace with motion of material 2) batch mode of combined process 3) transverse flux induction heating of endless strip with hot shear 4) heating by a selection of several small heaters Especially the halogen infrared heaters with a spectrum in the near-infrared region (NIR) provide very high power densities. Longitudinal heating is practicable, because of its uncomplicated design and achievable homogeneous temperatures. The limitation is the constrained temperature for small material thickness. On the other hand, it can be used advantageous for temperature control at the Curie-point in some cases. For constant cross section with motion of the workpiece it is predestined. If the cross-section is changing inside one workpiece a power control is needed to adjust the temperature level. For this application

it has to be investigated, if the power control can regulate the power fast enough in dependency on the speed of motion. The transverse heating is optimal for constant cross-section of endless strip. Especially for thin material it is the best choice, because there is no limitation concerning the maximum temperature. The Figure 5 illustrates four possible concepts to heat a pre-shaped sheet or endless strip. The concepts are shortly described in the following chapters. Longitudinal induction heating combined with conventional heater working in continuous mode For thin moving sheets longitudinal heating can be used as a booster till Curietemperature. Final temperatures above 750 C should be reached by conventional heating like hot air or radiation. If the cross-section of the workpiece is not constant a control of induction power must be realized to adapt the induced power. Conventional heaters at the end of the heating process will afford the realization of holding times for metallurgical aspects. 4.2 Longitudinal induction heating combined with conventional heater working in batch mode In batch mode (the workpiece is placed without movement in the heating stations) it is also possible to heat thin sheets by longitudinal induction heating. The same temperature limitation has to be taken into account like in the first concept. Therefore higher temperatures need an additional conventional heating. The design of the heater must be adapted for each workpiece. Changes in the cross-section can be considered by progressive coil design. This concept can be reasonable for small production lots. 4.3 Transversal induction heating for endless strips working in continuous mode The transverse induction heating is beneficial for endless strip. Therefore, one concept could be the heating of endless strip from ambient to final temperature by transverse induction heating with very good efficiency. It is followed by cutting the strip to required sheets length in hot condition just before the hot forming. If holding time is needed for metallurgical aspects an appropriate oven with conventional heating or only an oven with excellent thermal isolation should complete the induction heater. 4.4 Transversal induction heating with several heaters for batch or continuous mode A high flexibility can be reached using several small transverse induction heaters with separate power control. Depending on the workpiece an optimal selection of heaters and individual power is chosen. After a small overheating, a time for equalization is required to get a maximum possible homogeneity of temperature distribution. This concept can be used in batch or motion mode. It has very high requirements on the design. Therefore, numerical simulations combined with mathematical optimization algorithms are needed. The probability for satisfactory enough results is unfortunately not extremely high at the moment. 4.1

CONCLUSION

The high strength steel grades have been established in the industry with all their benefits. Beside applications for mobile cranes or construction vehicles especially the use in automotive industry is increasing. In this field the press hardening is an important process. This process, combining heat treatment, forming and controlled cooling, is well-proven. Now the optimization of the heating method comes in the focus. The induction heating with a lot of advantages like high efficiency, high power density as well as easy and fast process control is predestined to be applied. The combination of longitudinal induction heating with conventional heaters offers the best solution at the moment. If a new organization of the press hardening process is possible, that means heating up endless strip and cutting the adequate sheets in hot condition just before the forming, the transverse induction heating can be a sufficient concept.

REFERENCES [Nauvertat, 2000] Nauvertat, G.: Optimiertes Design industrieller induktiver QuerfeldBanderwrmungsanlagen. Dissertation. Universitt Hannover 2000, VDI-Verlag, Dsseldorf 2000 [Schlbe et al., 2002] Schlbe, H.; Nikanorov A.; Nacke, B.; Jrgens, R.; AlbrechtFrh, U.; Figge, H. J.: Induktive Querfelderwrmung: Durch numerische Simulation zur industriellen Anwendung. elektrowrme international 60 (2002) Heft 2, S. 61-68 [Schlbe et al., 2003] Schlbe, H.; Nikanorov A.; Nacke, B: Development and investigation of flexible transverse flux heaters. Proceedings of the International Scientific Colloquium, Modelling for Electromagnetic Processing, Hannover 2003. [Jrgens et al., 2002] Jrgens, R.; Grf, Th.: Neue Anwendungen der Induktionstechnik bei der Herstellung und Veredelung von Bandstahl. elektrowrme international 61 (2003) Heft 4, S. 159-163

Inductive Heating of Al/Si-coated Boron Alloyed Steels

Kolleck, R., Veit, R. Institute Tools & Forming Graz University of Technology Inffeldgasse 11, 8010 Graz Austria robert.veit@tugraz.at

Abstract: Hot stamping of boron alloyed steels is gaining more and more importance in the field of car body production. Till now, it is the only technology to produce crashrelevant, ultra high-strength components. There is a huge demand to increase the process output and to reduce production costs. One approach is the use of alternative heating methods like induction heating, but when Al-Si-coated materials are used, existing heating devices reach their limit. This paper will highlight the influences of induction heating on Al-Si-coated sheets. Results concerning the maximum heating rate are shown. Keywords: Hot Stamping, Inductive Heating, Coatings, Al-Si

1. INTRODUCTION In the last few years there have been increasing requirements regarding passenger safety in the manufacturing of car bodies. The percentage of high-strength components in the car body continues to rise and accordingly, the necessity of suitable production technology. Till now, the steel suppliers were not able to provide the promised new sheet materials with high strength and good formability [Hofmann et al., 2004] and hot stamping still remains the proven technology for the production of complex components with high strength. In hot stamping shaped blanks or preformed parts are heated to austenitization temperature and quenched afterwards in a cooled tool [Neugebauer et al., 2006]. For the commonly used boron-manganese alloyed steel 22MnB5 the minimized critical cooling rate to reach a transformation from austenite into martensite is 27 K/s. The blank is usually heated in a roller hearth furnace or walking beam furnace by radiation and convective flow of heat. The furnaces are heated even with gas or electricity depending on the preferred energy source in the country of operation. The blanks are brought in the furnace and heated up to austenitization temperature. The heating rate of the blanks is controlled by the speed of the rollers or the walking beams on the one hand, but by the temperatures in different consecutive chambers on the other.

The sheet thickness as well as the coating and therefore the emission coefficient have a great impact on the heating behaviour and the effective sheet temperature. All these influence parameters lead to typical furnace installations of more than 40 m in length. Great efforts are being undertaken to reduce the cost of components by reducing the cycle time. The focus lying on optimising the cooling efficiency of the tools for which numerous different approaches have been investigated [Kolleck et al., 2007]. Consequently the through-put rate of the heating devices will have to be increased. Staying with the current heating technology this can only be achieved if the length of the furnaces is also increased. This would lead to higher space requirements and higher investment cost. Considering that the energy efficiency of conventional furnaces is relatively low [Kolleck et al., 2009], new technologies have to be introduced.

1. INDUCTION HEATING One approach to increase the energy efficiency and to reduce cost and required space in hot stamping is the application of induction heating devices for the heating of the blanks. Induction heating is a well established technology for different applications, e.g. melting, tempering and heating of materials for forging. In the field of sheet metal forming this technology is established for the determination of materials characteristics at elevated temperatures, using the benefit of high heating rates in order to avoid grain coarsening while heating [Bariani et al., 2008]. But till now there is no example for the use of induction heating in industrial sheet metal forming. The first prototypical induction heating device for the heating of shaped blanks was developed at the Institute Tools & Forming, Graz University of Technology, Austria [Kolleck et al. 2008].

Figure 1 : Principle design and orientation of the magnetic field of longitudinal field (A), transverse field (B) and face inductor (C). An induction heating device consists of two components, a high-frequency generator and an induction coil, the so-called inductor [Benkowski, 1990]. The most common inductor type for industrial application is the longitudinal field inductor where the windings of the coil surround the work piece (see figure 1A). With this configuration

the penetration depth of the magnetic field can be influenced by the operating frequency of the generator. This so-called skin effect is used for surface hardening to define the thickness of the hardened layer. The penetration depth is calculated according to the simplified equation 1 with the electrical conductivity and the permeability r of the material to be heated and the frequency f [Liedtke et al., 2009]. 503

(1)

The permeability decreases with rising temperature of the heated material. As this effect is nonlinear the penetration depth increases abruptly when the Curie-temperature is reached, the temperature where magnetic materials lose their magnetic properties. Using a frequency of 10 kHz and a sheet thickness of 1.5 mm this leads to a self-regulated process because at Curie-temperature the penetration depth is higher than the sheet thickness. For a further rise of temperature cross field (figure 1B) or face inductors (figure 1C) can be used. Having another orientation between magnetic field and work piece, the penetration depth is not influenced by the frequency or the permeability of the material. Cross field inductors have a very high energy efficiency but lead to an inhomogeneous heating of work pieces with an inconstant cross section as it is typical for shaped blanks. Here face inductors reach much better results with the disadvantage of a reduced efficiency. To reach a high energy efficiency and a homogeneous heating of the blank, the induction heating device developed at the Graz University of technology consists of a longitudinal field inductor and a face inductor. In the first inductor Curie-temperature is reached, for 22 MnB5 741 C, and in the second inductor another 150-200 K are added. It was proved that with this configuration the overall efficiency is higher than with conventional roller hearth furnaces [Kolleck et al., 2009]. It was also shown that for uncoated material similar part properties could be reached with induction heating in comparison to convective heating. The grade of austenitization as well as the mechanical properties of the quenched component has been taken into account. With this new technology a tremendous reduction of heating time can be reached which results in lower investment costs and reduced floor space for the heating device.

2. AL/SI COATED STEELS FOR HOT STAMPING Uncoated 22MnB5 covers only a small proportion of the automotive applications. Even if protective gas is used in the furnace the heated blank is exposed to the air which leads to scale formation. This scale reduces the lifetime of the tools and has to be removed from the formed part by sandblasting before the following painting processes. Another option to avoid scale formation is the use of coated materials. Because of the minimum number of process steps the direct hot stamping process with Al/Si-coated 22MnB5 is the one which is actually preferred in automotive industry. The melting point of this coating is below the austenitization temperature of the base material, about 600 C.

During the heating of the blanks Fe diffuses into the coating which leads to a rise of the melting temperature to 1100 C [Suehiro et al., 2003]. Figure 2 shows the cross section of Al/Si coated 22MnB5 at delivery stage and after the hot stamping process. The low melting temperature of the coating at the beginning of the heating process results in a high amount of maintenance, because liquid Al/Si is accumulated at the rollers of conventional furnaces. As the diffusion process is time- and temperature-dependent the recommended heating rate between 20 C and 700 C should not exceed 12 K/s.

Figure 2: Al/Si-coated 22MnB5 at delivery stage and after the hot stamping process

Figure 3: Inductively heated blank with accumulation of Al/Si at the end The heating speed of induction heating devices is much higher than 12 K/s. With the longitudinal field inductor at the Institute Tools & Forming heating rates up to 200 K/s were reached. Now it had to be shown, if the limits for induction heating are the same than for conventional furnaces or higher heating rates could be obtained. First trials

showed, that a high heating rate results in a complete melting of the coating and that a fraction of the coating is accumulated at the end of the blank. In some cases the coating even drops down. Figure 3 shows this effect using the example of an Al/Si-coated blank after heating in a longitudinal field inductor to Curie-temperature. A grid was applied onto the coating to observe the displacement of the coating. It can be seen that the grid remains on its original position and the liquid coating flows between the substrate and an oxide layer on the surface.

3. DETERMINING THE MAXIMUM HEATING RATE The first heating tests to gather information about the diffusion process were carried out in a conventional chamber furnace. The furnace was set to 950 C and the coated blanks were equipped with welded on type N thermocouples. The sheets were removed from the furnace at different temperatures and the condition of the coating was proved by scratch tests with a ceramic edge. It could be seen that at 580 C the coating starts to enter a semi-liquid phase and at 600 C the coating is completely liquid. The same results were achieved with heating tests in a longitudinal field inductor. By staying below 580 C no influence on the coating could be observed. To get more information about the time- and temperature-dependence of the diffusion process some basic investigations were carried out. These investigations were carried out at the Austrian Centre for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis (FELMI-ZFE), Graz. Circular samples with 5 mm in diameter were observed with a scanning electron microscope. The samples were mounted on a heating stage and heated to 950C. The heating rate was limited to 50 K/min. Figure 4 illustrates the results of these investigations. At 99 C the surface of the coating is still similar to the delivery stage. The material shows typical surface textures from the coating process. At 591 C these textures disappear because the coating enters the liquid phase. At 949 C the coating is resolidified with a completely new grain structure.

Figure 4: Heating process observed with a scanning electron microscope This investigation showed that the proposed heating rate of 12 K/s cannot avoid the melting of the coating and thus is not valid for the heating process of Al/Si-coated

22MnB5. Any heating technology and especially the used conveying systems have to tolerate this liquid phase of the coating. The very low heating rate of less than 1 K/s shows that there is no significant contribution to the diffusion process below 600 C

4. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK The investigations showed that there is no reliable requirement for the heating of Al/Sicoated 22MnB5. The proposed maximum heating rate of 12 K/s can neither be reproduced nor be applied to induction heating devices. Till 600C there is no limit concerning the heating rate. In any case the liquid phase cannot be avoided. The velocity of the diffusion process is temperature dependend and the diffusion velocity below the metling temperature of the Al/Si coating is too slow for an industrial application. The design of the induction heating device and also of the conveying system has to cope with liquid coating at least in a limited temperature range. REFERENCES [Hofmann et al., 2004] Hofmann H, Gkl S, Gerlach J, Bruex U: Properties of Light Steels with Induced Plasticity (L-IP Steels). Proceedings of the IDDRG International Deep Drawing Research Group Conference, Sindelfingen, Germany, 270279. [Neugebauer et al., 2006] Neugebauer R, Altan T, Geiger M, Kleiner M, Sterzing A: Sheet Metal Forming at Elevated Temperatures. Annals of the CIRP 55(2): 793 816. [Kolleck et al., 2007] R. Kolleck, H. Lscher: Optimierung gekhlter Werkzeuge fr das Presshrten borlegierter Stahlbleche. Zweiter Erlanger Warmformworkshop. November 2007, Erlangen, 93-102 [Kolleck et al., 2009] Kolleck, R.; Veit, R., Aspacher, J.: Efficiency of hot forming processes. In: Steinhoff, K.; Oldenburg, M.; Prakash B. (Edtrs.): Proc. 2nd International Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance Steel, 15-17 June 2009, Lulea, Sweden, 173-180 [Bariani et al., 2008] Bariani PF, Bruschi S, Ghiotti A, Turetta A: Testing Formability in the Hot Stamping of HSS. Annals of the CIRP 57(1):265268. [Kolleck et al. 2008] Kolleck R, Veit R, Hofmann H, Lenze F-J: Alternative Heating Concepts for Hot Sheet Metal Forming. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference in Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-performance Steel (CHS2), Kassel, Germany, 239246. [Benkowski, 1990] Benkowski, G.:Induktionserwrmung, Verlag Technik, Berlin. [Liedtke et al., 2009] Liedtke, D., Stiele, H.: Merkblatt 236 Wrmebehandlung von Stahl Randschichthrten, Stahl-Informations-Zentrum. [Suehiro et al, 2003] Suehiro et al.: Properties of Aluminium-coated Steels for Hotforming, Nippon Steel Technical Report, 1621.

Effects of the Initial Diameter of Bore and the Planar Anisotropy of n value and r value on Fracture Behavior of HSS by Flat-Bottomed Cylindrical Punch forming
Yasuhiro ITO* and Yoshiaki Nakazawa** * Corporate Research and Development Department Sumitomo Metals Industries 1-8 Fuso-cho, Amagasaki Hyogo 660-0891, Japan ** Automotive Technology Planning and Development Department Sumitomo Metals Industries 1-8-11 Harumi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-6111, Japan e-mail: itou-ys2@sumitomometals.co.jp

Abstract: By changing the initial diameter of bore, d0, bore expanding test by fat-bottomed cylindrical punch was done to clarify the effects of planar anisotropy of n value and r value on fracture behavior of HSS (Hig h-Strength- Steel). Experimental results showed that not only bore expansion ratio but also fractured direction around the circumferential region of bore were varied by d0. Fr actured position was m oved f rom alon g t he direction of corresponding to minimum n value to m inimum r vale as d0 increased. An alytical re sults exhibited poor ag reement with exp erimental results when d0 was smal l, wh ereas good correlation between analytical r esults and expe rimental resu lts wa s id entified a t the large initial diameter of bore. As a result , in bore expansion forming by fat-bottomed cylindrical punch, i t was clarified t o nee d no t on ly th e effects o f planer anisotropy o f n v alue and r value but also the effect of d0 for understanding stretch flange ability. Keywords: sheet metal forming, FEM, bore expanding test, HSS, stretch flange.

1. INTRODUCTION Demands f or im proving t he f uel co nsumption of autom obile become sever er an d severer to protect the global environment. On the other hand, improving the crash safety of automobile is also re quired to re duce the n umber of traffic death. HSS h as bee n widely applied to s tructural parts of au tomobile t o s atisfy both to re duce body mass fo r f uel economy and to improve crash safety [Y. Kuriyama et al., 2001]. However, HSS e xhibits

poorer press-formability comparing with mild steel, because the ductility of steel becomes lower as the t ensile stren gth in creased. Pa rticularly, frac ture and wrink le are se riously generated in the pr ess forming w ith HSS. Therefore, i n order t o improve the pressformability of HSS, it is necessary to clarify the relationship between mechanical properties and press -formability. Mor eover, th e establ ishment of new die design schem e for press forming with HSS is needed to ensure press-formability of the material. Generally, the deformation mode in press forming has been classified into four typical modes; deep drawing, bending, punch stretch forming and stretch flanging [K. Yoshida et al., 1959]. It is well known that in the case of deep drawing or punch stretch forming, the fracture generation is influenced mainly by the n and r value of mechanical properties [M. Fukuda et al., 1961]. However, in the case of bending or stretch flanging mode, the fracture generation i s inf luenced b y m icrostructure a nd the other c haracteristics suc h a s h ardness, roughness of th e m aterial, other th an th e m echanical properties. Theref ore m any stud ies have been condu cted to clarif y the effects o f metallographic st ructure and pun ching condition on the fracture generation in the bending and the stretch flanging [K. Yamazaki et al., 1995] [Y . Ab e et al., 2008] [E. Iizuka et al., 2005]. On the other hand, many stud ies have reported that the pla nar a nisotropy of mechanical pr operties a ffects the fracture behavior by f lat-bottomed cylindrical punch a s we ll a s the e aring phenomenon of dee p drawing [T. Jimma et al., 1970] [Y. Kurosaki et al., 1985]. However, the fracture behavior during stretch flanging by flat-bottomed cylindrical punch, which is a typical forming test to evaluate the stretc h flange a bility, h as not been quantitatively clarified, although a few studies have be en re ported in which not only the e ffects of yield l ocus on t he f racture behavior during stretch flan ging b ut also t he pr ediction o f the fracture lim it by ductile failure th eory ha ve b een examined [K. Hashimoto et al., 2008] [H. Tak uda et al., 2008 ]. Moreover, the effects of the initial diameter of bore and the interaction between the planner anisotropy a nd t he d iameter have not been cl arified. Especially, o nly a f ew stu dies ha ve been reported regarding the fracture behavior of HSS, the n value of which is less than 0.22 and the r value of which is almost 1.0. In this paper, in order to clarify the mechanism through which fracture is generated in press forming of HSS, focusing upon the pla stic deformation behavior of stretch flanging, bore expanding tests with various initial diameters were carried out. Not only experiments, but also numerical analysis was carr ied out usin g FEM. As a result, t he in fluences o f planner anisotropy of n and r value and initial diameter of bore on the fracture behavior of the stretch flanging were clarified. 2. MATERIALS As shown in Ta ble I, three types of material were use d in t he experiments. Altho ugh JSC440W (4 40W) h as the ferrite-pearlite structure and JSC4 40P (440P) has th e ferrite single phase st ructure, bo th h ave the sam e level of ten sile str ength. JSC 270D (270D),

which is ultra l ow c arbon IF s teel, was used f or the c omparison. 270D has the highest n value among these materials, and n value of 440P is higher than that of 440W. On the other hand, rave of 440P is as high as that of 270D. Moreover, although r of 440P and 440W are the same, their anisotropic directions are different. Figure 1 shows the planar anisotropy of n and r value of materials. Both n and r value of 440W are the lowest in 45 degrees against the rolling direction. In the case of 440P, n and r value are the lowest in 90 degrees against rolling direction and in the rolling direction. Table I; Mechanical properties of used materials in rolling direction. YS TS n value r value Material EL rave r (MPa) (MPa) (5-15%) (15%) JSC440W 302 461 38.0 0.175 1.04 1.04 0.33 JSC440P 298 444 36.3 0.190 1.27 1.74 -0.33 JSC270D 148 288 55.6 0.266 1.94 1.88 0.46 rave=(r0+2r45+r90)/4, r=(r0-2r45+r90)/2
0.27 n5-15% va lue 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.17 0 45 90 Angle against rolling direction /deg.
r15% value

0.26

2.4 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8

440W 440P 270D

0 45 90 Angle against rolling direction /deg.

Figure 1; Planar anisotropy of n and r value of used materials. 3. BORE EXPANDING TEST 3.1. Test methods Figure 2 shows the schematic drawing of bore expanding test. The punch diameter, dp was 50mm. A n i nitial bore w as m ade by machining on the center of sq uare blank of 100mm100mm. The initi al diameter of b ore, d0 varied fro m 8 mm t o 20 mm. Th e pun ch was st opped just af ter fracture i nitiation wa s o bserved in t he stretch flange. T he blank holding f orce was set 98kN to suppr ess the inflow of th e outline of th e bl ank. Th e same tests were conducted three times in consideration of the precision of the identification. The bore expansion ratio, is defined by equation (1) with d0 and the diameter of bore, d when fracture was generated.

 = (d d 0 ) / d 0 100

(1)

In addition, the distribution of the circum ferential st rain, on the edge of bo re was evaluated t o inve stigate the variation i n th e p lastic deformation be havior caused b y the variation of d0. As shown in Fig ure 3, the pattern which evenly divides the c ircumference of bore into 24 was drawn on the blank surface by ele ctrolytic-etching. was fi gured out by measuring th e c hange o f th e length of ev enly divided circ umferential l ine. Th e pun ch was stopped at the stroke when necking generation was predicted by numerical analyses. 3.2. Numerical analysis The nu merical an alyses we re ex ecuted wi th dynamic explicit FEM cod e LS-DYNA ver.971. The anisotropic yield function proposed by Hill (1948) was applied to the analyses to e xamine th e in fluence o f t he p lanar a nisotropy. J 2F was applie d as the plas ticity flow rule and isotropic hardening as the hardening rule. The coulomb friction rule was applied and the frictional coefficient between the blank and the tool was set 0.15. Figure 4 sh ows the me sh of th e blank used in the an alysis. In orde r to investigate the pla stic deformation behavior at th e ed ge o f bo re in detail, whe re th e plastic stra in grows especially in the circumferential direction, the circumference of b ore was e venly divided into 120 elements and th e le ngth of t he m esh s ize was set 1mm in t he ra dial direction. Th e f ull int egration element with seven integral points in thickness direction was employed. 100 54 d0 R5 dp=50 Figure 2; Schematic drawing of bore expanding test. Figure 4; FEM model of blank sheet. 4. RESULTS 4.1. Influence of initial diameter of bore on bore expansion ratio Figure 5 shows the effect of the initial diameter of bore, d0 on the bore expansion ratio, . The absc issa denotes the ratio of d0 to the punch diameter, dp. Triangle dot, square dot

R5

R.D. Figure 3; Evaluation of circumferential strain.

and circle dot in dicate the bore expansion ratio, of 270D, 440W and 440P, respectively. These dots mean the averaged and the error margin bar indicate the standard d eviation. Solid dot and open dot indicate to fracture at the outside of the edge of bore and at the edge of bore. As clearly shown, became larger as d0/dp increased, independently on materials and their fracture sites. In addition, 270D having high n and r value exhibited the largest at the all condition of d0/dp among all materials. Moreover, the boundary value of d0/dp at which the fracture site c hanged from outside of the h ole to the e dge of bore w as different depending on the material. The fracture site of 270D changed at d0/dp = 0 .22, whereas the fracture site changed at d0/dp = 0.32 in the case of 440W and 440P. As shown in Table I, because rave values of 270D and 440P are almost the same, it is estimated that the effect of d0/dp on change of the fracture site varies mainly by n value. In other words, it is easy for materials having low n value to fracture at the outside of the edge of bore. From this result, t he p lastic d eformation b ehavior of th e stretch f lange varies by the initial di ameter of bore, d0, t herefore, t he bore expansion ra te, also v aries. Mate rials having low n value as HSS fracture at the outside of the edge of bore, easily.
Bore expansion ratio / % 300 250 200 150 100 50 0.1 0.2
Fracrure site outside edge 270D 440W 440P

0.3 0.4 0.5 d0 / dp Figure 5; Effect of the ratio of the initial diameter of bore, d0 to the punch diameter, dp on bore expanding ratio, .

4.2. Influence of initial diameter of bore on fracture site Table II shows the appe arance o f the fracture or neck ing sit e, wh ich i s indicated by solid arr ow, in va rious d0/dp. He re, dashed arrow i ndicates t he r olling direction. As f or 440W, th e fracture sit e in circumferential directi on didnt depend on d0/dp a nd f ractures were observed in 45 de grees against the rolling direction ( = 4 5 degrees) in all cases of d0/dp. On th e ot her hand, the fr acture site in circumferential direction of 440P v aried by d0/dp. When d0/dp = 0. 20, fractures we re ge nerated o nly i n 9 0 d egrees aga inst the rolling direction ( = 90 degrees). When d0/dp = 0. 28, fractures were in 0 and 90 degrees against the rolling d irection ( = 0 and 90 d egrees), and th en when d0/dp = 0.36, fra ctures were

observed o nly in 0 de grees against the rolling dire ction ( = 0 de grees). Regarding the fracture site in ra dius direction, on th e ot her hand, f ractures of b oth 4 40W and 4 40P occurred at the outside of the edge of bore when d0/dp = 0.28, whereas the fractures were generated on the edge when d0/dp was more than 0.28. As a result, it can be concluded that the fracture site varies by d0/dp. In other words, the effect of the planar anisotropy of the mechanical properties on the fracture behavior of the stretch flanging varies by the initial diameter of bore, d0. Table II; Appearance of fracture or necking site in various conditions of d0/dp.
d0/dp 0.2 0 0.28 0.36 0.40

R.D.
440W

R.D.
440P

4.3. Distribution of circumferential strain by FEM and experiment Figure 6 shows the comparison of circumferential strain, at the edge of bore between the an alytical re sult a nd the e xperimental re sult in th e c ase o f 440 P. In t he ca se of la rge initial bore, su ch as d0/dp was 0.36, the strain distribution predicted by FEM showed g ood agreement wi th experimental resu lt. Ho wever, when d0/dp was 0.20, the difference of the strain between analytical and experimental results became remarkable as shown in Figure 7 (a). obtained by FEM exhibi ts minimum v alue at the angle, of 0 and 90 de grees whereas the experimental result exhibits maximum value. As a result, the precision of the strain prediction by the num erical analysis with Hi lls anisotropic yield locus (1948) was strongly influenced by the initial diameter of bore, d0. In order to examine the reason of the above results, the plastic deformation behavior of stretch flange corresponding to d0/dp is discussed the next chapter.

Circumferential strain

Circumferential strain

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0

EXP FEM

1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0

EXP FEM

45

90 135 Angle / deg

180

45

90 135 Angle / deg

180

(a) d0/dp=0.20 (d010mm) (b) d0/dp=0.36 (d018mm) Figure 6; Comparison of obtained circumferential strains of 440P between experiment and numerical analysis.

5. DISCUSSION 5.1. Influence of d0/dp on distribution of circumferential stress and stress ratio As mentioned in chapter 4, fracture site differed depending upon initial diameter of bore, d0 which means that the effect of the planar anisotropy on the plastic deformation behavior on the stretch flange varies by d0. In this chapter, in order to clarify the mechanism through which plastic def ormation b ehavior dif fers depending u pon d0/dp, th e distribu tion o f circumferential stress and stress ratio in the = 0 degrees direction where r value becomes lowest, and i n the = 45 de grees d irection where r va lue becomes hig hest are di scussed using the analytical result of 440P. Figure 7 s hows t he c omparison of th e distributions of ci rcumferential stress, and stress ratio, (/r) between d0/dp = 0. 20 and 0.36, when the bore expansion ratio, was 70.0% by which no necking occurred in the experiment. The abscissa denotes distance, R from the center of the bore. was influenced only by d0 and independent upon the planar anisotropy. As shown in the figure, increased monotonously from the edge of bore to the punch shoulder in both cases of d0/dp; increased from 0 to 1.0 when d0/dp = 0.20 and from 0 to 0.6 when d0/dp = 0.36. On the other hand, was strongly influenced not only by d0 but also the planar an isotropy. In th e case of d0/dp = 0. 20, in th e direction of = 0 de grees where r value is at its lowest, was the lowest in the vicinity of the edge of bore (portion A) and then in creased co rresponding to R. H owever, in the d irection of = 45 d egrees where r value is at its highest, was much la rger than i n = 0 degrees direction and it became at the highest at portion B far away from th e edge of bore where deformation was under plane strain mode as was around 0.6. On the contrary, when d0/dp = 0.36, was at the highest in = 0 degrees direction on the edge of bore (portion D) where deformation

was und er uni-axial tensile mode as was around 0. In = 45 degrees d irection, was smaller than in = 0 degrees direction and it increased monotonously from the edge of bore. Figure 8 shows the influence of on and . Here, the = 45 degrees direction when d0/dp = 0.20 and the = 0 degrees direction when d0/dp = 0.36 were chosen and was 15.7% and 70.0%. As for d0/dp = 0.20, exhi bited the largest value outside t he ho le edge (A 1, A 2) independently upon hole expansion ratio. In the case of d0/dp = 0.36, at the edge of bore remarkably increased c orresponding to . In co mparison with , A 1 and A2 wer e u nder plane str ain deformation mode as o f each p ortion was around 0.5, and B 1 an d B2 were under the uni-axial tensile deformation mode as each was nearly 0.
d0/dp = 0.20 = 0deg. d0/dp = 0.20 = 45deg. d0/dp = 0.36 = 0deg. d0/dp = 0.36 = 45deg. Circumferential stress / MPa
d0/dp = 0.20 = 15.7% d0/dp = 0.20 = 70.0% d0/dp = 0.36 = 15.7% d0/dp = 0.36 = 70.0%

B D C

Circumferential stress / MPa

700 680 660 640

= 70.0%

700 650 600 550 500 1.0

A1 B1

A2

A
620 1 0.8

B2 0 R A1

R B
Stress ratio

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Stress ratio

0.6 0.4 0.2

A2

B2

B1

0 10 20 Distance from the center of the hole R / mm

0 10 20 Distance from the center of the hole R / mm

Figure 7; Comparison of circumferential stress distributions and stress ratio, ( / r) distributions between d0/dp =0.20 and d0/dp =0.36.

Figure 8; Comparison of circumferential stress change and stress ratio change between =45deg. with d0/dp =0.20 and =0deg. with d0/dp =0.36.

As a result, it can be concluded that the f ormability of th e stretch flange d eformation becomes poor under the plane strain deformation mode in the direction having the highest r value when d0 is small, such as d0/dp =0.20. On the other hand, when d0 is l arge, such as d0/dp =0.36, the formability becomes poor under the uni-axial tensile deformation mode in the direction having the lowest r value. 5.2. Comparison of deforming behavior between experiment and analysis As mentioned in chapter 4, in the case of 440P, circumferential strain, became large in the vicinity of = 0 and 90 degrees directions and fractures arose in the rolling direction ( = 90 d egrees) when d0 was small and in 90 degrees against the rolling direction ( = 0 degrees) when d0 was large. In comparison with the planar anisotropy of n and r value of materials shown in Figure 1, it is clear that 440P fractures were in the d irection having the lowest n value ( = 90 degrees) when d0 was small and in the direction having the lowest r value ( = 0 degrees) when d0 was large. However, in the analytical results, became large in the direction having the highest r value when d0 was smal l and in the direction having the lowest r value when d0 was large. As a result, the correlation between the experimental and th e ana lytical results b ecame worse when d0 was small. I t is po ssible th at t his disagreement is c oncerned with the treatment of hardening rule of the material. Although the anisotropic ha rdening was obtained b y the experiment, th e is otropic hardening wa s assumed in the analysis. Thus, this difference of the hardening behavior may influence on the p recision o f analytical re sult, especially in the case th at fractures are g enerated under plane strain deformation mode, when d0 is small. From th is r esult, the di fference of the deformation behavior of the stretch flanging causes between the experimental and the analytical result by d0. Esp ecially, the analytical result isnt good agreement with the experimental one when the fracture limit of the stretch flange deformation causes under the plane strain deformation mode when d0 is small. 6. CO NCLUSIONS In this paper, in order to clarify the mechanism through which fracture is generated in press forming of HSS, focusing upon the pla stic deformation behavior of stretch flanging, bore expanding tests with various initial diameters were carried out. Not only experiments, but also numerical analysis was carr ied out usin g FEM. As a result, t he in fluences o f planner a nisotropy of n a nd r val ue and the initial diameter of bore, d0 on th e frac ture behavior of the stretch flanging were clarified. The main points are the following. (1) The plastic deformation behavior of the stretch flange varies by d0, therefore, the bore expansion rate, also varies. (2) Materials having low n value such as HSS easily fracture at the outside of the bore.

(3) d0 and the mechanical properties o f materials in fluence th e fractu re si te. Fractures are generated in th e di rection having th e lo west n va lue when d0 is small a nd in the direction having the lowest r value when d0 is large. (4) Fractures are generated under plane strain deformation when d0 is small and under uniaxial tensile deformation when d0 is large. (5) Although the ani sotropic h ardening is obt ained by the e xperiment, the isotropic hardening is a ssumed i n t he a nalysis a nd t hus, this difference m ay influence on the precision o f an alytical re sult, especially in th e case that fractu res are g enerated un der plane strain deformation mode, when d0 is small. REFERENCES [Y. Kuriyama et al., 2001] Y. Kuriyama, M. Takahashi, H. Ohashi: "Trend of Car Weight Reduction using High- strength Steel", Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan 55-4 (2001) 51-57. [K. Yoshida et al., 1959] K. Yoshida: Reports of the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research 35-3 (1959) 199. [M. Fukuda et al., 1961] M. F ukuda: "R-value Representation of Pla sticity Theory of Anisotropic Material", Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity 5-36 (1961) 3-15. [K. Yamazaki et al., 1995] K. Yamazaki, Y. Mizuyama, M. Oka, Y. Tokunaga: "Influence of Microstructure on Bendab ility of Ultrahigh-Strength St eel S heet -Formability of Ultrahigh -Strength Steel Sh eet I-", Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity 36-416 (1995) 973-978. [Y. Abe et al., 2008] Y. A be, R. Tada, K. Mo ri: the Proceedings of the 2008 Japanese Spring Conference for the Technology of Plasticity (2008) 285-286. [E. Iizuka et al., 2005] E. Iizuka, T. Hira, A.Yoshitake: "Effect of Forming Conditions on Stretch Fl ange F ormability of Hi gh-Strength Hot-Rolle d Steel S heets", Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity 46-534 (2005) 625-629. [T. Jimma et al., 1970] T. Jimma: "Earing of Deep-Drawn Cylindrical Cups", Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity 11-117 (1970) 707-710. [Y. Kurosaki et al., 1985] Y. Kurosaki, Y. Unno: "Anisotropic Behaviours of Sheet Metals on Bore -Expanding Test", Journal of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers 51462 (1985) 409-416. [K. Hashimoto et al., 2008] K. Hashimoto, T. Kuwabara, E. Iizuka: the Proceedings of the 2008 Japanese Spring Conference for the Technology of Plasticity (2008) 131-132. [H. Takuda et al., 2008] H. Takuda, K. Ozawa, T. Hama, T. Yoshida, J. nitta: "Forming limit prediction in bore ex pansion by c ombination of f inite elem ent s imulation and ductile fracture criterion", Journal of the Japan Society for Technology of Plasticity 49572 (2008) 886-890.

Research in Deep-Draw Forming of High-Strength Steel Sheet Using a NC Sesrvo Press Machine
H. Yamashita*,H. Nakai*,E. Onose* T. Higaki*And M. Sayama* * Honda R&D Co.,Ltd. , Haga, Tochigi, 321-3393, Japan Hiroyuki_Yamashita@n.t.rd.honda.co.jp

Abstract: The use of step motion on a servo press increased the deep-draw forming limit with JAC440W 1.4t from 50 mm to 60 mm. This is considered to be due to stress relaxation in the material, and a slide stopping time of 0.5 seconds during the step motion provides the optimal balance with productivity. Keywords: deep-drawing, slide motion control, high strength steel, stress relaxation

1. BACKGROUND Global warming has become an international issue in recent years, inspiring the automobile industry to reduce weight in order to enhance fuel economy and reduce CO2. Meanwhile, collision safety standards have recently been growing more rigorous with every year, and research has been underway to create a safe automobile that is ahead of these trends. In order to realize these contradictory objectives, there has been increasing application of high-strength steel sheet. Figure 1 shows the ratio of high-tensile-strength steel used in body structural frame in Honda vehicles [1]. It is evident that the application ratio of high-tensile-strength steel has been rising with every model year and that the hardness grade has been rising at the same time. The placement of high-strength steel sheet of the various appropriate kinds in the appropriate locations, taking crash type and crush deformation controllability into consideration, has held weight down to a minimum. However, high-tensile-strength steel has lower formability than mild steel and is subject to limitations in the parts that can use it and the shapes it can take. Research on deep-draw forming of high-tensile-strength steel was carried out in order to expand its range of applicability to parts and to reduce its weight. Servo press machines have recently appeared on the scene, allowing complex motions that were not previously available. Research on enhancement of formability by the application of those complex motions has been reported by Tai et al [2]. The present authors have carried out formability enhancement by a different method using servo press machines.

Figure 1 ; High Strength Steel Application

2. TEST METHOD 2.1. Test Equipment The die shown in Figure 2 is used for deep-drawing rectangle cup. The round columns in the bottom punch part of this die have strain gauges affixed to them, which are used to measure the forming load. The press machine used was an Aida Engineering, Ltd., NC1 2500(D) 2500 kN. The slide motion of this press machine can be freely programmed by means of an NC servo-mechanism. Figure 3 shows the blank shape. The blank holding force was set to 100 kN, and for the material, steel types of 270-980 MPa grade in Table 1 were used. For the evaluation method, the limit depth up to which no cracking or necking occurs was used as the forming limit depth by 5 mm steps.

Figure 2 ; Punch

Figure 3 ; Blank shape

Table 1 ; Mechanical properties of tested samples Sample name T [mm] JAC270F JAC270D JAC440W JAC590R 1.4 JAC590Y JAC590T JAC780T JSC980Y Steel kinds Yp [MPa] Ts [MPa] El [%] Interstitial Free 164 295 51 Interstitial Free 148 300 51 Solution Hardening 373 464 35 Precipitation Hardening 482 598 25 Dual Phase 365 632 30 TRIP 400 644 36 Dual Phase 446 817 23 Dual Phase 646 1024 14

2.2. Two Press Slide Motions Figures 4 and 5 show samples of the press slide motion (hereafter motion) used in this research. Figure 4 will be termed crank motion and Figure 5 shows example of step motion. Crank motion indicates processing that describes a sinusoidal wave motion with respect to time, as does a conventional mechanical press. Step motion indicates processing in which the slide is temporarily stopped with respect to time during forming.
Crank motion TDC

Step motion TDC

BDC Time

BDC Time

Figure 4 ; Motion Profile of crank motion.

Figure 5 ; Motion profile of step motion

3. TEST RESULTS 3.1. Forming Test Results Figure 6 shows the results from forming with crank motion and step motion. The test sample material was JAC440W. With the crank motion, cracking was visible in the

Stroke

Stroke

corner at the forming depth of 65 mm. With the step motion, forming could continue up to 70 mm without any cracking. This confirmed that forming with step motion could raise the forming limit. As a result of confirmation that forming could take place at a forming depth of 60 mm, the forming limit depth was increased from 60 mm to 70 mm.

(a) By crank motion (65 mm)

(b) By step motion ( 70 mm)

Figure 6 ; Results of forming test Figure 7 shows the forming loads at those times. It is apparent from Figure 7 that the crank and step motions have generally the same forming load at each slide position. However, it is apparent from the time change in the step-motion forming load shown in Figure 8 that the forming load diminishes during the time when the forming is stopped partway. When the motion starts again, the load recovers to generally the same value as before the motion stopped, then subsequently describes a curve generally similar to that from crank motion processing. A forming test was conducted with JAC590Y for the purpose of confirmation. Where the forming limit had been 50 mm with the crank motion, forming could take place at up to 70 mm with the step motion.

Figure 7 ; Forming load with crank motion and step motion

Figure 8 ; Forming load with step motion (Time-Load)

3.2. Material Testing Tension tests of the materials alone were carried out in order to verify whether the phenomenon of forming load reduction during the forming tests was caused by the forming shape or by the material. The tension test pieces were made in a strip shape and two processing speeds were used, slow and fast. Two stopping times were used, 1.0 second and 10.0 seconds. Two stopping positions were used, low-strain and high-strain. Figure 9 shows the results from stopping in the low-strain range and Figure 10 the results from stopping in the high-strain range. A reduction in stress, or a stress relaxation phenomenon, was observed when stopping at the low-strain and the highstrain positions. Stopping for 10.0 seconds caused the load to diminish from 405 MPa to 390 MPa on the low-strain side, a reduction of 3.6%. On the high-strain side, it diminished from 482 MPa to 464 MPa, a reduction of 3.7%. It was apparent from this that the load would diminish by a similar percentage. Consequently, stopping in a higher-strain region yields a correspondingly greater absolute value for relaxation.

Figure 9 ; Tension test results ( 10 sec stop at 8 % strain, JAC440W)

Figure 10 ; Tension test results ( 10 sec stop at 15 % strain, JAC440W)

Figure 11 is an enlarged view of the stress relaxation portion from the point immediately after stopping. It is apparent from this that the amount of relaxation changes with the passage of time after stopping, and that the amount of relaxation is extremely large immediately after stopping, in particular. Figure 12 shows the amount of stress relaxation per unit of time. It is apparent from this that the speed of relaxation declines to 30% during the initial 0.5 seconds. At 1.0 second, it declines to 15%. In other words, it can be said that there is a greater effect during the 1.0 seconds of the initial period of relaxation. Similar phenomena of stress relaxation were also found to occur at high speeds and low speeds. Moreover, stress relaxation of 34% was found at 10.0 seconds in every type of steel tested, from the 270 MPa grade to the 980 MPa grade.

Figure 11 ; Expanded view of stress relaxation portion. (10 sec stop at 15% strain, JAC 440W 1.4t)

Figure 12 ; Stress relaxation speed

4. DISCUSSION The ideal in terms of production is to shorten the processing time as much as possible. Forming trials were therefore conducted, building on the results obtained in the material testing described in section 3.2. In order to explore the limiting points for stopping times of 1 second or less that have a large stress relaxation effect, the times of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 second were used. Table 2 shows the results. With stopping for 1.0 and 0.5 seconds, forming could be carried out at the forming depth of 70 mm without any necking or cracking. With the still shorter stopping times of 0.3 and 0.1 seconds, necking was observed, and when forming was carried out using a crank motion without

stopping, cracking occurred at the 65-mm point. It was determined from this that the effectiveness of formability enhancement by means of step motion is dependent on the stopping time. It was found that the stopping time had to be 0.5 seconds or more in order to obtain sufficient effect. This 0.5-second stopping time is considered the optimal time for minimizing the impact on productivity. The fact that the material testing results showed the occurrence of stress relaxation regardless of the type of steel or the strain rate suggests that formability enhancement by step motion can be expected to occur regardless of the forming speed or type of steel. Table 2 ; Influence by stop time Stop time (sec) Non stop 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.0 Result Crack Neck Neck Good Good

5. CONCLUSION This research involved the performance of forming tests using servo motion. Forming by step motion enabled an enhancement of formability. A 0.5-second stopping time in step motion was confirmed to be the optimal stopping time that has the minimal impact on productivity. It was determined from the above that step motion processing is very effective with respect to the deep-draw formability of high-strength steel sheet. Application of this approach can be expected to enable the use of ultra-high-strength steel sheet in more parts and so contribute significantly to the reduction of chassis weight.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The cooperation given by Mr. Kyuno of Aida Engineering, Ltd., in the course of this research is acknowledged with gratitude.

REFERENCES [1]T.Wada, Honda R&D Co., Ltd, Jp: Proc. ECB2006 p300-320 [2] Y. Tamai, Y. Yamasaki, A. Yoshitake, T. Imura: Proc. IDDRG2006 p403-408

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Controlling Factors for Mechanical Property of Ultra HSS

Hiroshi Takechi 3-29-15-211 Kasuga-cho Nerima-Ku, Tokyo, Japan (Mail code: 179-0074) takechi@orange.ocn.ne.jp

Abstract: Production process of formable UHSS and their mechanical property are summarized. Metallurgical factor to control bending property, and regarding with that, a measuring method of local elongation is discussed. Recent topics of hot stamping for UHSS are introduced and commented. Keywords: Formable UHSS, TRIP steel, Bending property, Local elongation, Hot stamping. 1. PRODUCTION PROCESS OF FORMABLE UHSS UHSS is generally considered to cover the range of tensile strength at 980-1960 MPa, however, the processing for 780 MPa class HSS can be extended to 980 MPa class or more, the investigation results for 780 MPa class are included in this paper. As UHSS is not applied for outer panel, but for structural parts, reinforcements, parts for driving train, suspension and so on; the balance between elongation (formability, El) and stretch flanging property (hole expansion property, ) should be studied. They tend to be in trade off relation, as shown in Figure 1.1) But as in the case of lower arm or other parts, both properties should be improved by changing metallurgical structure as shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the effect of cooling process in 780MPa terms of chemical composition class (Mneq) on making various metallurgical phases. In the case of route 1 , F + B (Upper Bainite) or AF/BF (Acicular Ferrite or Bainitic Ferrite) can be obtained by cooling rate and the temperature in bainitic area (BT). When adequate El is Elongation (%) requested, the passing time in Figure 1 Relation between elongation and hole Ferrite area (F) should be expansion ratio in terms of metallurgical structure1) longer and BT is higher. On (F: Ferrite, A.F.: Acicular Ferrite, the contrary, adequate with B: Bainite, M: Martensite)
Hole expansion ratio (%)

Austenite (A) Artificial cooling Ferrite (F) Mn equivalence (Mneq)

Temperature

Pearlite (P) Bainite (B)

F+B - El type (AF, BF) B type

Martensite (M) Time

F+M (DP)

El type

Figure 2 Three Kinds of cooling process for typical metallurgical structures AF: Acicular Ferrite BF: Bainitic Ferrite DP: Dual Phase higher strength is requested, lower BT is recommendable. Excellent can be obtained by homogeneous hardness in a grain just like Bainite. Si is preferrably added to Ferrite to increase the hardness by solid solution hardening, which shortens the difference in hardness between Ferrite and carbides. Dual Phase steel (DP) is not good at value because of harder Marteusite. The addition of Si and changing the tempering temperature of Martensite, homogeneous hardness in a grain can satisfy the better balance between El and .2) Strengthening Ferrite matrix using very fine, in nano sized, precipitate (Ti, Mo) C, gives the both of good and El as shown in Table 1.3) This one is called NANOHITEN and is characteristic of having a simple phase of Ferrite (F) with the nano sized precipitates as shown in Figure 3.3)
Chemical composition (mass%) C Si Mn Others Mechanical properties YS TS El (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)

NANO0.04 Tr. 1.4 Ti, Mo 745 805 20 100 HITEN Conventional 0.07 0.99 1.54 Ti 696 810 18 79 high barring steel YS: Yield strength, TS: Tensile strength, El: Elongation, : Hole expansion ratio

Table 1 Typical chemical composition and mechanical properties of NANOHITEN and conventional high barring steel in TS 780 MPa grade3)

Figure 3 Effect of microstructure on elongation and hole expansion ratio3)

TRIP-Aided Bainitic Ferrite steel sheet is reported.4) The chemical composition is represented by C and D in Table 2. Si deters the carbide precipitation from Bainitic Ferrite lath and assures the formation of Retained Austenite in film like shape. Nb makes grain refining and Mo forms homogeneous Bainitic Ferrite. Figure 4 and Figure 5 represent the heat cycle and the relation between austempering temperature and mechanical property respectively. This steel is also reported to have strong resistance to delayed fracture.4) 900C 120s > AC3 (mass%) Steel C Si Mn Nb Mo 1050C/s A 0.2 1.5 2.5 B 0.2 1.5 2.5 0.05 C 0.2 1.5 2.5 0.2 250400C240s Austempering D 0.2 1.5 2.5 0.05 0.2 4) Table 2 Chemical compositions of steels Figure 4 Heat treatment condition4)

Figure 5 Effect of austemper temperature on tensile property4) Austempered Si - Mn steel is well known as TRIP steel with lean chemistry.5) Good elongation can be obtained even when tensile strength is increased, if the volume fraction of Retained Austenite (R) is also increased. R can easily be increased by increasing of C content, however, it is harmful for weldability, when C content exceeds about 0.2%. Mechanical fastening should be studied to use TRIP steel with lean chemistry having higher C content. Higher content of Mn tends to increase the volume fraction of Retained Austenite and the stability against applied stress in TRIP steel.6) Figure 6 shows that the volume

fraction of R can be increased more than 30%, when the steel having 0.1C - 5Mn - 2Si (%) is annealed at 700C for 20 min.6) The steel shows very high absorbing energy (AE) during plastic deformation, which amounts to approximately 3,000kgf/mm2%. as shown in Figure 7.7) AE is expressed by following equation. AE = TS(Tensile strength kgf/mm2) El (Elongation %, Gauge length 50mm) 30% of R is marvelous, however, the heat treating time is too longer for conventional continuous annealing line. Grain refining by controlled rolling combined

Figure 6 The effect of heating temperature and holding time in the (+) region on the formation of retained austenite in 5% Mn steel.6)

Figure 7 The relation between tensile strength and total elongation (hot rolled TRIP steel).7)

with Nb addition gives fine hot rolled structure, which increases work hardening exponent n value with increasing of R grains.8) The R grains are stabillized by C concentration diffused from transformed Ferrite grains, which are nucleated at old grain boundaries of fine Austenite. Control rolled TRIP steel containing 5% Mn - 2% Si is suggested as New TRIP steel to give more R in shorter annealing time.7) 2. BENDING PROPERTY UHSS would be used by bend forming including roll forming in many cases. But metallurgical controlling factor for bending seems not to be so much clear as other forming patterns such as drawing, stretch forming, flanging and so on. Bending property is mainly governed by Homogeneity Index and Local Elongation, not by Total Elongation and n-value as shown in Figure 8 - Figure 11.9) Homogeneity Index is defined as the standard deviation of Rockwell hardness (HRC) measured at every 5 points apart 2mm in distance. Bending property is clearly based on the ductility of work hardened area, and it is not related with tensile strength and the combination of different phases as shown in Figure 12.9) It can be said that homogeneous structure is better for bending property even though

Figure 8 Relationship between total Figure 9 Relationship between local elongation and minimum bending radius.9) elongation and minimum bending radius.9)

Figure 10 Relationship between n-value Figure 11 Relationship between homogeneity and minimum bending radius.9) index and minimum bending radius.9)

the strength level is so high.9) Local elongation is not easy to be measured strictly in general, and it is useful to measure the gauge length dependency of total elongation to distinguish local elongation.10) Figure 13 shows the relation between Total elongation f (%) and Gauge length (mm) (L), which is denoted by following equations. f = (L) (1) or f = (L/t) (2) where t is sheet thickness, and are constant.10) Figure 14 shows the strain distribution (x) near broken point of tensile specimen. fo is the local strain at the tip of broken point and is found to have a good correlation with local elongation in various metals as shown in Figure 15.10) can give correct local elongation easily.

f = (L) f = (L/t)

Figure 12 Relation between tensile strength and minimum bending radius.9)

Figure 13 Relation between total elongation (f) and gauge length (L)10)

fo: Local strain at the tip of broken point L: Gauge length

Figure 14 Strain distribution near broken point

Figure 15 Relation between local elongation (L.El) and value10) 3. HOT STAMPING PROCESS APPLIED FOR UHSS Hot stamping process is very feasible for such a harder material as UHSS, because formability of blank is improved by smaller flow stress at press forming and less spring back behavior. The life of metallic tools tends to be prolonged as well. But on the contrary, following disadvantages are existed. (1) A big heating furnace would be necessary. (2) Oxidation of blank surface takes place during heating, hence, shot blasting is necessary to get rid of the oxide. (3) Heating speed is expected to meet with press forming speed, but it is misadjusted in almost cases. (4) During transferring a blank from furnace to press forming machine, the temperature of the heated blank tends to be lowered. (5) After hot stamping, the blank should be in Martensite, not including other phases such as Ferrite, Pearlite and Bainite essentially. So fast cooling is necessary together with using the steel having higher quenching ability. The steel having Mn and B in Table 3 was cooled by various cooling rate as shown in Figure 16.11) It is necessary to increase the cooling rate more than 30C/sec to obtain Martensite structure. But at lower temperature range, the temperature difference between the blank and metallic tools becomes smaller and the heat generated by Austenite to Martensite transformation interrupts the fast cooling of the blank. After Martensite is formed, slower cooling rate causes Martensite tempering and the cooling rate as fast as 300C/s is necessary to interrupt the Martensite tempering.11) Modified chemical composition having Nb, B with less P and S admiringly improves Charpy impact value by hot stamping just like controlled hot rolling process as shown in Table 4 and Figure 17.12) The combination of metallurgy and engineering for equipment will be more important as shown in this case. C Si Mn B Others 0.21 0.25 1.2 0.0014 Cr, Ti Table 3 Chemical composition of steel (mass%).11)

Figure 16 Continuous cooling transformation diagram.11)

C 0.3 Si 0.3 Mn 1.3 P 0.0010.01 S 0.0010.01 Nb 00.1 N 00.005 B 0.001 Others Ti, Cr

Table 4 Chemical composition of steels (mass%).12)

Figure 17 Charpy impact value as a function of hardness in hot-stamped steels.12) Recently, resistance heating of blank was proposed to make local die quenching of quenchable steel sheets as shown in Figure 18.13) Direct current heating can increase heating rate, for example, it takes only 2 seconds for heating up to 900C. The fast heating is also useful for diminishing oxidation.13) The press forming machine in Figure 18 has grooves on punch and die, which make harder or softer area by controlling the contact of blank with cold punch and die.13) And ceramic plate, steatite, settled at die and sheet holder can prevent the quenching of flange portion to improve formability. Harder and softer area corresponding to grooves on punch and die are clearly observed in Figure 19.13)

Figure 18 Die and sheet holders having steatite plates for prevention of quenching of flange portions in hat-shaped bending13)

Figure 19 Prevention of quenching of flange portions in hat-shaped bending by steatite plates in die and sheet holders for T=900C and t=3.5s13) Local die quenching process will develope the advantage of hot stamping technology, for many application. 4. CONCLUSION UHSS will be more useful for future cars including electric car to reduce the weight and improve the safety. UHSS having higher tensile strength more than 980 MPa with good elongation and / or good hole expansion ratio should be more developed by changing matrix phases and the distribution of precipitates, such as New TRIP steel, NANOHITEN, TRIP Aided Bainitic Ferrite steel and so on. Bend forming should be studied from the both of metallurgical factors and equipments. Hot stamping will be more important for UHSS, in which the process metallurgy just like controlled hot rolling and new advantage like local die quenching should be extended. REFERENCE 1) N.Yoshinaga, M.Takahashi, "Development of High Strength sheet steels for Automobiles using Bainite and Martensite and Their Applications.": Ferrum ISIJ Vol 14 No.2 (2009) pp. 81-85

2) Y.Mukai "Development of New High-strength steel sheet for Automobile": Technical report of Kobe steel Co. Vol 55 No.2 (Sep.2005) pp. 31 - 35 3) K.Seto, Y.Funakawa, S.Kaneko, "Hot Rolled High Strength steels for Suspension and Chasis Parts": Technical report of JFE steel Co. No.16 (June 2007) pp.28 - 33 4) K.Kasuya, Y.Mukai, "Effect of Alloying Elements and Annealing conditions on Tensile Properties of TRIP-Aided steel sheet with Bainitic Ferrite Matrix": Technical report of Kobe steel Co. Vol.57 No.2 (Aug.2007) pp. 27 - 30 5) O.Matsumura, Y.Sakuma, H.Takechi: "Enhancement of Elongation by Retained Austenite in Intercritical Annealed 0.4 C - 1.5 Si - 0.8 Mn steel": Transactions ISIJ, Vol 27 (1987) pp. 570 - 579 6) T.Furukawa, O.Matsumura "Formation of Retained Austenite and Mechanical Properties in Low-carbon steels Treated with Simple Heat Treatment": Netsusyori (Heat Treatment) No.4 Vol 37 (1997) pp. 204 - 211 7) H.Takechi "Transformation Hardening of Steel Sheet for Automotive Applications": Journal of Metals, TMS Vol 60 No 12 (2008) pp. 22 - 26 8) H.Takechi "Effect of Niobium Addition on the Formation of Retained Austenite in Hot Rolled TRIP Steel": Proc. of HSLA Steels 2000 (X'ian, China: CSM) (2000) pp. 113 118 9) K.Yamazaki, Y.Mizuyama, M.Oka, Y.Tokunaga "Influence of Microstructure on Bendability of Ultrahigh-strength steel sheet": Journal of the JSTP Vol 36 No.416 (1995 - 9) pp. 973 - 978 10) H.Takechi, M.Usuda, K.Uchiyama "Gauge length dependency on ductility measurement of various metallic sheets": Report of Japanese Light Metal Association No.89 Fall Meeting, (1995) pp. 165 - 166 11) N.Kajima, T.Nishihata, M.Nakata, K.Hikita "Producing a fully martensitic microstructure by hot stamping method and its mechanical properties": CAMP-ISIJ Vol.22 (2009) pp. 492 - 495 12) T.Nishihata, N.Kojima, M.Ozawa, K.Nakajima "The Effect of Alloying Element on Properties of TS 1.8 GPa Grade Hotstamped Parts": CAMP-ISIJ Vol.21 (2008) - pp. 597 13) K.Mori, Y.Okuda, M.Uchida, S.Kamizono "Local Die Quenching in Hot Stamping for Ultra High Strength Steel Formed Products Having Strength Distribution": Journal of the JSTP Vol.50 No.586 (2009) pp. 1049 - 1053

Determination of the formability of DP-steels by a combination of experimental methods and FE-simulations

Mats Sigvant*, Kjell Mattiasson, and Mats Larsson *Volvo Cars Manufacturing Engineering Dept 81153 Stamping CAE & Die Development, SE-293 80 Olofstrm, Sweden msigvan1@volvocars.com

Abstract: The main purpose of the current study is to illustrate a few of the complications associated with today's methods for the evaluation of materials formability, and to suggest improvements of these methods. The study includes eight different DP-steels from several suppliers in a thickness range between 1.0 and 1.7 mm with minimum tensile strengths from 600 MPa to 980 MPa. Results from tensile tests, FLC tests, viscous pressure bulge tests and LDH tests with friction will be presented and compared. The paper will also present FE-simulation results for the tested grades using different material models in order to illustrate the importance of a correct material modelling. Keywords: Sheet Metal Forming Simulation, Material Characterization, DP-steels, Inverse modelling, Offline Strain Measurements

1. INTRODUCTION There is a strong pressure on the automotive industry to reduce the environmental impact from their products. One solution to this problem is to reduce the weight of the vehicles, and therefore there is an interest in the industry for new stronger steel grades, e.g. DP-steels. However, these new steel grades are generally advanced. Therefore, knowledge, methods, and experience gained in connection to the use of other steel grades may not be applicable for these new materials. This is especially true for sheet metal forming simulations of these grades. Another complication with these new grades is that material qualities from different material suppliers, marketed under the same name, has completely different properties and formability. This is a bit confusing and difficult to comprehend for non-specialists with limited knowledge of materials and their mechanical properties. The complications described above make it necessary for the customers of the material suppliers to be able to estimate different grades formability. However, today there are several ways to do this, and each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Below, a few available methods are described.

1.1. Tensile tests Normally, the formability of a material is determined by data from tensile tests. The main reason for this is that the tensile test is a cheap and well defined experiment which makes it easy to obtain data. Very often the material suppliers are providing the tensile data to there customers. The studied tensile properties are the difference between the tensile stress (Rm) and the yield stress (Rp02) together with the uniform elongation (Au). The difference between Rm and Rp02 is a measure of the maximum work hardening of the material, while the Au determines at what strain the diffuse localisation starts. The larger these properties are, the better the formability of the material is assumed to be. For example, according to Hills theory is the onset of localisation at plane strain is equal to the n-value, which for steels is almost the same as the Au-value, i.e. a high Au-value indicates that the FLC value at plane strain is also high. There are several drawbacks with the tensile test and these could lead to false conclusions regarding a materials formability. First, the tensile test can't give any information about the hardening of the material after diffuse localisation. This is a major drawback with the tensile test since the hardening at large strains is important for the formability. Another problem with the tensile test is that it only gives information about the materials behaviour under one strain path (uniaxial tension). All other strain paths are of equal importance for a correct evaluation of materials formability. 1.2. Formability tests There are a number of different tests developed for evaluation the material formability, e.g. LDH, LDR, hole expansion tests and bending tests. They all have the advantage that they test the material behaviour under other deformation modes than the tensile test. Since many of them are conducted until the blank fails, the hardening at large strains are also included in the evaluation of a material. The drawback is that both the formability of the material and how this material interacts with the forming die are tested. For example, different process parameters influence the results, e.g. friction coefficients and blank holder force. Therefore, wrong conclusions could be drawn if these tests are not carefully executed and evaluated. 1.3. FLC test The FLC-test has the same advantage mentioned in 1.2, i.e. both the material behaviour under several strain paths and the hardening at large strains are tested, though the strain paths has to be linear. Another advantage is that process parameters, especially friction, should have very little influence on the results. The drawback is that the results only indicate the forming limit for a material; it doesn't predict how fast the material reaches this limit. Another difficulty is how to evaluate the test results and define an FLC.

2. CURRENT STUDY In the current study eight different DP-steels from different suppliers and with different thicknesses are analysed both experimentally and numerically. The different materials are presented in Table I. For comparison is also a DX56D sample included in the study. All tested samples were hot dip galvanized. Supplier Grade A B C D E DP600Z 1.60 1.00 1.50 1.45 1.45 DP780Z 1.70 1.60 DP980Z 1.70 DX56D 0.80 Table I. Sheet thickness (mm) for each sample used in the study. 2.1. Experimental work Each sample in Table I have been tested as follows: Tensile tests in 0, 45 and 90 angle to the rolling direction. Viscous Pressure Bulge Test, see [Sigvant et al., 2009] FLC-tests with 7 different waist widths (25, 50 , 75, 100, 125, 150 and 200 mm) LDH-test with friction between the punch and the blank The tensile tests are performed in a MTS-machine and during the test the strains are measured both with a video extensometer as well as with the ARAMIS-system. All other tests are performed with an experimental die where the die ring, blankholder ring and punch can be changed in order facilitate different types of tests. Two ARAIMS cameras and a powerful light source are mounted on top of the die, see Figure 1. The blank holder force is generated with 6 large gas springs with total force of 600 kN. A lock bead is also used to prevent any draw-in of the material. In the FLC and the LDR with friction tests are a spherical steel punch with 100 mm diameter is used. The die opening in these tests has a diameter of 104 mm and the draw radius is 12 mm. In the FLC tests, a thick plastic sheet is placed between the blank and the punch and additional lubrication is also used in order to eliminate all influence of friction on the test results. The LDR with friction test is performed with the delivery oil present on the blank when it is delivered. During the FLC and LDR with friction tests the strains in the sheet together with the punch displacement and punch force are recorded with the ARAMIS system. The viscous bulge test is performed with silicone punch. Depending on the strength of the tested material, different hardnesses of this silicone punch is used. During this test the strains and the pressure in the silicone are recorded by the ARAMIS system. The equi-biaxial hardening curve and the equi-biaxial R-value are then calculated with two small programs in ARAMIS.

Two 25Hz ARAMIS cameras and a powerful light source.

Figure 1. Experimental die used in the current study. 2.2. FE-simulations All simulations presented in this paper have been performed with the special purpose FE-code AutoFormplus R1. The FE-model uses a uniform blank mesh of 2 mm without adaptive refinement during the simulation. The draw bead is modelled as a curve with a restraining and lifting force determined by the draw bead generator in AutoForm. The experimentally applied blank holder force is also used as blank holder force in the simulations. If nothing else is stated, the BBC2005 material model with eight parameters is used in all simulations. The parameters being part of the model are determined with the method described in [Banabic et al., 2010]. The transformation of the equi-biaxial hardening curve to an effective stress-strain curve is performed according to the procedure in [Sigvant et al., 2009]. An exploded view of the FE-model is shown in Figure 2. The blank shape is quadratic initially, and is then trimmed to the correct shape for each simulation, e.g. circular or with a waist. With this solution the blank mesh is identical in the studied area in all simulations.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Formability ranking by tests The ranking of the different grades formability based on tensile test results, the LDH with friction test and the FLC test are presented in Table II. In the tensile test is the Au-value is assumed to be more important than the difference between Rm and Rp02, i.e. if two grades have the same difference between Rm and Rp02 is the grade with the highest Au-value rated to be the better one. In the FLC test, the critical strain values at plane

strain are compared, and it is assumed that the grade with the highest value is the most formable one.

Draw bead

Punch Blank holder Blank

Die

Figure 2. Exploded view of the initial set-up of the FE-model Ranking 1. 2. 3. 4. Tensile test DX56D DP600 A DP600 D DP600 C LDH with friction DP600 D DP780 A DX56D DP600 E DP600 B FLC tests DX56D DP600 A DP600 D DP600 C DP600 B DP780 A DP800 B DP600 E DP980 A

5. DP600 E DP800 B 6. DP780 A DP980 A 7. DP600 B DP600 C 8. DP800 B DP600 A 9. DP980 A Table II. Formability ranking based on tensile tests, LDH with friction tests and FLC tests. The results in Table II show that the each of three tests indicates a different ranking of the grades in this study, which is expected. The two tests that produce the most similar results are the tensile test and the FLC test, which can be explained by the fact that the FLC-value at plane strain should be similar to the Au-value according to Hill's theory. The LDR test with friction yields a completely different ranking of the grades due to the different strain path obtained in this test. Furthermore, some of the results are unexpected. For example, the LDH test with friction indicated that DX56D and DP780Z from supplier A have the same formability. Another unexpected result is that DP600Z

from supplier A have the lowest punch depth at maximum punch force of all the grades, while it has very good results from both the tensile test and the FLC test. There are several explanations for the varying rankings from the different tests. The first problem is that the tensile test is both neglecting the hardening after diffuse localisation and that it is only predicting the behaviour of the material under uni-axial loading. The LDH test with friction also predicts the material behaviour under one type of loading. In this case, the strain path is in biaxial tension and differs from grade to grade due to the friction and the shape of each materials yield locus. Another problem is that the results in the LDH test with friction are also influenced by different process parameters. One important process parameter is friction and the results from this study indicate that the friction coefficient decreases as the strength of the material increases. In Figure 3 is the experimentally measured strain signatures at maximum force for DX56D and DP980Z are displayed. The fact that the DP980Z strain signature is much closer to equi-biaxial loading than the DX56D strain signature strongly indicates that friction is lower for the DP980Z grade than for DX56D one, taking into account that the shape of the yield locus is also influencing the strain signature.

DP980Z DX56D

Figure 3. Strain signature in the LDH with friction test for DX56D (left) and DP980Z (right) Another important parameter in the LDH with friction test is the blank holder pressure. It is almost impossible to get exactly the same boundary conditions in all tests due to the strength, thickness and friction coefficient of each grade. For soft and thin grades, the available blank holder force is more than sufficient for closing the draw bead and then applying a pressure on blank during the remaining of the test. These grades also have higher friction coefficients and therefore the risk for movement of the blank under the blank holder is negligible. On the other hand, for thicker and stronger grades, almost 100 % of the available blank holder force is used for closing the bead which then results in a very low blank holder pressure during the test. Since also the friction coefficient is low for these grades, there is a risk that the blank is moving under blank holder during the test.

The problem with using FLC values at plane strain as rating criterion is that this value is only defining the limit for each grade at plane strain. A material with low value in plane strain could still be quite formable in other deformation modes, e.g. stretching. 3.2. Formability ranking by FEA Considering all the problems mentioned above, it seems to be room for improvements concerning formability evaluation. One approach that the authors favour is to use FEA to test the formability of different grades. This solution has the huge advantage that the boundary conditions (i.e. process parameters) are the same in all tests. The FE-model could also easily be modified in order to test different strain paths. With the computer power available today very accurate FE-models can be used in order to verify and validate formability of different material grades. In order to illustrate the last point, the LDH with friction test has been simulated with both the Hill `48 as well as the BBC2005 material model. The tested grade is DP600Z from supplier A, but the behaviour displayed in Figures 4-5 are the same for all grades in the study including DX56D. The hardening curve, FLC and R-values in 0, 45 and 90 direction are the same in these two simulations. The difference is that the BBC model also uses the measured yield stress in 45 and 90 direction in the tensile test as well as the measured equi-biaxial yield stress and equi-biaxial R-value in viscous pressure bulge test as input parameters. The exponent M is also different in the two simulations, with M equal to 2 in Hill `48 simulation and M equal to 8 in the BBC material model for this particular grade. It is important to point out that the value of M is differs from grade to grade; see [Banabic et al., 2010] for more information.
0.22 0.20 Major principal strain [log] 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 Experiment Hill `48 BBC 2005 0.06 0.04 0.02
Minor principal strain [log] 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 Experiment 0.05 Hill `48 0.04 BBC 2005 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 x-coordinate [mm]

0.00 -45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 x-coordinate [mm]

Figure 4. Major (left) and minor (right) principal strains in the LDH with friction test of DP600Z from supplier A.

200 180 160 Punch force [kN] 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 Punch depth [mm] Experiment Hill `48 BBC 2005

Figure 5. Punch force in the LDH with friction test of DP600Z from supplier A. Figure 4 shows that the BBC2005 strain predictions are much more accurate than the Hill `48 strain predictions, especially the minor principal strains. Also the punch force and the punch depth at failure are more accurately predicted by the BBC material model than with the Hill`48 material model, see Figure 5. All the differences in results for the two material models are due to differences in the shape of the two yield loci. The shape of the Hill '48 yield locus is determined by the yield stress in the longitudinal direction and by the three uni-axial R-values. One effect of this is that the Hill'48 model generally over-predicts the equibiaxial yield stress, and this error then causes an over-estimation of the punch force, see Figure 5. Another difference between the two models is the value of the exponent M which was mentioned above. The low value of M in the Hill '48 model causes both the overestimate of the minor strains in Figure 4 as well as the overestimate of the punch depth at failure in Figure 5. The huge advantage with the BBC model is that all the available uni-axial and equi-biaxial material parameters are used as input, and therefore can provide a good agreement between simulation and experimental results. It could also be worth mentioning that the simulation results in Figures 4-5 are predicted with the same friction coefficient in both simulations. If the user increases the friction coefficient in the Hill `48 model, the strain prediction should be more accurate and the force would drop earlier, but the deviations between measured force and simulation predictions would be even larger. All materials in this study have been simulated using two different blank geometries in the experimental die. The first geometry is the blank for a FLC test with a waist width of 50 mm. This geometry produces a strain path that is on the left hand side of the FLD and the idea is to test the deep drawing properties of each material. The second geometry is a circular blank with 200 mm diameter. This blank geometry produces a strain path on the right hand side of the FLD and here the materials stretch forming properties are evaluated similar to the LDH with friction test. In all simulations are the process parameters identical for all grades, namely a friction coefficient of 0.15, an initial blank holder pressure of 2 MPa and a bead restraining force factor of two which is equal to a lock bead in AutoForm. The blank is assumed to fail when strains in each case reaches the experimentally determined FLC for the studied material.

Ranking

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

50 mm waist sample Grade Depth [mm] DX56D 44.0 DP600 D 29.5 DP600 A 29.0 DP600 C 27.5 DP780 A 26.0

DP600 B 25.5 DP600 E 25.5 7. DP800 B 22.0 DP980 A 25.5 8. DP980 A 19.5 Table III. Formability ranking and punch depth at failure from FEA. The results in Table III are very encouraging. First of all, the ranking seems to be reasonable, i.e. DX56D is the best material in both cases and DP980Z is the material with the lowest formability in both cases. Furthermore, the DP600 grades seem to be better than the DP780 grades. It is also interesting to notice the difference between DX56D and the best DP grade. In the simulations using a 50 mm wide sample, the depth at failure for the best DP-grade is only 67 % of the depth at failure for DX56D. In the other test, using a circular blank, the difference between DX56D and the DP-grades generally are smaller.

200 mm circular sample Grade Depth [mm] DX56D 40.0 DP600 D 37.0 DP600 E 33.5 DP600 A 33.0 DP600 B 33.0 DP600 C 32.0 DP800 B 32.0 DP780 A 29.0

4. CONCLUSIONS The study clearly illustrates the difficulties with the determination of different materials formability, especially for more advanced steels like DP-steels. For example, if you use tensile test data you get one ranking of the formability, while a different test would give a completely different result. Therefore, it is important that for every type of ranking to always remember the limitations of each procedure. The study also shows that the use of FEA eliminates some of the problems with todays methods for formability assessment. A major advantage with FEA is that process conditions could be exactly the same in all tests, which is almost impossible to achieve in experiments. Another benefit with FE is that the effects of different strain paths could easily be tested. But in order to make correct evaluations, you need an accurate FE-model and the importance of a good material model and material data is once more demonstrated in this study. The recommendation to use FEA for formability ranking should not be interpreted as there is no need for experimental s any longer. While more advanced material models are available for FE analysis there is in fact an even greater demand for advanced

experimental data. In order to make full use of their benefits; the user needs experimental material data of high accuracy.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The financial support from Volvo Car Corporation and VINNOVA (The Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems) is hereby greatly acknowledged.

REFERENCES [Banabic et al., 2010] Banabic, D.; Carleer, B.; Comsa, D. S.; Kam, E.; Krasovsky, A.; Mattiasson, K.; Sester, M.; Sigvant, M. ; Zhang, X.; "Sheet Metal Forming Processes"; Springer 2010. [Sigvant et al. 2009] Sigvant, M.; Mattiasson, K.; Vegter, H.; Thilderkvist, P., "A viscous pressure bulge test for the determination of plastic hardening curve and equibiaxial material data"; International Journal of Material Forming, Volume 2, Number 4; Springer; 2009. [Sigvant et al. 2008] Sigvant, M.; Mattiasson, K.; Larsson M; " The definition of incipient necking and its impact on experimentally or theoretically determined forming limit curves"; Proceedings of IDDRG 2008; Olofstrm; Sweden, 2008. [Andersson et al. 2008] Andersson, A.; Sigvant, M.; " Numerical evaluation of material models using a new tool geometry, X-die"; Proceedings of IDDRG 2008; Olofstrm; Sweden, 2008. [Banabic et al. 2008] Banabic, D.; Comsa, D. S.; Sester, M.; Selig, M.; Kubli, W.; Mattiasson, K.; Sigvant, M.; "Influence of constitutive equations on the accuracy of prediction in sheet metal forming simulation"; Proceedings of NUMISHEET 2008; Interlaken; Switzerland; 2008. [Mattiasson et al. 2008] Mattiasson, K.; Sigvant, M.; Larsson, M.; "Issues in connection to the prediction of strain localization in metal sheets"; Proceedings ESAFORM 2008, Lyon, France, 2008. [Mattiasson et al. 2007] Mattiasson, K.; Sigvant, M.; Larsson, M.; "Theoretical and Experimental Sheet Metal Failure Evaluation"; Proceedings of IDDRG 2007; Gyr; Hungary, 2007. [Mattiasson et al. 2006] Mattiasson, K.; Sigvant, M.; Larsson, M.; "Methods for forming limit predictions in ductile metal sheets"; Proceedings of IDDRG 2006; Porto; Portugal; 2006.

Inflateable side impact beams in martensitic steel

Svante Flt*, Jan-Erik Hedin*, Joachim Larsson*, Peter Alm*, Nelson De Oliveira** *SSAB **Autoliv France SSAB Swedish Steel France 13, rue Madeleine Michelis 92200 Neilly sur Seine, France svante.falt@ssab.com

Abstract: In automotive design, higher safety requirements, lower weight and CO2 emissions, and compact design, all speak for the use of ultra high strength steels. But still today there is a lot of caution when such steels are used, due to presumed lack of formability. In the current paper, a design will be shown which clearly shows the potential when using such steels, but also the formability and ability to withstand deformations in a crash situation. The application is an inflateable side impact beam for a passenger vehicle. The inflateable side impact beam is a compact module made of thin walled metal and pyrotechnics comparable to the ones used for airbag application. The material used for the structure is Docol 1200 M, an ultra high strength cold rolled martensitic steel. Keywords: side impact beam, inflateable, AHSS, ultra high strength steel

1. BACKGROUND CO2-emissions, safety/crash performance and limited space put high requirements on automotive designers today. There is a constant strive for lighter, stronger, safer cars, and the available space within the structure for a given part always seems to become smaller. Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) allow for lighter, stronger structures, provided the often problematic forming can be achieved. Even when such steels are used, however, there can be problems with available space for the part. Sometimes the thinner, lighter structures need to be made higher or wider to provide the same crash performance as structures in thicker material gauges. The side impact beam presented in this paper uses a new way to reduce the required space. The side impact beam is made of two cold formed sheet metal parts: a hat profile and a covering lid. Between them are placed pyrotechnics comparable to the ones used for airbag applications. At impact, within a few milliseconds, inflation causes the thin walled metal to deform/expand and the pressure to increase up to 20 bars inside the structure. The expanded cross section provides much higher impact performance than the uninflated

beam. The somewhat contradicting objectives of reducing weight and packing volume, and increasing crash performance, are thus fulfilled.

2. MATERIAL DESCRIPTION The material used for the side impact beam is Docol 1200 M, a cold rolled martensitic steel, in thickness 0.7 mm. Chemical composition and mechanical properties of the material are shown in Table 1. A stress-strain curve of the material is shown in Figure 1. Docol 1200 M is an Advanced High Strength Steel, intended for cold forming. Despite the low elongation, the material is seen to have significant formability when certain forming methods are used. Crash forming, which is stamping without or with reduced blank holding, often allows for impressive parts to be shaped. Typical chemical composition (Weight %) C Si Mn P S Altot Nb Ti

0.11 0.20 1.70 0.01 0.002 0.04 0.015 0.025

Nominal mechanical properties Rp0.2 (MPa) Rm (MPa) A80 (%) (measured transverse to rolling 950 1200 - 1400 3direction) Table 1; Chemical composition and nominal mechanical properties of Docol 1200 M.

Figure 1; Typical engineering stress-strain curve for Docol 1200 M.

3. BENEFITS OF USING AHSS FOR SAFETY STRUCTURES Advanced High Strength Steels is a useful tool in order to improve the performance and reduce the weight of automotive safety structures. Docol 1200M provides a very good combination of strength, formability and weldability. Conventional stamping processes can be used as well as all welding methods. From a structural point of view the high strength is very beneficial, especially so for parts where the effect of local buckling can be restrained. This can be achieved, for instance, by optimized design, local geometrical stiffeners or an internal pressure.

4. APPLICATION DESCRIPTION In general the strengthening of vehicle BIW-structures through inflation can be introduced for frontal impact and side impact scenarios. Inflatable side impact beams aim at replacing current safety door member structures that are mainly made from steel or aluminum in order to reduce weight, while increasing the structures global performance in dynamic load cases like real life scenarios. The main design parameters are: Mechanical resistance: comparable moments of inertia in the uninflated state to that of serial production door members Weight reduction compared to serial production door member Packaging aspects Improvements for dynamic impact performance

The principle can be described in a way that the structure expands from a small crosssection to a bigger one when being pressurized. This effect can provide great benefits, such as packaging benefits, size and weight, and extending the crash duration by increasing the ability of the structures energy absorption. The hat profile and the covering lid are made in the same material and thickness. Figure 2 shows the two parts making up the side impact beam and the position of the pyrotechnics. Figure 3 shows the beam and the cross section before and after inflation. The measures of the non-inflated beam are about 100x25x80 mm. Estimated weight benefit, including the weight of the pyrotechnics, is about 20% to comparable beams. The inflateable beam has been used in Mercedes Research Vehicle ESF 2009.

Figure 2; The side impact beam and the positioning of the gas generator. The hat profile and the cover lid making up the side impact beam are shown in the detail.

Figure 3; Side impact beam before and after inflation.

5. MANUFACTURING The side impact beam is manufactured by crash forming of a steel blank in two forming steps. Another steel blank, made in the same material, is used as a cover lid. The beam is closed air tight, with the pyrotechnics inside it, using seam welding as joining method.

6. SIMULATIONS Forming of the side impact beam was simulated using Autoform 4.2. The first forming step was the crash forming of the centre feature and the second was the crash forming to the final shape, see Figure 4. Results from the final step in the forming simulation are shown in Figure 5. The element type was Elastic Plastic Shell with 11 integration points. The material model for Docol 1200 M is available by default in the material database for Autoform users. The stress/strain curve was extrapolated and modeled with the combined Swift and Hockett-Sherby equation, which is a predefined model in Autoform. The Banabic 2005 yield surface was used with parameters calculated from Hill 48, which is default in Autoform when no additional test values are given. The forming limit curve (FLC) in Figure 5 was determined at SSABs laboratories.

Figure 4; Results from forming simulation: the two crash forming steps making up the forming sequence.

Figure 5; Results from forming simulation: after some minor parts changes, all points were on the safe side.

7. VERIFICATION To reach a high level of performance, a pyrotechnic device that keeps a defined pressure level almost constant over a period of time about approximately 20 ms is used. It is mounted as initial assessment at the rear end of the module. To deform the beam in the described manner an internal pressure of about 3 to 5 MPa has to be applied. Pressurizing and deploying the beam takes about 20 to 27 ms in total. With a sealed component, pressure is kept nearly constant over 100 to 120 ms, which corresponds to the ongoing deformation. From safety aspects tests and simulations proved comparable maximum final intrusions to the standard beam and predicted intrusion velocity comes down by more than 15%. For pre-triggered pressurized beams it was shown in door sub-component tests that the crash load stays on a high level right from the beginning. For in-crash deployed and pressurized beams, it took about 8 ms, after applying pressure, to achieve the load level of the pre-triggered component. Various door subcomponent simulations proved a load increase by deployment and applying pressure, see Figure 6.

Figure 6; Various Load-Deformation curves, using different deployment scenarios. The light blue line (deployed t=0) shows the results for an inflated beam without internal pressure. The dark blue, black and red line shows different combinations of deployment initiation and duration for 2 MPa internal pressure. The blue and red rhombs visualize the effects of internal pressurization and pretriggering.

8. CONCLUSIONS Reduced weight, reduced packing space and increased safety seem to be contradicting requirements. It has been shown above that the use of inflateable structures in martensitic steel can indeed achieve all these requirements. The material in question, Docol 1200 M, can be crash formed into the desired beam shape. The parts can be joined using seam welding, and the final beam can be inflated and deformed during the side impact. It is believed that the results presented can lead to new thinking and bring the design of safety structures a significant step forward.

Innovative high and ultra high strength steel concepts for cold forming applications
Ralf Kolleck*, Steffen Raschka*, Dieter Krech**, Thomas Thlig**, Gerald Zwickel** *Institute T&F, Inffeldgasse 11/I, 8010 Graz, Austria. **Bilstein GmbH & Co. KG, Im Weinhof, 58119 Hagen, Germany ralf.kolleck@tugraz.at, steffen.raschka@tugraz.at, dieter.krech@bilstein-kaltband.de, thomas.thuelig@bilstein-kaltband.de, gerald.zwickel@bilstein-kaltband.de

Abstract: Terms like safety, environment and costs have an increasing bearing on the omnipresent discussion about individual mobility. Each of the three topics has led to global and within the European Union already partially mandatory guidelines, laws and legislative proposals. That is why, a majority of the material focused R&D activities of the international steel and automotive industry concentrates on increasing passive and active safety, reducing emissions and minimizing costs. Material and shaping technologies have continually supported those activities and have provided steel concepts and shaping techniques, which contribute significantly to the compliance with the new regulations. For cold forming applications, today steel grades with a minimum yield strength value of about 850 MPa are available. Hot shaping (press hardening) currently creates yield strength levels in the area of 1200 MPa. This lecture aims at presenting a new group of steel concepts for cold forming applications with minimum yield strength values of up to 1200 MPa, which can be considered the link between cold and hot shaping. First results, obtained from testing a customer relevant part, confirm the formability of this material group. The mechanical properties, with a yield ratio > 95 %, show possible areas of application and give information on the shaping behavior. High manganese alloyed steels, which are being developed as we speak, contribute to continuative weight reductions, but especially to cost cuttings due to the enabled realization of more complex geometries. Keywords: Springback, Cross Die Test, AHSS, Cold Rolled Strip, Side Impact Beam

1. MOTIVATION Terms like safety, environment and costs have an increasing bearing on the omnipresent discussion about individual mobility. Each of the three topics has led to global and within the European Union already partially mandatory guidelines, laws and

legislative proposals. That is why a majority of the material focused R&D activities of the international automotive industry concentrates on: The increase of passive and active safety (safety cabin, energy absorbing structures) The reduction of emissions to partially already binding upper limits / undercutting of emission limits (lightweight construction) The minimization of costs while considering the safety requirements (lightweight construction, complexity rise)

Figure 1 ; Safety, Environment, Costs [Source left ADAC]. Material and shaping technologies have continually supported those activities and have provided steel concepts and shaping techniques, which contribute significantly to the compliance with the new regulations. For cold forming processes, today steel grades with a minimum yield strength value of about 700 MPa are available. Hot shaping (press hardening) currently creates yield strength levels in the area of 1200 MPa. In addition to that nowadays, non-standardized recovery annealed steel grades with minimum yield strength values of up to 850 MPa are available and extensively applied all over the world, e.g. for automotive seating structures. The enormous energy expenditure and other hot shaping (press hardening) related problems, like scaling, cold cutting, corrosion protection, cycle times, etc., have led to the further development of ultra high strength steel concepts for cold forming applications resulting in grades with minimum yield strength values of up to 1200 MPa.

2. CURENTLY AVAILABLE HIGH AND ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH STEEL CONCEPTS Observing the ever increasing share of so called high and ultra high strength steels in the automotive cold forming sector, the following or similar classification regarding the minimum yield strength level can be found: Rp < 260 MPa Rp >= 260 MPa Rp >= 1000 MPa Soft, non-alloy steels HSLA and MP grades MnB grades (press hardening)

In the area of high and ultra high strength steel grades for cold forming applications there are two fundamentally different material concepts. While the HSLA grades are monophase steels with the minimum yield strength included in the material name, multiphase (MP) concepts indicate their minimum tensile strength. However, both concepts at least all standardized grades are limited to minimum yield strength values of about 700 MPa.

Figure 2 ; single phase structure (left) and multiphase structure (right). A remarkable group of the cold rolled, ultra high strength steel concepts are the recovery annealed HSLA grades. Their mechanical properties exceed current, standardized grades by far. Additionally the high yield ratio leads to a well predictable springback behavior. These steels, with minimum yield strength values of up to 850 MPa, are widely used, e.g. for automotive seating structures. It is the different work hardening mechanism of the two material concepts that defines their areas of application. In automotive structures there is a basic distinction between the protection and the deformation zone. If the main goal is to protect the passenger cabin in case of a collision, recovery annealed HSLA steels or, increasingly also, press hardened parts are used. Contrary to this, MP grades are characterized by a relatively low yield ratio and a high strain hardening exponent, paired with high tensile strengths. These attributes predestine MP steels for energy absorbing functions. Parameter ZE 800 (HSLA) DP 800 (MP) >= 800 MPa >= 500 MPa Yield strength >= 830 MPa >= 800 MPa Tensile strength >= 9 % >= 12 % Elongation A80 >= 95% >= 60 % Yield ratio 21 mm 20,5 mm Cross die test 0,215 0,577 C-equivalent Avoid intrusions Energy absorption Application Table 1 ; Comparison of ZE 800 (HSLA) and DP 800 (MP). A significant advantage of cold rolled, recovery annealed HSLA grades is the manufacturing concept. While properties of MP steels are defined solely by their chemical composition and the temperature control, mechanical properties of cold rolled,

recovery annealed grades can additionally be influenced by the strain hardening process. This means that the minimum yield strength of this type of materials is continuously adjustable to customers requirements without changing the chemistry. MP steels lack this possibility and therefore the chemical composition has to be modified in order to achieve different classes of mechanicals and a customized strength level. This chemical alteration, however, predefines the lot size according to the heat size. Considering this, cold rolled, recovery annealed HSLA steels provide a unique material concept that matches the very case. At the same time short delivery times and small lot sizes can be guaranteed.

Figure 3 ; yield strength / elongation diagram of actual recovery annealed HSLA. Of course also for these grades the same properties and advantages apply as for other cold rolled steel strips: Superior processing properties: Tight thickness and width tolerances for the entire range of dimensions and strength levels Consistency in mechanical properties over the entire coil length, from batch to batch and from heat to heat Strictly specified production route and chemistry for each single product Lowest content of trace elements and high degree of cleanliness

Application specific surface conditioning Oiled with anti-corrosive and/or drawing lubricants

Handling and storage advantages: Flexible coil weights without weldings Customised coil weight and packaging Small order volumes

Flexibility: Use of commonly available raw materials Short processing and reprocurement times

Weight and cost savings: Reduction of strip thickness by using ultra high strength steels up to 1200 MPa minimum yield strength Tight thickness tolerances allow reduction of nominal thickness

Up to now the main focus were material concepts for cold forming applications. But there is a trend, especially in the automotive industry, to manufacture ultra high strength parts by using hot shaping techniques that are also known as press hardening. The grade 22 MnB 5 or similar grades make up the majority of the material group that is applied for this manufacturing technique. The alloying concepts allow those types of material to be hardened at low cooling rates. Furthermore, due to the relatively low C content, those grades are suitable for welding processes. Yield strength values of about 1200 MPa at tensile strength levels of about 1500 MPa are reached. There are considerations to implement even higher C contents, leading to yield strength values of up to 1600 MPa.

3. THE NEW AND INNOVATIVE ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH COLD ROLLED STEEL STRIP Hot shaped, or rather press hardened, parts are the ultimate benchmark if you concentrate exclusively on the subject of yield strength. Currently a shaped part can reach about 1200 MPa. This value can be achieved if desired at every location, over the entire cross section of a part and while realizing most complex geometries. Based on todays knowledge, this would only be feasible with austenitic CrNi steels, when applying cold forming techniques. Of course also press hardening causes a number of problems. Please recall the extensive energy expenditure and subjects like scaling, cold cutting, corrosion protection, cycle times, etc. Moreover this method reaches its limits when it comes to producing small, thin components, as the heat balance is no longer controllable.

Due to continuative development efforts, BILSTEIN one of the most significant cold rolling experts in Europe has achieved a further increase in minimum yield strength values of cold rolled, recovery annealed HSLA grades. This innovation has helped to decrease the gap between the minimum yield strength levels of the known ultra high strength HSLA steels for cold forming applications, of about 850 MPa and the yield strengths of press hardened parts of approx. 1200 MPa. Today, minimum yield strength values of 1200 MPa with a good, coexisting cold forming behavior can be reliable realized. A manufacturing concept, similar to the one used for the cold rolled, recovery annealed HSLA grades, has been applied to make sure that all grades can be continuously adjusted in the yield strength range between 850 MPa and 1100 MPa. All advantages of cold rolled steel strip, which were mentioned before, do also apply. Another innovation worth mentioning is the expansion of the thickness range in terms of thickness reduction. As the conventional cold rolled, recovery annealed grades are limited to a minimum thickness of about 1.4 mm, the new, optimized grades and manufacturing concepts allow the production of ultra high strength HSLA grades with minimum yield strength values of up to 1200 MPa and thicknesses between 0.3 and 3.0 mm.

Figure 4 ; yield strength / elongation diagram of the new recovery annealed HSLA.

4. EVALUATION BASED ON A CUSTOMER RELEVANT PART The informations received from the standardized tensile testing are very restricted and are not sufficient to do describe the behavior of ultra high strength steel concepts when exposed to a cold forming operation. In order to evaluate this forming properties anyhow, these new and innovative, ultra high strength grades were examined at the Institute for Tools & Forming at the University of Technology Graz by using a cross die tool and manufacturing a customer relevant component. 4.1. CROSS DIE The cross die test is a procedure, which effectively simulates real forming tools and deep drawing processes in an industrial surrounding. In this evaluation the cross die test is used to compare the forming behavior of different ultra high strength materials under realistic conditions. The maximum deep drawing height of a material gives a quantitative value of how critical a forming process will be in an industrial die. [Till et al, 2008] Material HC340LAD Trip 700 DP 800 CPW 1000 ZE 950 ZE 1000 ZE 1050 t [mm] Die Radius [mm] Maximum depth [mm] 1,5 9 >40 1,5 9 >38 1,5 9 20,5 1,5 9 22 1,2 9 27 1 9 17,5 1,2 9 16,5 Table 2 ; Cross die test results (drawing speed 10 mm/sec).

Based on the common cross die test, which is used at different steel manufacturers and automotive OEMs, several testing of the new recovery annealed ultra high strength HSLA grades took place at the T&F institute. The results show an excellent forming behavior and remaining, maximum strain compared to other ultra high steel grades that are just as strong. The maximum deep drawing of ZE 950 was 27mm with a forming speed of 10mm/sec and a die radius of 9mm. The blanks were oiled and laser cut. These results are similar to DP600 and DP780 which have a much lower UTS level. Competitive materials where tested on the same tool under the same conditions. While the ranking of different materials is still possible, comparing data with other laboratories is not [Atzema et al 2004]. Due to this fact it is necessary to test all materials under the same conditions.

Figure 5; Formability of ZE1050 in the cross die tool. 4.2. SIB After several tests on the cross die test tool, real customer relevant parts were formed out of ZE 950 in order to see if the material also performs well in a series production tool. One of these formed parts was a side impact beam. This part distinctively shows the forming behavior of ultra high strength recovery annealed grades when bending is the most relevant way of forming. Especially forming of sharp radii and edges are critical when the blank material has a high UTS. Main problems when forming a SIB are the wrinkling in the area next to the bars, the springback of the bars and cracks in the area between the bars. These tasks were solved by using ultra high strength recovery annealed grades.

Figure 6 ; Formability of a SIB out of ZE 1050. 4.3. COSTUMER RELEVANT PART The forming behavior of new materials can be best shown in realistic parts. One part, chosen to show the forming behavior of using ultra high strength recovery annealed steel strips, is the so called costumer relevant body part. It was derived from combining a side member and side impact beam to unite two hard to form geometries.

Figure 7 ; Costumer relevant parts left without SIB right with integrated SIB geometry.

4.4. SPRINGBACK BEHAVIOR The springback behavior of ultra high strength recovery annealed grades is less critical compared to other steel grades with the same strength level. Due to this behavior, cost relevant retooling cycles can be minimized. A good springback behavior saves time and money in the tool design and testing phases. The springback behavior was estimated by forming SIB out of different blank materials with different thicknesses. The parts were measured with GOM ATOS and compared in Geomagic Qualify. Several SIB were cut in the center to estimate the springback effects after free cutting. To compare the springback behavior of the ultra high strength recovery annealed grades to common known HSS several different materials were tested under the same conditions on the tool. Two of these results are shown in Figures 8 and 9.

Figure 8; Springback of ZE MSW 1200 1,5mm to ZE 1050 0,8mm. The thickness has a direct influence on the springback behavior. The thinner a blank is the higher is the estimated springback. The springback of ZE 1050 is comparable to Thyssen Krupp MSW1200.

Figure 9 ; Springback behavior of TKS MSW1200 to ZE 1050 t=1,2mm.

5. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK The forming of high strength body structure parts out of ultra high strength recovery annealed grades is a serious alternative for hot forming in several body parts in manufacturing small and medium series cars. The cold forming of selected body parts provides a lot of advantages compared to hot forming. The investment is lower compared to the fix costs of a hot forming line. The cold forming lines are much more flexible and the energy consumption during the manufacturing process is much lower. The energy consumption of hot forming is calculated over the lifetime of a body part higher than cold forming. Due to these facts a general use of hot forming for structural body parts makes no sense. In a lot of parts the use of innovative cold forming steels like ultra high strength recovery annealed grades make sense especially because the material condition at delivery has a low tolerance range. Due to this guaranteed high precision at delivery all the potential of the material can be used for cold forming very complex parts out of UHSS. The study shows the potential of ultra high strength recovery annealed grades for a lot of structural automobile body parts. Currently high manganese alloyed, austenitic steel grades are being developed. Along with a significant weight reduction, which is caused by its chemical composition and the coherent decrease in the specific weight to about 7 kg/dm3, and a tensile strength of about 1000 MPa with an elongation of about 50 %, this concept is more than suitable for lightweight construction (e.g. decrease in section thickness). Also potential cost savings, due to the possibility of manufacturing more complex geometries and therefore the minimization of joining operations, should be noted.

REFERENCES [Till et al., 2008] Till E. T.; Berger E.; Larour P. ; "On an exceptional forming behaviour aspect of AHSS sheets"; In: International Deep Drawing Research Group IDDRG 2008 International Conference, pp. 429-440; 16-18 June 2008, Olofstrm, Sweden. [Atzema et al., 2004] Atzema E. H.; ten Horn C.H.L.J. ; Vegter H. ; "Influence of tooling layout on sheet forming process analysis"; In: European Congress on Computational Methods in Applied Sciences and Engineering ECCOMAS 2004, pp. 01-18; 24-28 July 2004, Jyvskyl.

Local heat treatment of ultra-high-strength steels an opportunity to extend the range of car body components
M. Heyde1, K. Roll1, R. Kawalla2, G. Bergweiler3, J. Kaiser4
2 1 Daimler AG, Mercedes-Benz Cars, Bela-Barenyi-Str.1, HPC B512, 71059 Sindelfingen Institut fr Metallformung TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Bernhard-von-Cotta-Strae 4, 09596 Freiberg 3 Fraunhofer Institut fr Lasertechnik, Steinbachstr. 15, 52074 Aachen 4 Neue Materialien Bayreuth, Gottlieb-Keim-Strae 60, 95448 Bayreuth michael.heyde@daimler.com karl.roll@daimler.com rudolf.kawalla@imf.tu-freiberg.de georg.bergweiler@ilt.fraunhofer.de juergen.kaiser@nmbgmbh.de

Abstract: In recent years, steel companies around the world have developed new generations of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) and ultra-high-strength steels (UHSS) for automotive applications. These new steel types require special attention concerning processability, formability and tribology in comparison to conventional steels for deep drawing. These materials therefore have a small range of applications in the car body. Taking energy aspects into account in the production of hot-stamped car body parts in the press shop, there is a need to look for alternative heat treatments. Heat treatment using lasers or inductive heating is based on the phase transition from martensite to ferrite and austenite at elevated temperatures in a localized area of the part where better formability is required. A method for simulating these processes is presented for a cup geometry. Keywords: Local heat treatment, multiphase steels, temperature simulation, boron steel

1. INTRODUCTION Global automotive manufacturers are moving increasingly into an area of conflicting priorities, which sometimes involve controversial expectations. Numerous factors such as political decisions relating to the environmental compatibility of vehicles, increasing customer demands for comfort or faster implementation of new drive systems play an important role when it comes to designing new models. Only by maintaining an overall perspective of all factors is it possible to compete successfully. The vehicle structure makes a significant contribution to new vehicle designs. Particularly in the area of the vehicle body, the potential of rigorous lightweight construction has not yet been fully exploited.

Starting points for saving weight, improving the vibration and rigidity characteristics and enhancing occupant safety continue to present themselves. On the one hand, this can be achieved using an optimized material mix of steel, aluminum and composite fiber materials. On the other hand, the design of the components has a key role to play in terms of the rigidity and vibration characteristics. The last decade has seen a lot of changes particularly in relation to the development of new sheet metal materials. It can also be observed that steel cannot be fully substituted. This is because new multiphase or complex-phase steels offer a decisive advantage compared with aluminum and magnesium. Particularly in the case of crash-relevant parts, higher strength and increased elongation mean that the sheet thicknesses can be thinner than comparable parts made of aluminum. As a result, the use of sheet aluminum materials in mass production is confined, due not least to higher material and production costs, to outer skin parts. Another trend involves a move towards the localized adaptation of specific component properties, thus leading to the creation of graded components. This can be achieved by applying localized heat to the specific areas of the component. Various methods of heating are used to do this. This article examines the processes of induction and laser heating, which are used in order to bring about an improvement in the forming and functional properties. A method of simulating this procedure and the subsequent deep drawing process is presented.

1.1. Research background The background of this research proposal is the LOKWAB project (Lokale Wrmebehandlung hchstfester Stahlblechwerkstoffe zur Verbesserung der Umformund Funktionseigenschaften/localized heat treatment of ultra-high-strength sheet steel materials to improve the forming and functional properties), which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).

2. BASIC PRINCIPLES

2.1. Materials investigated The LOKWAB project focuses exclusively on the investigation of ultra-high-strength steel sheets. These involve the steels HDT780 C (CP-W 800), HDT 1200 M (MS-W 1200), press hardened steel 22MnB5 (MBW-K 1500) and a DOCOL 1200 M. Complexphase and martensite-phase steels are electrolytically zinc-coated (+ZE), the MBW-K 1500 hot-dip aluminized (AlSi) and DOCOL 1200 M is uncoated. 2.2. Laser and induction heating In many fields of mechanical engineering, component heating is generally used for hardening purposes. Heating technologies can include induction, electron beam, flame or furnace atmosphere.

Parts subjected to heat treatment are often mechanical components from machines such as gear wheels, shafts, etc. Heat treatment is designed to improve wear resistance and toughness properties over their service life and to alter their surface layers [ZEN05]. The systematic application of heat treatment for sheet metal semi-finished parts is less widespread. In the area of sheet aluminum materials, heat treatment is used as a means of adapting mechanical end properties. The decisive mechanisms in this process include precipitation hardening by natural or artificial ageing and increasing the dislocation density as a result of the rolling process. For steel sheet materials, it is preferable to heat the entire surface in the press hardening process. For this purpose, the blanks are homogeneously heated to 950C in the roller hearth or elevating hearth furnace and then hardened in the cooled tool [LENZ08]. More recent developments show the trend towards adjusting various material characteristics across the cross-section of sheet metal blanks, with both aluminum and steel [REI09; VOGT09; EFB251]. This is done by using a laser or inductor to subject the material to localized heat before allowing it to cool in a defined manner. Laser heating is based on the principle of coupling laser radiation, for example, from a solid-state or diode laser, into the sheet metal through the surface. In this case, the intensity of the radiation determines the rate of heating. The used laser is a fibercoupled 10 kW diode laser. The laser beam is formed to a rectangle with homogenous intensity distribution by a homogenization lens. The focal length can be adjusted with the help of a zoom lens. This laser was developed for the project by Laserline and is used at the Fraunhofer Institute for Laser Technology in Aachen for the heat treatment of ultra-high-strength metal sheets. The maximum used focal length is 90 x 26 mm (see figure 1). The absorption coefficient, which determines how much of the available laser power is actually coupled into the sheet metal, is also of decisive importance. 40 % of the laser power is coupled into uncoated sheet metals, the rest of the laser power is reflected into the surrounding environment. An increase of the temperature causes the oxidation of the surface and the absorption coefficient rises up to approximately 70 %. Both conditions exist during the heat treatment, thus the effective absorption coefficient lies between these values. This effect is more drastic for coated materials, as the zinc layer has a lower absorption coefficient than uncoated materials. The need for different power is adjusted with a temperature controller by means of a coaxial pyrometer during the process.

Figure 1: Laser beam on sheet metal; heat treated galvanized blank

Depending on the beam intensity the heating rate is between 50 K/s and 1000 K/s and should not be chosen too high to keep the temperature gradient over the sheet thickness small. Therefore, the extreme case would be an immediately one-sided evaporating of the coating resulting in a total loss of corrosion protection. The principle of inductive heat treatment is based on the interaction of magnetic fields. An alternating current passing through a coil creates an alternating magnetic field inside the coil. Metallic materials within this alternating field react by creating an opposing magnetic field according to Lenzs Law. According to Joules Law, the electrical power P in the metal sheet is converted into heat output by the electrical resistance R and the induced current I. P = R. I (1) If the current I flows through the metal sheet for a specific time t, the electrical energy W during this time (2) W = R. I . t is converted to the heat quantity Q: Q=W (3)

Depending on the size of the inductor used, zones of different sizes may be subjected to heat treatment. The formation of an inhomogeneous temperature field with a large transition zone is a typical characteristic of this process (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Heat-treated zone by induction

Figure 3: Rectangular inductor

A decisive factor in induction heating is the working distance between the sheet metal and the inductor (see Figure 3). Unlike the laser process, the inductor passes over the sheet metal at a distance of approximately 10 mm. Significant warping of the blank caused by the heating process leads to fluctuations in the working distance and therefore to a weakening of the induction power. This leads to a severe temperature fluctuation and inhomogeneity of the set material properties in the heat treatment zone. The use of a distance control system ensures that a uniformly heated zone can be created (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: Blank homogeneously heated using induction [NMB Bayreuth] The current maximum widths of the heat treatment zones are approximately 90 mm for lasers and approximately 130 mm for rectangular inductors. The zoom lens fitted to the laser allows the focal length of the relevant heat treatment zone to be realized to be adjusted during two-dimensional movement of the laser across the sheet metal (see Figure 5).

Figure 5: Heat-treated area by using the zoom lens [Laserline]

2.3. Basic material principles The objective of localized heat treatment of ultra-high-strength steels is to increase the uniform elongation. Complex and martensite-phase steels offer high strength combined with low elongation, as shown in Table 1. The improvement of ductility properties is based on the localized formation of austenite at high temperatures and the subsequent structural transformation to ferrite during the air cooling stage. Depending on the initial structure and chemical composition, the driving forces used may vary in magnitude.

Consequently, the full-martensitic materials MS-W 1200 and DOCOL 1200 softened at lower temperatures of around 750C than is the case with the fine-grained CP-W 800 (850C). Rm [MPa] Material Rp0.2 [MPa] CP-W 800 731 820 MS-W 1200 1009 1195 DOCOL 1200 M 1226 1397 Table 1: Mechanical properties of the project materials Ag [%] 8.3 3.8 3.1 A80 [%] 11.8 4.4 4.1

3. CHARACTERIZATION OF THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR THE SIMULATION OF DEEP DRAWING PROCESSES WITH LOCALLY MODIFIED CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 Determining the temperature-dependent flow curves Based on a series of tests, the individual materials were investigated with regard to the change in their mechanical properties as a result of heat treatment. The flow curves were determined by carrying out tensile tests on homogeneously heat-treated samples. The temperature range extended from 400-950C, with a graduation of 100K up to 700C, and 50K in the upper interval up to 950C. The heat treatment of the tensile samples was conducted in a Gleeble HDS-V40 system. Defined compressed air cooling at approx 30-35 K/s for the MSW-W 1200 was used to ensure that a maximum reduction in the yield strength down to 800 MPa could be adhered to.
1000 900 950C 900 850 800 750 700 600 500 400

800 700 Temperature [ C] 600 500 400 300 200 100

0 0 5 10 15 20 Time [s] 25 30 35 40 45

Figure 6: Temperature cycles during heat treatment using the Gleeble HDS-V40

This method of heat treatment delivers comparable heating results to that using the laser, particularly with regard to the sequence of cycles and the cooling processes. Furthermore, depending on the procedure used, a transition zone is created in which effects such as embrittlement or increased hardness can occur (see Figure 7).
Microhardness test 510 490 470 450 430 410 390 370 350 330 310 290 270 250 0 Intake 10 20 30 40 50 60 Meas. length [mm]

HV1

Heat treatment

Figure 7: Micro hardness test of the transition zone for MS-W 1200
Laser WBH MSW 1200 1600 1400 1200 Strength [MPa] 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Temperature [ C] Rp 0.2 Rm Ag A80 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 800 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.0 Elongation [%]

Figure 8: Change in properties of MS-W 1200 brought about using the laser

3.2. Simulation of the heat treatment and forming processes In order to simulate the temperature and subsequent cold forming, the LS-Dyna simulation software was used. In this case, the temperature field is calculated implicitly and the forming simulation is explicitly solved. Fully integrated shell elements are used to simulate induction and laser heating as well as for the forming process. Previous investigations showed that the modeling of induction using convection conditions is well represented. This was demonstrated on the basis of temperature field measurements (see Figure 9). Laser heating can be modeled using radiation contacts.

Thermoelement 1 Thermoelement 2 Thermoelement 3 Thermoelement 4 Thermoelement 5

Figure 9: Temperature distribution simulation of induction and comparison with measurement values A model of the 2D movement of the inductor across the metal sheet was created, as was a possible model for the laser (see Figure 10, 11). Current research work is focused on the question of material modeling using locally modified properties. The temperaturedependent material model for the forming simulation, which is also used for presshardening simulations, is based on isotropic material behavior according to Mises. This was also investigated for the following deep-drawing calculation of a cross die cup.

However, when compared with reality, the simulation produced an excessive deviation in sheet thinning and drawing depth. As a result, a suggestion for improving the material model MAT36 (Barlat89) was developed. This improved model has recently become available and has yet to undergo testing. It offers the possibility of taking the anisotropy of the temperature-dependent properties into account, which would allow the material behavior of the untreated basic material to be modeled as well.

Figure 10: Simulation of induction heating with 2D movement of the inductor

Figure 11: Example showing simulated laser heating

Using this method, the maximum temperatures occurring on each element were imported as initial conditions into the mechanical deep-drawing simulation. The stored temperature-dependent flow curves can be used to represent the localized reductions in strength. The flow behavior is linearly interpolated between the individual temperature curves. Recording and simulating the actual transformation behavior will require more complex tests, such as incorporating TTT diagrams to simulate the transformation behavior. A decisive factor in this context is the volume fraction of the ferrite formed during cooling and its impact on the magnitude of the reduction in strength. This is a subject of ongoing research. The insights gained from the preliminary tests have been tested on the cross die cup in order to verify the accuracy of the simulation (see Figure 11).

Figure 11: Heat-treated cross die cup made of MS-W 1200

4. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK In previous investigations, it was possible to show that localized heat treatment using lasers and induction can lead to an improvement in the properties of ultra-high-strength steels for the forming process. What can be observed here is that an effective increase in uniform elongation only occurs at higher temperatures above Ac1 (723C), which is due to the different structures and chemical compositions. Both processes, heat treatment and the cold forming process, can be simulated using simple approaches. However, there is still a need for action in the areas highlighted in terms of material models and the optimization of heat treatment simulation. In order to cover the entire process, outstanding questions relating to the residual stresses, the ability to control corrosion protection after heat treatment, the precise investigation of how properties behave during heat treatment as well as the final assessment of the efficiency of this procedure have yet to be clarified.

5. REFERENCES [ZEN05] Zenker, R.; Buchwalder, A.; Frenkler, N.; Thiemer, S.; "Moderne Elektronenstrahltechnologien zum Fgen und zur Randschichtbehandlung", Zeitschriftenaufsatz, Vakuum in Forschung und Praxis, Vol. 17 (2005), pp. 66-72 [LENZ08] Lenze, F.-J.; Sikora, S.; Banik, J.; "Prozessfhrung in der Warmumformung mit Blick auf die Werkzeugtechnik und Bauteileigenschaften"; In: Neuere Entwicklungen in der Blechumformung, 2008, pp. 255 [REI09] Reimche, W.; Diebel, M.; Mroz, G.; Frackowiak, W.; Bach, Fr.-W.; "Einstellung beanspruchungsgerechter Werkstoffeigenschaften durch Verfestigung und strukturierte Wrmebehandlung"; In: Fortschritte der Kennwertermittlung fr Forschung und Praxis, Werkstoffprfung, 2009, pp. 391-398 [VOGT09] Vogt, U.; "Design of aluminum Tailored Heat Treated Blanks under quasiseries conditions"; Dissertation No. 208; Chair of Manufacturing Technology Erlangen; 2009; ISBN 978-3-87525-296-5 [EFB251] EFB-Forschungsbericht No. 251; Verbesserung der Umformeigenschaften von schwer umformbaren Werkstoffen durch lokal vorinitialisierten Wrmeeintrag; 2006

Serial process simulation for deep drawing stainless steel kitchen sinks with a heated research tool
Evelin Ratte*, Christian Koroschetz**, Ralf Kolleck**, Velika Kiroff** * ThyssenKrupp Nirosta GmbH, Hildener Strae 80, 40597 Dsseldorf, Germany ** Graz University of Technology, Institute Tools and Forming, Inffeldgasse 11/I, 8010 Graz, Austria christian.koroschetz@tugraz.at Abstract: Deep drawing of austenitic stainless steel: Because of their good formability behavior and their corrosion resistance, austenitic stainless steels are one of the most popular materials used in manifold household applications. As the design of industrial processes through FE-analysis assumes an adequate material model, the knowledge of material behavior as a function of the temperature is fundamental for a correct simulation of metastable austenites. A very common and often discussed model for metastable austenites, which also considers the fact that the formation of martensite is dependent on the temperature, is the so called Hnsel-Modell [Hnsel, 1998], [Hnsel, 1998], [Heinemann, 2004]. Nevertheless, often an explicit consideration of the martensite formation is insignificant, as too few martensite arises and a work hardening effect does not occur [Ratte, 2008]. The Hnsel-Modell brings a better forecast of the strain hardening, but it does not show the effect of martensite evolution and forming temperature on yield locus and material failure. To analyze the influence of the martensite evolution on the forming limits, in dependency of the discussed process parameters, ThyssenKrupp Nirosta GmbH and the Institute Tools & Forming (Graz University of Technology) started a bilateral research project with the aim, to design a prototype forming tool which simulates the serial process for deep drawing stainless steel kitchen sinks. Keywords: stainless steel, kitchen sinks, serial process, heated tool, AMPCO, Direct Metal Deposition, blank holder force, temperature measurement.

1. FORMING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS Austenitic stainless steels are widely applied in the fields of the food and houseware industry. This is due to their exceptionally good shaping behaviour and corrosion resistance [Figure 1].

Figure 1: Application of austenitic steels in the sink and houseware industry, Source: TK Nirosta GmbH Depending on the steel composition, a deformation-induced, microstructural transformation to martensite can occur. If the austenitic stability is too high, only a small fraction of the structure will transform into martensite. If the austenitic stability is too low, however, an increased martensite formation can be observed at low deformation degrees. This leads to an obvious decrease in formability. In order to guarantee a good formability, a medium austenitic stability should be aimed for. Process immanent factors are very important, as the transformation behavior is highly dependent on the temperature. The forming rates as well as the draw depths cause an adiabatic heating of the material. Also the martensitic transformation leads to a release of heat. Adding the friction heat, a process-oriented, a stationary tool - and shaping temperature is formed.

2. PROCESS DESIGN As the FE analyses for the design of industrial processes require a sufficiently accurate material description, the specification of the temperature-dependant material behaviour is essential for the exact simulation of metastable austenite materials. A currently widespread and much discussed model for metastable austenites is the Hnsel-Model [Hnsel, 1998], [Hnsel, 1998], [Heinemann, 2004], which considers the temperaturedependant martensite formation during the shaping process. However, very often the explicit consideration of the martensite formation is unnecessary, as there is not enough martensite formed to influence the hardening behavior notably [Ratte, 2008].

The Hnsel model itself leads to an improved hardening prediction. The impact of the martensite formation or the shaping temperature on the yield locus and failure behaviour, on the other hand, remains unconsidered. Depending on the discussed factors the impact of the martensite formation on the forming limits shall be investigated. In order to do so, a bilateral research project, between the ThyssenKrupp Nirosta AG and the Institute for Tools and Forming (TU Graz), has been launched. The result of the collaboration is a shaping tool that simulates the serial process.

3. SERIAL PROCESS SIMULATING FORMING TOOL First of all, the necessary boundary conditions, which ought to be copied by the experimental tool, have to be extracted from the serial process. Following main focuses have been defined: 1. Heating: In order to recreate serial processes, the tool has to be heated. Depending on the process, stationary temperatures between 60 and 80 C are reached. 2. Surface: The surface, or rather the friction and the heat transfer from the tool to the blank should be comparable to the AMPCO applied in serial processes. 3. Instrumentation: In addition to the determination of the extrusion-relevant data (force and path progression), also the measurement of the tool and, especially, the sheet temperature is essential, as the latter is crucial to the material behaviour (hardening and failure). 4. Variable blank holder force: In order to be able to simulate different deepdrawing scenarios, e.g.: manufacturing of double-sinks, the blank holder forces need to be adjustable along the circumference. This way, for example, a blocking as well as a sliding of the sheet in the area of the blank holders can be achieved.

Figure 2; Experimental tool to simulate the serial process 3.1. Heating During stationary serial processes three different tool temperatures in the areas of the drawing die, the die and the plunger can be observed. To heat those areas, resistance heaters, in form of tubular heating elements (Fa.Loos electric heat technology) have been used. Circumferential flutes, to hold the tubular heating elements, have been milled into the heated tool areas. Those heating elements are controlled by conventional technologies and PT100 resistance thermometers, responsible for the temperature monitoring. The maximum heat performance of the shaping tool mounts up to about 14kW. The upper limit of the adjustable temperature is approx. 300C. 3.2. Surface For the deep-drawing of stainless steel sinks, the tool areas that are highly subjected to friction are realized by special aluminum bronzes (e.g. AMPCO 22). Due to the high wrought material costs of this specific compound, an alternative approach was chosen for this experimental tool. The so-called Direct Metal Deposition method (laser builtup welding), allows the layered application of a metal powder, similar to AMPCO, to a cost-efficient base material (e.g. St52), using laser energy and a powder nozzle. The high energy density of the laser beam enables the coating of the base material with a low heat input and a correspondingly small heat affected zone, leading to a minimized distortion. As the powder fuses completely into the melting bath, a perfectly dense metal layer is generated that features all mechanical properties of the used metal powder

and simultaneously forms a high-strength compound with the base material. For the presented experimental tool, the properties of the reference material AMPCO 22 and the welded material were examined. On the one hand microhardness measurements were compared. And on the other hand strip drawing test were conducted to allow the comparison of friction coefficients of the single materials. Not only the results from the pilot survey, but also the performed experiments confirmed a good comparability of the welded material to AMPCO 22, in terms of the desired properties hardness, sliding ability and heat conductivity.

Figure 3; Laser built-up welding of material similar to AMPCO 3.3. Instrumentation As mentioned before, it is crucial to this unique experimental tool to record all temperature changes in the tool and, primarily, in the inserted blank. For the following evaluation, this temperature data needs to be linked to the force and path progression of the press. By this, conclusions on the material behavior during the forming process can be drawn. In order to show the heating behavior of the tool, mantle thermocouples (type K) were integrated in the plunger and die area. They were installed approximately 1-2 mm below the tool surface, to have a nearly direct contact to the blank that is heating up. The documented temperature is the sum of the friction-induced heat, between blank and tool, and the predefined temperature of the tooling system. The heat development, due to adiabatic heating and deformation-induced martensite formation, is of utmost importance to the material behavior during the shaping process. Therefore an infrared pyrometer (range of temperature registration -40C to +400C) has been installed, to capture the blank temperature. The pyrometer position has been chosen in a way that changes in the corner area of the sink base can be recorded. If the tool is not heated, the temperature registration in the blank is not complicated, because of the constant emission coefficients. For the heated stage the infrared pyrometer was encased with temperature compensation housing. This precaution enables the measurement of sheet temperatures that are smaller than the temperature of the surrounding tool. Initial experiments with the applied precautionary measure were very satisfying, showing a small deviation of just a few degrees from the actual sheet temperature. As a second position for measuring the sheet temperature while forming, the so-called Anhaumarke (flange area of the sink) was chosen. In this area the temperature

gradient was recorded by a contact thermocouple Typ K. Considering the forming time it is now possible to illustrate the temperature changes in the tool and sheet material against the path and force of the press. 3.4. Variable blank holder forces One of the main focuses of this experimental tool was to generate as many degrees of freedom as possible, in order to be able to simulate different serial process variations. Those processes can essentially be distinguished between the drawing of symmetrical parts (single sinks, food bowls) and asymmetrical drawing parts (plural sinks or sinks with drain). The chosen concept is based on a complete separation of press or rather displacement forces in the table cushion and the retaining forces that are adjusted in the blank holder area. The retaining forces can be set variably along the circumference by separately controlled gas pressure springs. This enables a selective sliding or blocking of the sheet in the feeding area. To verify the different retaining forces in the blank holder, pressure measuring films, provided by FUJI-Film, have been inserted. The obtained results clearly highlight a distinguished differentiation between the single areas.

4. RESULTS The investigation aims at analyzing the influence of tool temperature, strain rate, tribology, distribution of blank holder forces and, of course, the material on the forming behaviour. Although these factors have already been investigated in numerous laboratory trials, for example in [Frehn, 2004], [Kranz, 1999], their validity for industrial processes is only limited. One reason for this limitation is the influence of increasing friction and different contact pressures in laboratory tests which strongly influences the failure limits. To improve the predictions of conventional FE-codes numerous experimental tests have been conducted and temperatures, strains and martensite fractions have been recorded. Following several examples are discussed. 4.1. Influence of distribution of blank holder forces on crack initiation In industrial production of sinks the place of failure varies with the distribution of blank holder forces. For symmetrically drawn sinks the place of failure typically lies in the edge of the sink whereas for asymmetrical drawing operations as used for double-sinks. Sinks were drawn with identical parameters just varying the black holder force in one side to hinder the material flow in this area. For untempered tools and a drawing speed of 40 mm/s the symmetrical part can be drawn without failure whereas the asymmetrical blank holder distribution leads to failure in the flange of the sink, figure 4a and 4b. For currently running simulations the shifted crack area has to be fulfilled.

a) Symmetrically drawn sink b) Asymmetrically drawn sink Figure 4; Influence of blank holder force distribution on failure For all closer investigation the martensite fractions and the temperature distribution in the flange is compared, table I. The temperature increases earlier for the asymmetrical part. Although the difference in temperature does not exceed 8 C the influence on the martensite formation is high. The maximum volume fraction is with only 2% rather low for the asymmetrical sink and cannot stabilize the deformation behaviour in this area resulting in crack initiation. Simulation now has to show its ability to mirror these differences in temperature/ martensite and area of failure.

30

Temperatur flange, C

25 20 15
Symmetrical

martensite fraction, %

Asymmetrical

10 5 0 0 50 100 150 drawing depth, mm

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0

Symmetrical

Asymmetrical

10 20 30 40 50 unrolled length, cm

Figure 5; Temperature evolution and resulting martensite formation 4.2. Influence of nickel content on martensite evolution The exact knowledge of the material behaviour during deformation allows an efficient material selection which fulfills the requirements but is not overengineered with respect to its usage. For austenitic stainless steels the austenite stability which is influenced by nickel is an important factor to adjust the material performance for a certain dedication. Table II shows the martensite fraction of section which runs from the middle of the bottom over the edge of the sink. The area which is prone to cracking is marked. For different material stabilities the martensite contents are rather similar, just in the critical

area of the sink, differences in the material performance can be found. With help of the tempered tool system targeted investigations of different austenite stabilities can be carried out to improve the material choice for different components. Again, simulation has to be able to discriminate small deviations in the material selection to be an efficient tool for process development.

martensit fraction, %

30 25 20 15 10 5
bottom flange area prone to cracking

8,5% Ni 9,0% Ni

frame

0 0 20 40 unrolled length, cm 60

Figure 6; Comparison of different austenite stabilities in the edge area of the sink

5. OUTLOOK The existing temperate experimental tool, developed at the Institute for Tools and Forming, enables the observation of the influence of austenitic stability, friction, shaping rate and drawing depth on the forming behavior of austenitic stainless steels. Based on experimentally obtained data, the retrofitting for different materials and failure models for this material group can be carried out. The main focuses (heating, surface, instrumentation and variable blank holder forces) that are presented here, provide a large number of degrees of freedom for the simulation and consequently a huge optimization potential for serial processes, and are not confined to the production of stainless steel sinks.

REFERENCES [Hnsel, 1998] Hnsel, A.; Hora, P.; Reissner, J.; Model for the kinetics of straininduced martensitic phase transformation at non isothermal conditions for the simulation of sheet metal forming processes with metastable austenitic steels; In:

Sim. Mat. Proc: Theory, Methods and Appl, eds Htnik & Baaijens, pp. 373-378; Balkema 1998, Rotterdam [Hnsel, 1998] Hnsel, A.; Nichtisothermes Werkstoffmodell fr die FE-Simulation von Blechumformprozessen mit metastabilen austenitischen CrNi-Sthlen, In: PhD Thesis, Fortschr.-Ber. VDI Reihe 2 Nr. 491, Dsseldorf 1998 [Heinemann, 2004] Heinemann, G.; Virtual determination of forming limits of metastable austenitic stainless steels applied to sheet forming processes, Zrich 2004 [Ratte, 2008] Ratte, E.; Sense and sensitivity of thermo-mechanical forming simulation of metastable austenitic stainless steels, In: 6th European Stainless Steel Conference, 10-13. Juni, Helsinki 2008 [Frehn, 2004] Frehn, A.; Einflu von Umformtemperatur und geschwindigkeit auf das Umformvermgen von austenitischen nichtrostenden Sthlen, In: PhD Thesis, Aachen 2004. [Kranz, 1999] Kranz, S.; Mechanisch-technologische Eigenschaften metastabiler austenitischer Edelsthle und deren Beeinfluung durch den TRIP-Effekt, In: PhD Thesis, Aachen 1999

A method for measuring residual stresses in rollformed hat profiles of ultra high-strength steel
Seyed B. Hosseini*, Elisabeth Sagstrm*, Peter Ottosson*, and Lars Troive** * Swerea IVF, Box 104, SE-431 22 Mlndal ** SSAB, SE-781 84 Borlnge Sweden seyed.hosseini@swerea.se

Abstract: Roll-forming has shown to be a robust forming method when considering the variations in final geometry when changing material [Sagstrm et al., 2008]. However, changing material and thereby material properties will have an effect on stresses induced in the profile during forming, influencing the final geometry. A method for determining strains, and from them calculating the relaxed stresses in the walls of rollformed profiles, was developed, in order to further understand the relationship between material properties and residual stresses resulting in flare. Besides the magnitude of strains/stresses, the method developed gives the directions of the principal stresses in relation to the roll-forming direction. The method seems to be a relevant method for studying strains and stresses built up during roll-forming. However further studies are needed in order to verify and develop the method suggested. Keywords: roll-forming, residual stresses, ultra high-strength steel 1. INTRODUCTION Roll-forming is a cost efficient forming method combining a high production rate with a very high material utilizition, often 95 99 %. The possibility to form radii down to 1xt (sheet thickness) for UHSS materials with Rp0.2 up to 1500 MPa [Wadman et al, 2001] has increased the industrial interest, particularly from the automotive industry. Investigations of the robustness of final geometry when changing material has proven that roll-forming is robust forming method when considering the variations in material [Sagstrm et al., 2008]. In Table I the properties for the two ultra high strength steels in the investigations are shown.
Material A B Thickness [mm] 1.5 1.5 Rp0.2 Yield strength [MPa] 993 1286 Rm Ultimate Tensile strength [MPa] 1003 1522 Rp0.2 /Rm 0.99 0.84 A80 7 5 Surface Cold rolled Cold rolled

Table I; Materials used in the roll-forming experiments. The cross-section of the profile was an open U with flanges, see Figure 1. The formed radius equaled the sheet thickness, 1,5 mm. The roll-forming line consisted of 12 forming stations where the first tool produces no bending operation.

Figure 1; Shape of the studied profile. Figure 2 illustrates the flare, increased spring-back at profiles ends, for the two UHSS tested. The flare is demonstrated by showing the measured distance between the flange edges versus the longitudinal position of the measurement on the profile. The flare is present for a long portion of the profile, over 500 mm at each profile end, representing a third of the total profile length. The shape of the flare differs between Material A and Material B. The flare of the steel with the highest strength, Material B, is smaller than the flare of Material A.

Figure 2; Resulting flare at profile ends for the two UHSS-materials The flare effect is a result of residual stresses introduced during roll-forming and relaxed at the profile ends. A suggested explanation to the different flare for Material B is that for materials with a sufficiently high strength in relation to the forming complexity of the profile, the difference between the stress in the outer and inner fibres of the sheet thickness would be low in comparison to the yield strength, resulting in a smaller flare in the roll-formed profile. In order to further understand the relationship between material properties and residual stresses resulting in flare, a simplified method for determining residual stressed in the walls of roll-formed profiles has been developed.

2. RESUDIAL STRESSES Residual stresses can be introduced into a material by thermal or mechanical processes, such as heat treatment, forming process or shot peening and their development is either due to phase transformation, plastic deformation or lattice misfit. Residual stress is an extrinsic property and cannot therefore be solely measured. An intrinsic property i.e. strain has to be measured in order to determine the stress by assuming a linear elastic distortion of the crystal lattice [Withers and Bhadeshia]. There are many different techniques for determination of residual stresses, divided into groups of: non-destructive, semi-destructive and destructive techniques. Amongst the destructive methods two techniques are widely used, layer removal and slitting method. During the usage of the slitting method, a slit normal to the direction of the stress of interest is introduced. The change in curvature on the opposite side is determined by either using strain gages or interferometry. In this investigation a modified slitting method was adapted for determination of the residual stresses after roll-forming. 3. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD FOR MEASURING STRAINS To measure the strains/stresses at the walls in the hat-formed profiles a modified version of the slitting method was adapted. Instead of placing the strain gage on the opposite side of the component and introducing a cutting perpendicular to the strain gage through the material, the strain gage where positioned on the walls close to the flange, see Figure 3a. The strain gages were positioned at the same distances from the edge and the flange on each side of the wall and the cut was introduced parallel to the strain gage in the radius between the wall and the flange. The strain gages used were of type CEA-06125UR-350. As the cut was introduced and the relaxation occurred, the wall at the rear end tends to move towards middle of the profile Figure 3b. The strains after cutting 30 mm, 80 mm, 130 mm, 230 mm, and 330 mm were measured. a) b)
Wall movement The flange

The cut

Figure 3a; Position of the rosette strain gage on the roll formed profile pre-cutting. Figure 3b; Wall movement after cutting.

4. CONVERSION OF STRAINS INTO STRESSES The process of obtaining principal stresses involve three basic and sequential steps, i) measurement of strains 1 - 3 with a rosette strain gage, ii) transformation of obtained strains into principal strains, and iii) interpretation of principal strains into principal stresses. After obtaining strains 1 - 3 from the measurements and solving Equations (1) to (3) for the unknown variables P, Q and the principal strains and angle can be expressed in terms of the three measured strains according to Equation (4) and (5). Replacing 1 - 3 with the measured strains from the rosette strain gage into Equation (4) the maximal and minimal principal strains can be calculated. 2 2 2
,

2 2 2 1 2 2

cos 2 cos2 cos2 45 90

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 1

7 1 As for the principal strains the angle, , can also be calculated by implementation of the measured strains into Equation (5). Once the principal strains are determined, they can easily be converted into principal stresses by Hookes, Equation (6) and (7) [Strain Gages and Instruments, 2008]. This in turn requires the Youngs modulus (E) and the Poissons ratio (). Depending how the numbering of the grids is performed the direction of angle is decided, Figure 4. If the grid numbering is counter clockwise and the obtained angle, , is positive the P or Q is position at the angle , counting counter clockwise from grid 1. Therefore a positive angle, , means that the positioning of the P or Q is measured clockwise from grid 1 and counter clockwise if the angle is negative.

Figure 4a; Rectangular rosette strain gages positioned on the test surface having grid 1 arbitrary at a angle, , from the principle strains, Figure 4b; Transformation of the axes from the rectangular rosette gages into the Mohrss circle [Strain Gages and Instruments, 2008]. 5. RESULTS STRAINS AND STRESSES The relaxed principal strains/stresses at the walls of the U-shaped roll-formed profiles were calculated with the suggested method for the two UHSS materials. Throughout the calculation the Youngs modulus (E) of 210 GPa and Poissons ratio () of 0.3 were used. By assuming a tabulated value for the Youngs modulus and the Poissons ratio in all directions at the walls within the roll-formed profiles a small error was introduces into the results as the anisotropy within the material was excluded. From calculated angle the angle between roll-forming direction and the principal relaxed stress was determined. The resulting relaxed stresses in the roll-forming direction and perpendicular to the roll-forming direction was calculated. Throughout the discussions relaxed stresses measured at the cut of 130 and at 330 mm from the rear end was used for a comparison between the profiles investigated. 7.1.Material A Figure 5a shows the shift of the angle between the maximal principal strains/stresses within the wall of the roll-formed profile relative the roll-forming direction as the cut was made along the flange. At the outside of the wall the angle between maximal principal stress and the rollforming direction decreased from about 8 to about 50 as the cut was continued from 30 mm to 80 mm. The angle stabilizes around 40 as the cut proceeded to 130 330 mm. At the inside of the wall the angle goes from about -15 to about -40when the cut continues from 30 to 80 mm. The right coordinate system in Figure 5b illustrates the shifts in the position of the principal stresses occurring at the inside of the wall while the left coordinate system is for the shifts at the outside. According to Figure 5 the principal strains/stresses directions at 130 mm is approximately 45 against the roll forming direction.

Figure 5; The angel between the maximal principal stress and the roll-forming direction for Material A. Both the outside and inside of the profile is observed from the outside of the wall. The maximal and minimal principal stresses for Material A are shown in Figure 6. The maximal stress on the outside wall is directed approximately 45 aganist the rollforming direction, that is directed towards the back of the profil. On the inside the minmal stress will act in the same direction. When removing the flange the wall will move towards less flare.

Figure 6; Maximal and minimal relaxed principal stresses for Material A. 7.1.Material B Figure 7a shows the shift of the angle between the maximal principal strains/stresses within the wall of the roll-formed profile relative the roll-forming direction as the cut was made along the flange. At the outside of the wall the angle is constant around 25 when the cut procedures. At the inside wall the angle changes from around 10 to around -70 when the cut goes from 30 to 80 mm and stabilizes around -80 as the cut proceeds to 130 330 mm. The right coordinate system in Figure 7b illustrates the shifts in the position of the principal strains occurring at the inside of the wall while the left coordinate system is for the shifts at the outside. Observe that grid 3 is flipping 180 if the strain gage is placed on

the inside compared to outside of the wall. According to Figure 7 the principal stress directions at 130 mm is approx -70 on the inside wall and only around -10 on the outside wall. a b

Figure 7; The angel between the maximal principal stress and the roll-forming direction for Material B. Both the outside and inside of the profile is observed from the outside of the wall. The maximal and minimal principal stresses for Material B are shown in Figure 8. The maximal stress on the outside wall is directed -25 aganist the roll-forming direction, that is directed towards the flange of the profil. On the inside the minmal stress will act almost perpendicular to the roll-forming direction.

Figure 8; Maximal and minimal principal strains for Material B 6. DISCUSSION As mentioned previously there are many different techniques for determination of residual stresses in metallic materials, both non-destructive and destructive methods. However, many of those techniques are also time consuming with an outcome that is located to from where at the surface the X-rays are from or from where the cut is placed

at. The method tested in this investigation gives information about the relaxation that occurs within the material as the cut is performed at the radius. As the cut is performed the micro-strains close to the rear end of the profile wall is measured. As Figure 9 illustrates the relaxation occurring within the wall up to 130 mm away from the strain gage is possible to detect. The reason for why no changes are observed after 130 mm can either be due to the lack of sensitivity in the strain gage or that the strains/stresses built up after the first 130 mm from the rear end are much lower. There is a difference between the directions of the principal strains/stresses for Material A and Material B. For Material A the principal strains/stresses are lying approx. 45 against the roll-forming direction see Figure 9. For Material B the principal strains and stresses are oriented almost parallel and 90 to the roll-forming direction. Material B has a lower flare effect than the Material A, as shown in Figure 2. The direction and the magnitude of the residual stresses within the wall will affect the size of the flare of the profile.

Figure 9; The angel between the maximal principal stress and the roll-forming direction for the two materials. Both the outside and inside of the profile is observed from the outside of the wall. The resulting residual stresses in the profiles parallel and perpendicular to the rollforming direction at distance 330 mm are shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11. In calculating the residual stresses, consideration has been taken to both minimal and maximal relaxed stresses and the angle between the principal stresses and the rollforming direction. All the measurements were made during relaxation, which means that the residual stresses in the profile have opposite sign to the measured relaxed stresses. Figure 10 shows the residual stresses parallel to the roll-forming direction. Both materials have negative residual stresses (compression) on the outside of the profile and positive residual stresses (tension) on the inside of the profile.

A difference between Material A and B is the size of the residual stresses on the outside and inside of the profile wall. For Material B the outside shows a high negative stress and the inside a low positive stress parallel to the roll-forming direction. For Material A the size of the negative stress on the outside and the positive stress on the inside of the wall are almost equal. The difference in residual stresses parallel to the roll-forming direction comparing the inside and the outside wall is about 110 MPa for Material A and 120 MPa for Material B. The relation of the difference in stress to the yield stress of the materials is 11 % for Material A and 9 % for Material B for the parallel relaxed stresses.

Figure 10; The resulting residual stresses parallel to the roll-forming direction. Perpendicular to the roll-forming direction the stress distributions are similar for Material A and Material B, Figure 11, with a higher positive stress on the inside than negative stress on the outside. The perpendicular components of the stresses are probably more connected to the bending of the flange than to the flare of the profile.

Figure 11; The resulting residual stresses perpendicular to the roll-forming direction.

However, it should also be noted that these results are valid for that position where the strain gages were positioned at, material and roll-forming parameters. In order to verify that this is valid for the entire wall width, process parameters and materials further investigations are needed where both a mapping is done and also further measurement are carried out in order to obtain a statistically accurate result. The measurements also have to be combined with FE-simulation in order to fully understand the interaction of the residual stresses, the material properties, and the forming parameters. 7. CONCLUSIONS The suggested simplifyed method for determining residual stresses in the walls of a rollformed profile has given information on size of the residual stresses in the profile as well as the direction of maximal and minimal stresses. The difference in the directions of the maximal and minimal stresses results in stress distributions over the thickness of the sheet that could explain the different flare appearance for the materials. The suggested method needs to be further verified with a combination of experimental work and FE-simulations. REFERENCES [Handbook of Mesurement of Resdual Stresses, 1996] "Handbook of Measurement of Residual stresses", In: Society For Experimental Mechanics Inc.; 1996, Edited by Jian Lu [Keum, Han, 2002] Y.T. Keum and B. Y. Han, "Springback of FCC Sheet in Warm Forming"; In: Journal of Ceramic Processing Research, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 159165, 2002 [Sagstrm et al., 2008] E. Sagstrm, Swerea IVF; B. Wadman, Swerea IVF; R. Moshfegh, Swerea IVF; M Lundberg, Swerea KIMAB; A. Melander, Swerea KIMAB; "The geometrical robustness of roll-formed profiles in ultra high strength steels"; In: Proceedings of IDDRG 2008, Olofstrm, Sweden 2008 [Strain Gages and Instruments, 2008] "Strain Gages and Instruments Tech Note TN-515"; Vishay Micro Measurements, 2008 [Wadman et al., 2001] B. Wadman, IVF; L. Ingvarsson, ORTIC; " Rollforming Vprofiles of ultra high strength steels "; In: Proceedings of the IDDRG Working Group Meeting; Espoo 2001 [Withers and Bhadeshia] P.J. Withers; H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia; "Residual stress Part I."; In; Measure Tech Mater Sci Technol 17: pp. 355-365

Study on 3D spring back of ultra high strength steel sheets for rear member model
K. Sato*, T. Yoshida*, E. Isogai**, K.Hashimoto*** and Y. Kuriyama* * Steel Research Laboratories, Nippon Steel Corporation, 20-1 Shintomi, Futtu-city, Chiba, 293-8511, JAPAN ** Hirohata Research Labs., Nippon Steel Corporation, 1 Fuji-cho, Hirohata-ku, Himeji-city, Hyogo, 671-1188, JAPAN *** Nagoya Works, Nippon Steel Corporation, 5-3 Tokai-cho, Tokai-city, Aichi, 476-8686, JAPAN koichi.sato@nsc.co.jp Abstract: To evaluate the 3D springback about rear member model tool for high strength steel until 980MPa tensile strength. Twisting and camber were observed from forming samples. Springback simulation of rear member model were carried out by using isotropic and mixed hardening models. Analytical results were compared with experimental ones in case of different lubricant conditions. Simulation results of mixed hardening model were good correlated with experimental results about twisting and camber because Bauschinger effect is considered. To investigate mechanism of 3D springback, theoretical evaluation is carried out from simulation results before springback. Torsion angle calculated by torsion moment theoretically is good agreement with experimental one. Main reason of increasing torsion moment is increasing wall stresses. It is thought that bending moment in longitudinal direction affects on camber distribution. Bending moments of web and flange area were larger especially. Moreover, rear member model tests of countermeasures of twisting and camber were carried out. Twisting and camber were reduced by locating partial bead to proper area. In this part effects of partial bead become large in case of locating bead to stretch flange area in wide width side. Effects of reducing springback were also obtained by two processes forming methods. Forming methods decreasing punch width at curved area of stretch flange of wide width side is effective because of controlling torsion moment. Keywords: ultra high strength steel, springback, twisting, camber, Bauschinger effect, mixed hardening model,

1. INTRODUCTION The use of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) is increasing in popularity for almost every vehicle maker. They are the result of a never-ending quest for a material that allows increased fuel efficiency while allowing for ease of manufacturability, performance, and styling. AHSS panels are thinner, lighter, and stronger than mild and many high-strength steel panels and accomplish the same desired effect for collision energy management. However, it is quite different to form and assemble after forming part. Especially, springback, which is shape defect of formed panel, is quite significant problem in production line, because of not easy to improve the shape of AHSS panel. The torsion is a kind of shape defect of stamping sheet which is mainly problem of 3D shape springback. In this study, by using "rear member part model" which had 3D curve shape, the evaluation of the springback mechanism, precision validation of the springback analysis is carried out. And also the examination of the measures technology for twisting and camber is implemented in. Based on these results, countermeasure examined an factor of 3D shape defect by dynamic evaluation from the stress state of bottom dead point provided by the forming simulaion. 2. MATERIALS A mechanical properties of a mild steel sheet and high tensile strength sheets (thickness 0.8-1.2mm) which used for this study is shown in Table I. Table I. Mechanical properties of specimen for evaluation tests
Mark A B C D E F Steel grade Mild steel 440MPa HSS 590MPa HSS 780MPa HSS 980MPa HSS 980MPa HSS t /mm 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.8 YS /MPa 149 311 366 472 579 629 TS /MPa 293 445 621 811 990 1053 EL /% 49 37 30 28 18 16 n-value 0.268 0.222 0.206 0.235 0.124 0.112

3. SPRINGBACK EVALUATION

3.1. Rear member model Figure 1 and 2 shows that the rear member model die-set and stamping panel geometory. Upper and lower dies are divieded by several blocks for countermeasure of shape defect.

Twist direction

(+)

Reference axis 100 525 75 Right side Left side Section A R5

Section B
-40 -20 0 20 40 60

Location hole
80 100 120 -20 0 20

140

-140

-120

-100

-80

-60

60

-40

40

R5

R5

Section B

30

80

Section A
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Figure 1. Tool structure and bead profile of Rear Member model

Figure 2. Detail profile of rear member panel

-140 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40

-20

20

3.2. Experimental procedure and shape evaluation Normal press forming condition in this study is that blank holder force 400kN, pad force 170kN respectively. Rust prevention oil is used as the normal conditon and Teflon sheet is also used as high luburicant condition. In order to evaluation shape defect, 3D shape coordinate points is measured by optical 3D measurement system. Mainly on web side of long hole side(Sectio B) with the CAD is alined. After alining it, the distribution of torsion and camber were evaluated by coordinate data of the web side along the referece axis to show in Figure 2. As for the torsion (torque) evaluation value, section A(circle hole), difference AB of the Web face angle degree of section B of the locatehole center, camber evaluation value are error value B with the CAD in the Web side center of section B. 3.3. Numerical analysis Numerical analysis were carried out by means of the FE code PAMSTAMP2G (explicit). Material model is selected Lemaitor-Chaboche model([1] :LC model). It is known to be able to consider the Bauschinger effect by using the kinematic hardening model. In case of isotropic hardening model, the initial yield surface expands in isotropic rule, on the other hand, in case of kinematic hardening model, so that the yield surface may move with the deformation, an amount of the work hardening different according to the deformation mode is expressible. Combined hardening model (LC model) that combines the isotropic hardening model and kinematic hardening model is proposed. LC model is shown in the next expression. f = e(, X ) -R(p) (1) p -crp R( ) = 0 + Rsat (1- e ) (2) dX = Cx Xsat dp - Cx X dp (3)

40
40

R5

Here, e(, X), p are the equivalent stress, equivalent plasticity strain respectively. In addition, X, R(p), 0 is back stressed, isotropic hardening stresses, ayield stress. 3.4. Comparison between numerical analysis and experimental results In order to investigate the influence of the material model on analytical accuracy of the 3D springback, the experiment result with Teflon-sheet is compared with analytical result. Figure +8.0mm more 3 shows an error map where point data a) error contour map (CAD vs Exp) more m by CAD and an analysis is compared. For the LC model, some amounts of the camber in the wide-hole section (B section) are large compared with the experiment, and it can be said that the more +8.0mm tendency of the opening the flange and m b) error contour map (CAD vs LCmodel) twisting is corresponding well. On the other hand, for the Swift model, twist -8.0mm and opening of shrinking-shrinking m flange is larger than that of the experiment result, and it is understood more +8.0mm that springback in the flange side of the m c) error contour map (CAD vs Swift model) hole section (A section) is small. Figure 4 shows the result of Figure 3. comparing two dimension shapes in the A effect of material model on analytical accuracy. wide-hole section (B section). For the (Material E with Teflon sheet for lubricant) amount of the twist, springback of the IH model is larger than that of the -10 experiment, on the other hand, It can be Experiment said that it is corresponding to the Chabhoce -20 experiment well in the LC model. It has CAD been understood that the prediction -30 Swift accuracy of the opening section Swift -40 improves by using the Bauschinger Experiment Experiment model, and it can be considered that the -50 prediction accuracy of the twist -60 improved. In other word, it is confirmed Chabhoce Chabhoce 2 Swift that the consideration of the -70 Bauschinger model is important in a 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 quantitative prediction of a 3D Figure 4. Comparison of section profile on section B (Material E with Teflon lubricant) springback like the rear member model.

4. TORQUE ANALYSIS

4.1. 3D springback measurement results for torque analysis The distribution of the torsion angle () about materials E, F is shown in Figure 5(a). The horizontal axis shows the line head of the web side from the end face of the circle hole side to the end face of the long hole side. At first, twisting increases monotonously, and decrease in the back with the peak value in the first curved section, and it is it with negative peak value by reverse curve again and throws it on increase again. Even if complicated distribution with geometry shape in this way is shown, and torsion in the section of both ends small, torsion occurs in the section on the way. In addition, in thin materials F of the sheet thickness, materials E and the tendency that an absolutely needed quantity of the torsion increased although hardly change were seen in the total tendency, and difference of the web face angle degree increased. The camber ( distributions by the longitudinal direction about materials E, F is shown in Figure 5(b). value become negative value in section AB, measurement data of web area become lower than CAD surface. Absolute value increases gradually from section A to section B. The difference between material E and F about camber is not made clear compared than twisting; the influence of thickness is not so large. The difference and of the web face angle degree of each steel grades is shown in Figure 5(c). It can be noticed that lubricant selection, which means choice of press oil or Teflon sheet in this section, is seems to have quite larger influence for springback.
5 4
0 -1
E(t=1.2) F(t=0.8)

Torsion angle /deg

3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 0 100 200 300 Length along reference axis /mm 400

Camber /mm

-2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 0 100 200 300 Length along reference axis /mm 400

E(t=1.2) F(t=0.8)

(a)
4 Torsion Angle

(b) Figure 5. (a) Longitudinal distribution of Torsion Angle (Material E and F) (b) Longitudinal distribution of Camber (Material E and F) (c) Material effect of Torsion angle and Camber
E F E(Teflon)

Torsion Angle /deg, Camber /mm

Camber

AB /deg B /mm

-2

-4

-6

-8 A B C

(c)
D

4.2. 3D springback mechanism by Torque analysis[2] The direct cause of springback is internal stresses in press forming, and technique by evaluate the stress distribution of a provided bottom dead point is utilized, and to evaluate a springback factor dynamically is suggested in this section. The FE code (PAMSTAMP-2G) is used at this study, and materials of LCmodel which could consider Baushinger effect of materials is also used, and dynamic evaluation is performed for materials E, F by forming analysis result. At first, with integrated ratio torsion angle d for the whole axial direction t, torsion corner is shown as follows : The torsion ingredient ts of the curvature tensor is the rate of change of the normal of the curved surface is used, and the ratio torsion angle is obtained from the average of section length L by the following equation.

d dt

(1)

The distribution of predicted torsion angle can estimate a factor of the torsion by evaluating the torque of each area. As a result, comparison between experimental data () and predicted data() is shown in Figure 6(a). Each torsion angle is similar in distribution. In order to evaluate the most effective area in this parts, the part is divided by 5 areas (right flange, right wall, web, left wall, left flange: Figure 6(c)) and torque analysis is applied to the stress in each respective area. The distribution of each area in investigation (Figure 6(b)) shows that web area and left flange area have an effect on 3D shape defect. This result indicates that countermeasures for these areas are considered of value for 3D shape defect.
4
Resultant Bending Moment /kN.mm
1.5E+06 1.0E+06 5.0E+05 0.0E+00 -5.0E+05 -1.0E+06 -1.5E+06 0 100 200 300 400 Length along reference axis /mm TOTAL WEB R WALL L WALL R FLANGE L FLANGE

1 L ts ds L 0

(2)

Torsion angle /deg

2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 100 200 300 Length along refrence axis /mm 400

(EXP) (Predicted)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6. (a) Comparison of experimental torsion angle and predicted. (b) Moment distribution on each area of rear member panel (c) Divided area for factor analysis for shape defect.

5. COUNTER MEASURES

5.1. Counter measure - Partial bead According to the results of torque analysis in previous section, some techniques for reducing twist were applied to each area of rear member model. The bead for countermeasure to be decrease shape defects is installed in stretch flange section and shrink flange senction(Figure 7(a)). In addition, regarding the settings of the bead, the block structure is divided every each area of the punch, dies, blankholder, and it is realized particular bead placement by replacing only a necessary block. The geometory of bead shape is shown Figure 7(b). Figure 7(c) is shown as the results of each bead condition. Concerning twisting angle, the twisting direction is different from stretch flange bead section in shrink flange bead section. Type1(wide side stretch flange) is most effective condition. It is thought that the effect of partial bead installed, total balance of twisting moment did enhance of by raising residual stress of specific wall section and flange section. Type 4-6 also shows that twisting angle is decreased by bead installation into the stretch flange, and in particular Type 4 occurs large reverse twisting. On the other hands, camber is reduced by bead type1 and type4, at the case of which the bead is set around wide side area(Section A :Figure 2). Changing the stresses around Section A is quite effective to reduce camber in this model.

Dies
R3 2 R4.2

Blank Holder

(a)
2.0 0.0 -2.0 -4.0 -6.0 -8.0 -10.0
Twisting Angle/deg & Camber/mm

(b)
Figure 7. (a) Countermeasure by partial bead (6 types of bead) (b) Bead structure and detail profile (c) Effect of bead types for twisting angle

Twisting Angle/deg Camber/mm

Ref.Data

Bead Type 1

Bead Type 2

Bead Type 3

Bead Type 4

Bead Type 5

Bead Type 6

(c)

5.2. Counter measure -Wide and narrow width forming In hope of an effect like the partial bead, as shown it in Figure 8, two kinds of two stages forming technique are installed: (1)Wide width forming (WWF) is constituted of two stages. At the first stage, width of stretch and shrink flange section are formed to narrow width against designed shape, and then in second stage, panel is formed to designed shape. (2)Narrow width forming (NWF) has also two stages. At the first stage, width of stretch and shrink flange section make wide with against designed shape, and then in next stage, stamping panel is pressed by designed shape dies. Each forming technique also could be able to control residual stress in particular part. It means that this forming could be control stress distribution and stress level. In this study, 6 types of forming condition have been installed as Figure 8(b) shown. Dies gap (1st and 2nd forming width) is 2mm. With regards to the result of WWF and NWF (Figure 8(c)), it seems that WWF3 and NWF1 are effective condition for twisting angle. On the other hands, the most effective condition for camber is NWF1.

(a)
2.0 0.0

(b)

TwistAngle/deg & Camber/mm

-2.0 -4.0 -6.0 -8.0 -10.0

(c)
Ref. Data WWF 1 WWF 2 WWF 3 NWF 1

Twist Angle/deg Camber/mm

NWF 2

NWF 3

Figure 8. (a) Countermeasure by Narrow Width Forming (NWF) and Wide Width Forming (WWF). (b) 6 types of forming condition of NWF and WWF (c) Effect of NWF and WWF for twisting angle.

In order to analyze the above experiment result, Figure 9 shows stress transision of before and after WWF1/NWF1. Regarding WWF1, stretch flange section becomes the residual stress state of the compression by wide width forming of the second stage. In addition, residual stress occurs by narrow width forming about NWF1 in local area and the scattering of the residual stress is performed by these condition. Furthermore, axial direction residual stress is tend to reduces WWF1,NWF1 in performed area and another

side wall together. In other words "diversion" and "reduction" of the residual stress are performed by the width and narrow width forming. and it is thought that, as a result, there are quite effective countermeasure for 3D shape defect ; twisting and a camber.

Figure 9. Stress transition by WWF1 and NWF1 6. CONCLUSION 1. Rear member model has complicated stress distribution, but by using FEM analysis with LC model, it is possible to predict experimental results with high accuracy. 2. Resultant bending moment analysis, corresponding to the curve direction contributed to long distance direction camber, could specify the effective parts for 3D shape defect. 3. Countermeasures for reducing 3D springback were applied by FEM simulation. Partial bead and Curvature control are very effective to this part. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Arcelor-Mittal, Luxembourg, for the collaboration work for this study. REFERENCES 1. J.L. Chaboche"On some modifications of kinematic hardening to improve the description of ratcheting effects", International Journal of Plasticity, Volume 7, 1991, Pages 661-678 2. K. Ito, T. Kondou, G. Uemura, N. Mori "New Method to Evaluate and Compensate 3D springback", Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Numerical Methods in Industrial Forming Process, Volume 908, .2007, Pages 14771482

Tool degradation during sheet metal forming of three stainless steel alloys
Boel Wadman*, Peter Se Nielsen**, Daniel Wiklund*, Niels Bay**, Erik Madsen***, Erik Schedin****
* Swerea IVF, Box 104, 431 22 Mlndal, SE

**Technical University of Denmark, Dpt of Mech Eng.,***Grundfos Technical Center, ****Outokumpu, Avesta Research Center boel.wadman@swerea.se

Abstract: The effect on tool degradation in the form of galling was investigated with three different types of stainless steel. The study was performed to evaluate if changes in tool design and tool surface preparation are needed when low-Ni stainless steels are used instead of austenitic stainless steels. The resistance to tool degradation was analysed by the strip reduction test, simulating resistance to galling during ironing. It was shown that the surface condition of both the tools and the sheet metal was of importance to the galling resistance. Numerical simulations were compared with the experimental test results. The software program DEFORM 3D was used to analyse the temperature development in the tool/work piece interface during strip reduction. Keywords: galling, tool surface, forming of stainless, die degradation, strip reduction

1.

INTRODUCTION

Complex sheet metal forming in stainless steel is a challenge to designers of forming tools. The frictional heat developed in the tool/work piece interface during forming is enhanced by adiabatic heating from strain-hardening stainless alloys [van der Heide, 2003]. High-performance lubricants are often used to avoid cold welding and scoring of work piece surfaces. Users of different stainless steel types may need different tool and process concepts to perform cost efficient sheet metal forming. The purpose of this study was to compare the galling behavior of three different stainless steel alloys in severe sheet forming operations. To simulate the variety of process conditions that exist in industrial production, different tool surfaces, tool temperatures, and lubricants were used in the study. The experimental data in combination with numerical predictions will be used to evaluate if changes in tool design and tool surface preparation are needed when low-Ni stainless steels are used as alternatives to austenitic steels.

2.

STUDIED MATERIALS

Three different stainless steel types were investigated: austenitic (1.4301), ferritic (1.4509) and lean duplex LDX 2101 (1.4162), see Table I. Micrographs of their surfaces are shown in figure 1.
Steel # 1 Alloy EN 1.4301 Major phase content Austenite Yield/Tensile Strength (MPa) RD: 269/618 TD: 268/596 RD: 354/530 TD: 376/529 RD: 620/830 TD: 605/826 Chemical Composition Cr:Ni:Mo:Mn 18.1:8.1: - : t (mm) 0.7 Surface treatment 2B: pickled + skin passed 2B: pickled + skin passed 2E: brushed + pickled Surface Ra (m) 0.2

1.4509

Ferrite

18: - : -

0.7

0.1

1.4162

Duplex: austenite/ ferrite

21.5:1.5:0.3:5

0.8

0.3

Table I; Sheet materials investigated, mechanical data related to rolling direction (RD).

50 m Figure 1; As received surface of the sheet metals 1, 2 and 3 (L), strip drawing direction horizontal in the micrographs. Confocal microscopy, 50x objective. The tool materials tested were two types of PM grades with hardness 63 HRC. The tool material A: Vancron 40 with evenly dispersed hard phases of VN is successfully used in high-volume industrial production of austenitic stainless components. Material B is under development [Sandberg, 2008].
Tool surface # A1 A2 B Alloy Vancron 40 Vancron 40 Development Production process PM PM PM Surface treatment Polished Mirror polished Polished Surface Ra (m) 0.04 0.03 0.07

Table II; Tool surfaces investigated.

The tool surfaces were prepared to resemble industrial standards for high-volume production of stainless products: mechanical grinding followed by manual polishing down to a low surface roughness of Ra 0.03-0.07 m. 3. EXPERIMENTS

3.1 Strip reduction test The strip reduction test was used to evaluate the galling resistance of the different sheet materials. It is a severe, simulative sheet forming tribology test simulating the conditions in ironing. Figure 2 shows the schematic outline of the test [Andreasen, 1997]. A 15 mm diameter non-rotating tool-pin is applied as one of the tools, the other one being a supporting tool plate. The set-up allows four tests with the same pin tool before repolishing, by turning the tool 90 after each test. Galling is quantified by surface roughness measurements on the sheet strip [Andreasen, 1998]. a b

Figure 2; Strip reduction test.

The strip sliding velocity against the tool pin was 80 mm/s, and a sheet thickness reduction up to 38 % was applied. The test matrix is included in Table III. The duplex sheet material 3, with a brushed surface, was drawn along (3L) and perpendicular to (3T) the brushing/rolling direction. The 2B surfaces of the austenitic material 1 and the ferritic steel 2 were drawn perpendicular to and along the rolling direction, respectively. Each sheet-tool combination was tested with two to five duplicates.
Tool material A1 A2 B Temperature measurement Surface Industrial Mirror finish Industrial TiAlN Manual polish Sheet material 1, 2, 3L, 3T 1, 2, 3L, 3T 1, 3L 1, 2, 3L, 3T Reduction (%) 30 25-30 18-38 15 Initial tool temperature 22 and 80 C 60 C 60 C 22 C

Table III; Test matrix for the strip reduction test.

Lubrication was applied extensively on both sides of the sheet, using two mineral oils from Rhenus Lub GmbH: r.form 150 (Lub 1) with 150 cSt viscosity at 40C and LA722-017 (Lub 2) with 135 cSt viscosity at 40C. Both lubricants are free from chlorinated additives. Pick-up and galling was studied on the tool and on the sheet surface. On the sheet strip, scratches were measured with a 2D profilometer every 30 mm of the length. The threshold sliding length for scratches deeper than 2 m on the sheet strip was used as indicator of the galling resistance of the system. Figure 3 shows the resulting length to critical galling for the four sheet surfaces. It is clear that the galling resistance of the high strength duplex steel 3 is influenced by the anisotropic surface texture. Galling occurred on almost all strips where the sheet was sliding along (3L) the brushing direction, while perpendicular sliding (3T) delayed the galling initiation. The smooth ferritic surface of sheet material 2 was in most cases better that the somewhat coarser surface of the austenitic material 1.
350
(mm)

Summary SRT results with tools A

A1 RT Lub 1 A1 RT Lub 2 A2 60 deg Lub 1
(mm)

300 250 200 150 100 50 0

1 2 3L 3T

length to galling

300 250 200 150 100 50

A1 RT and 80 deg A2 60 deg

A1 80 deg Lub 1 (1 test)

0
304 4509 LDX L LDX T

Figure 3; Sliding length until galling for three sheet materials tested with tool material A at different conditions. Mean and standard deviation for tests at 30 % strip reduction.

300
(mm)

250 200 150 100 50

B_1

B_3L
0 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 Strip reduction (%) 36 38

Figure 4; Sliding length until galling for sheet 1 and 3L, tested with 60 C tool pins of material B at different reduction levels. The threshold sliding length increased at lower reduction levels.

The interface temperature between tool and work piece is a vital factor to consider when designing efficient tribological conditions to avoid initiation of galling [Friis, 2008]. The process temperature increases by frictional heating and adiabatic heating from the sheet deformation. Surface-coated tool pins equipped with three thermocouples at different distances from the surface (T1-T3 in figure 5) were used to measure the temperature in the tool during the test. In the case of galling, the tool reaches very high temperatures, above 160 C [Nielsen, 2010]. To prevent pick-up initiation on the tool from influencing the process temperature while comparing the four sheet surfaces, a low reduction at 15% and a chlorinated lubricant, Castrol TDN 81, were used.

Figure 5; Temperature curves for 15 % strip reduction of the different stainless steels, left: sensor T3 (1 mm from the tool surface) and right: mean maximum value in T3 of three measurements (+-1 standard deviation). The maximal temperatures of sensor T3 are shown in figure 5 together with typical temperature curves. The duplex steel gave the highest temperature. The ferritic and the austenitic steels gave similar temperatures during strip drawing, except for one austenitic sheet that developed pick-up. It is evident that the duplex 3L surface gave rise to pick-up initiation on the tool, causing a sudden friction and load increase. 3.2 Surface analysis The tested sheet strips and tool pins were analysed by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The brushed duplex sheet surface has a high anisotropy compared to the other steels. Tables IV-V summarize interference white light microscopy measurements according to ISO 25 178. The tool surfaces were measured with area size 164x124 m, sampling distance 0.26 m, and data was collected after form removal with a 4th grade polynomial. The data for the sheet surfaces was obtained at 10x, after levelling of 815x617 m areas with 1.1x1.2 m sampling distances. A low isotropy

value and a first direction close to 0 represent a texture orientation transverse to the sliding direction, which makes it possible to withhold the lubricant during strip reduction [Wiklund, 2009-I]. The tool surfaces A1 and A2 were similar in Sa value, but differed in anisotropy. Surface A1 Sa (m) 0.0390.004 Isotropy (%) 4.6 Most significant Surface direction polar graph direction ( ) 0
110 100 90 80 70 120 60 130 140 150 160 170 180 50 40 30 20 10 0

A2

0.0280.003

20.3

94
130 140 150 160 170 180

110 120

100

90

80

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

0.0550.003

5.9

0
130 140 150 160 170 180

110 120

100

90

80

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Table IV; Surface texture of tools, mean of five 164 x124 m areas measured with interference microscopy at 10x. Surface direction polar graphs show the values for the most significant texture directions of the Fourier transformed surfaces. A high isotropy value signifies a low strength of texture directionality. Surface type, Isotropy (%) Most significant Sa (m) measurement objective direction ( ) 1 2B sheet (10x) 0.1140.003 68 90 2 2B sheet (10x) 0.0960.001 46 0 3L 2E sheet (10x) 0.2630.02 3.5 0 Table V; Surface texture of sheet metals, measured with interference microscopy at 10x. Mean of three 815x617 m areas, sampling distances 1.1x1.2 m. Surface

0.2 mm Figure 6; Surface of duplex sheet after 30 % strip reduction, sliding direction along (left) and perpendicular to (right) the brushing direction. Confocal microscopy, 10x.

Confocal micrographs show that the brushed surface of the duplex steels was flattened during the strip reduction, but that some anisotropy of the surface was still present, see figure 6 for drawing along and perpendicular to the brushed direction. The tool pins developed pick-up and galling in different stages [Bergstrm, 2008]. The first stage involves scratches on the tool surface that act as initiation points for sheet metal pick-up. This is followed by either abrasive wear or lump formation on the tool surface, see example in figure 7, and severe galling and scratching of the sheet surface.

10 m Figure 7; Pick-up and galling on tool surface A1 from duplex steel 3. Strip drawing direction from the top of the image. Secondary electron micrograph, 5000x.

4.

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Numerical modeling of the strip reduction test was performed with DEFORM 3D ver. 6.1 to estimate the interface temperatures during the test. The numerical model is a basic setup of the test comprising only of three parts: tool pin, strip and the supporting tool plate, see figure 2. The omitted contact between the support plate and the fixture was estimated by an additional friction force added to the drawing force after simulation. Symmetry at the center of the strip was utilized to save simulation time by modeling one half of the setup. The material model can either be rigid-plastic or elastoplastic, but an elasto-plastic material model was shown to improve the contact situation, thus ensuring a more stable, and in some cases faster, simulation. The simulated tool temperatures were fitted to the experimental values by adjusting the friction factor together with heat transfer and convection coefficients. When the temperature curves were equal to the experimental values the interface temperature at the tool surface was estimated by extrapolation. Figure 8 shows the results from simulation of 15% strip reduction of sheet materials 1 and 3. The estimated interface temperature is approximately 30C higher for material 3 than for material 1 at similar reduction.

Exp 140 120 Temperature [C] 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 30 60 90

DEFORM

Max surf. temp.

Material 1: 0.7 mm 1.4310

T3 T2 T1

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

Position [mm]
Exp 140 120 Temperature [C] 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 Position [mm] T1 T3 T2 DEFORM Max surf. temp.

Material 3: 0.8 mm 1.4162

Figure 8; Experimental (Exp) and simulated temperatures (DEFORMTM) in the three sensors of the SRT tool pins and estimated interface temperature (Max surf. temp.) for sheet materials 1 and 3 at 15% reduction.

5.

DISCUSSION

The galling resistance in these tests depends greatly on the sheet surface anisotropy, especially concerning the brushed duplex surface. The threshold sliding length of the duplex material was comparable to the other two stainless steels when brushing was oriented in the transverse direction of sliding, whereas the threshold was significantly lower when brushing was performed in the longitudinal direction. This may be explained by draining of the lubricant when the longitudinal valleys of the brushed surface coincided with the sliding direction. Studies on carbon steel have shown a correlation between high yield strength of the work piece material and a high galling resistance [Thuvander, 2009]. In the present study, galling occurred despite the higher strength of the brushed duplex material. Different sheet surfaces will therefore be tested in the future to differentiate between

surface and alloying effects. Successful industrial tool concepts must perform well irrespective of the sheet metal surface anisotropy. In a previous study the influence of anisotropic tool surface textures on friction was investigated, showing a decrease in friction when sliding perpendicular to the lay [Wiklund, 2009-I]. A perpendicular lay restrains the flow of lubricant in the sliding direction. A pressure is building up and the lubricant is partly carrying the load. The tools A2 and B have an anisotropic texture that produce the preferred sliding direction perpendicular to the lay, while the mirror polished surface A2 had a lower anisotropy resulting in lower galling resistance. A1 and B would probably function better than A2 also as industrial tool surfaces for less severe forming conditions. A surface anisotropy where both the tool and the sheet texture are oriented perpendicular to the sliding direction is beneficial for hydrodynamic lubrication. This lubrication mode can exist as long as the temperature does not exceed a critical value, where the viscosity becomes too low to form a separating film between tool and work piece surface. The critical temperature for the lubricants used here was estimated to 100-110C for r.form 150, and below 100C for LA722-017, based on industrial and SRT results [Nielsen, 2010]. The 15 % reduction of the duplex steel with brushed surface produced temperatures higher than the critical level for these lubricants. The temperature measurements can clearly differentiate between extremes in sheet surface anisotropy. The lower temperatures arising from reduction of the austenitic and ferritic steels compared to the duplex steel can, however, be attributed to a multitude of factors: lower yield strength and surface hardness [van der Heide, 2003], lower surface roughness, lower thickness and, for the ferritic steel: higher thermal conductivity. The relative importance of these is under investigation. The tests with heated tool surfaces gave higher variations than tests starting at room temperature. An initially warmer lubricant with decreased viscosity may lead to higher sensitivity to stochastic imperfections in the mating surfaces. The FE analysis can give a good estimate of the tool surface temperature, which for 1.4301 was ~20C above the maximal sensor temperature. The choice of friction model is important for numerical temperature predictions. A constant friction model was used in these analyses [Nielsen, 2010]. The anisotropy of the surfaces cannot be accounted for in detail with a static friction model, but a model for dynamic friction can be used to study the influence of the anisotropic surface texture [Wiklund, 2009-II].

6.

CONCLUSIONS

In strip reduction testing with environmental-friendly lubricants, a ferritic steel with a smooth 2B surface had a higher galling resistance than a brushed duplex steel and an austenitic steel with a normal 2B surface. The surface condition of the brushed duplex steel was of high importance to the galling resistance. It was shown that FE-analysis with DEFORM 3D can be used to simulate the temperature of strip reduction tests.

7.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. Yiming Yao and Mikael Schnning, Chalmers are thanked for contributing with SEM investigations. Odd Sandberg at Uddeholm Tooling is thanked for providing tool materials. VINNOVA and Triple Steelix are acknowledged for financial support. REFERENCES van der Heide, E. and Schipper, D.J., Galling initiation due to frictional heating, Wear, 254 (11), 2003, 1127-1133 [Sandberg, 2008] Sandberg, O. et al., New tool steel concepts for stamping of HSS and AHSS sheet" in Proc. IDDRG Best in Class Stamping, June 16-18, Olofstrm, 2008, 591-602. [Andreasen, 1997] Andreasen, J.L., et al., Screening the performance of lubricants for the ironing of stainless steel with a strip reduction test, Wear, 207, 1997, 1-5. [Andreasen, 1998] Andreasen, J.L., Bay, N. and Chiffre, L.De., Quantification of Galling in Sheet Metal Forming. Int. J. Mach. Tools Manufact, 38, 1998, 503-510. [Friis, 2008] Friis, K. L., Nielsen, P.S. and Bay, N., Testing and modelling of industrial tribo-systems for sheet metal forming, Advanced Technology of Plasticity: In Proc. 9th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, Korea, 2008, 209-210. [Nielsen, 2010] Nielsen, P.S., Friis, K.S. and Bay, N., Environmental friendly tribology systems for sheet metal forming of stainless steel, Subm. to Int. J. Mach. Tools and Manuf., 2010. [Wiklund, 2009-I] Wiklund, D. et al., "Effects of tool die surface topography on friction and galling in sheet metal forming", in Proc. Int. 3rd Swedish Production Symposium, Gteborg, Dec 2-3, 2009, 178-183 [Bergstrm, 2008] Bergstrm, J. et al., Galling in sheet metal forming", in Proc. IDDRG Best in Class Stamping, June 16-18, Olofstrm, 2008, 103-112. [Thuvander, 2009] Thuvander, A., "Prediction of the galling tendency in sheet metal forming applications with nitrogen-alloyed tool steels", in Proc. 8th International Tooling Conference, Aachen, June 2-4, 2009, 941-952. [Wiklund, 2009-II] Wiklund, D., Rosn, B.-G., Wihlborg, A., "A friction model evaluated with results from a bending-under-tension test", Tribol. Int. 42, 2009, 1448-1452
[van der Heide, 2003]

Concepts using Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic for Micro Punching Tools
*

Ralf Kolleck*, Robert Vollmer*, Robert Veit*, Andreas Zttl** Graz University of Technology, Institute Tools & Forming, 8010 Graz, Austria robert.vollmer@tugraz.at **Your-Tool GmbH, Zaunergasse 4, 2491 Steinbrunn/Neue Siedlung, Austria

Abstract: This Paper aims at giving an overview how tool components made out of carbon fibre reinforced plastic help to ensure thermal stability on the one hand, and mass reduction, while retaining sufficient stiffness, on the other hand. The target is to realize high stamping frequencies in order to make the process more efficient. Temperature differences between bolster and top plate can cause different thermal expansions, which make the alignment between punch and blanking die insufficient. In order to obtain initial information an experimental tool was built and tested. Both material properties of the used CFRP (abbr. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic) components are described, as well as the first results of punching a grid of holes in 1.4310 (AISI 301). Keywords: Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic, CFRP, Micro Punching

1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays producing small holes and cavities in large quantities is inevitable. They were needed a million times in electronic devices to produce multilayer circuit boards, in injection nozzles to precisely dose the fuel injection into the combustion chamber to save energy, in medical components, in shaving foils for electrical shavers and other small mechanical structures. This is just to name a few. 1.1. Micro-Punching Process Punching small structures is a high sophisticated process. The needed quantities of such cavities make it important to stamp in high frequencies to realize a high production output. The typical clearance between punch and blanking die amounts only one to a few microns. This fact makes it essential to have precise manufactured and rigid tool frames. Differences in temperature between bolster and top plate can lead to a displacement between punch and die and can also damage them. Figure 1 shows possible settings of a punch and a blanking die. Case 1 depicts the worst case of alignment. The cutting components would be destroyed within the first stroke. Touching cutting edges, shown in case 2, would not demolish the active tool element parts within the first few strokes, but it would cause increased tool wear or early damage. With small clearances a perfect alignment between punch and blanking die is not possible because

of the always existing production tolerances. Case 3: the best possible fit shows still uneven clearance but it allows a stable punching process. These tolerances have to be considered in order to understand the manufacturing process of the components and the behaviour in usage of punching tools.

Figure 1: Cases of alignment between punch and blanking die; 1: mismatching centring; 2: insufficient, limiting case; 3: adequate centring 1.2. Current Developments There are several investigations to guarantee a proper alignment between upper and lower parts of punching tools. Joo et al. [2006] developed a micro punching press with tool alignment teacher, which is built up with a optical system combined with a xystepper moving the blanking die into the correct position. Chern et al. [2006a] is pursuing another variant, producing the blanking die directly on the punching press. This micro punching machine is equipped with an EDM generator and using the punch as a die sinking electrode. After the sinking process no further alignment is necessary. By adapting this machine it is also possible to produce noncircular micro-holes [Chern et al. 2007]. Nevertheless these systems are quite complicated in construction. They also need a temperature conditioned environment to avoid an uneven thermal expansion.

2. TOOLING COMPONENTS OUT OF CARBON FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC Worldwide there is an increasing demand for CFRP. Components for racing cars, airplanes, safety parts and other lightweight parts were generally made of this material. The advantage of this material is a low density. This allows reducing the all over mass to 75% percent, in comparison to components made of steel. 2.1 Using CFRP for tools Using CFRP for forming and stamping tools is suggested mainly because of two aspects. The first characteristic is the high stiffness to weight ratio, which supports a high dynamic process. The actually used material has a density of 1,65kg/dm, which is more than four times less than the one of steel. Punched micro parts are often needed in huge quantities. As the number of strokes per minute is increased, due to a significant weight reduction, the production process becomes more effective.

The second advantageous property of CFRP is dimensional stability at different temperatures. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is typically between 2,9 and 3,6x10-6K-1 [Giolli et al, 2009], which is very low compared to steel. Nevertheless it is important to consider that the CTE has a strong anisotropic behaviour and depends strongly on how the carbon fibres are laminated together. Because of this effect it is essential how tooling parts are designed. For the present case it was important that the CTE in lateral direction of the designed plates behaves homogeneous. To achieve this it is crucial to laminate the layers with different fibre directions. The thermal expansion in thickness direction of the CFRP plates, however, was not essential for the actual punching process. 2.2 Mechanical Properties The used material was a SECAR-C01 (Secar Technologie GmbH, MrzzuschlagHnigsberg, Austria) composite. It was tested for its mechanical properties. A Tensile and Compression Test was carried out with the universal testing machine Zwick Z250 (Zwick/Roell, Ulm, Germany). The test specimens were made of the same direction oriented fibre compounds to see anisotropic behaviour. By compressing the carbon fibres in different directions, this effect can be reduced significantly. Figure 2 shows the results of the tensile and compression test.

Figure 2: Material behaviour of SECAR-C01 laminated carbon fibre material Different other tests were carried out. Table 1 shows a summary of the characteristic values.

Properties Symbol Unit C01 Tensile strength (0) MPa 1080 Tensile strength (90) MPa 21,7 Shear strength MPa 67,5 Tensile modulus (0) MPa 128400 Tensile modulus (90) MPa 7240 Elongation at fracture % 0,96 Shear modulus MPa 4170 G MPa 500 Compression strength c Compression modulus MPa 61800 c Interlaminar shear strength, dry condition MPa 46 ILSS, dry Interlaminar shear strength, wet condition MPa 50 ILSS, wet Thermal resistance Tg, ONSET C 157 Table 1; Material properties of SECAR -C01 laminated carbon fibre material laminated carbon fibre material [SECAR, 2009] Beside the SECAR-C01 material, there are other fibre composites with different mechanical properties available. Some compressed laminates have a thermal resistance of up to 400 C and special fibres reach a tensile strength of over 2500 MPa. 2.3 Machine Processing Also the machining of CFRP components was an area of interest. The overall geometrical production tolerance lies beneath 3m. It was investigated if milling and grinding processes are able to reach these limit values. First experiences showed that special tools and technologies must be used to master the processes. Grinding disks tend to congest with the resin. The finishing process was carried out by flat grinding of the reference planes and jig grinding of the bores for the pillars.

3. FIRST SERIES OF TEST

3.1 Test Set-Up The punching tool was built up as a die set with tooling. Bolster, middle and top plate are made of CFRP. The tool has 4 pillars with a ball bearing guide bush. The blanking die and punch guide can be flexibly aligned to ensure a consistent clearance, as mentioned above. Figure 3 shows a cross section through the tool. The main goal for this tool was to set the clearance to 2 m, while stamping a 40 m thick steel foil out of 1.4310, in order to reduce burr. A special feature is the punching concept which consists of just one punch and blanking die made out of tungsten carbide. With this configuration it is possible to manufacture a flexible hole pattern by moving the tool in X-Y direction. Punching forces were so low, that the tool could be mounted on a CNC

jig grinding machine for producing flexible punching pattern. A load cell and path measurement device was also implemented to be able to create force-path diagrams for stamping analysis. The test series was carried out with 120 strokes per minute.

Figure 3: Experimental tool for stamping Micro tools 3.2. Results First results for punching several thousands of holes were very satisfactory. There were no broken punches or damaged blanking dies, which approved the right alignment process between upper and lower tool part. After punching approximately 10000 holes no measureable abrasive tool wear was recognized. Figure 4 shows punching and stripping forces for two different hole diameters. The measured burr remained constant and came up to between 2 4 m.

Figure 4: Force-Path diagram of punching process; Steel foil: 1.4310; Tensile strength 1400-1600 MPa; Thickness 0,04mm For further punching tests the system was extended with a combined stamping and coining unit to produce precise defined flanges. Figure 5 depicts two prototypes. On the left side there is a conventionally punched pattern with various hole diameters. On the right side the same pattern, but with additional coined flanges, is shown.

Figure 5: First prototypes with punched grid; Left: conventionally punched holes; Right: holes with additional coined flanges

4. RECAPITULATION AND OUTLOOK First experiments using CFRP for stamping tools were successfully carried out. CFRP is not only sufficiently rigid and thermally stable, it is also possible to machine the material with accurate tolerances. Yet there are still many further problems which have to be solved. Punching systems made of CFRP, which perform more than 1500 strokes per minute, have to be built and tested. It also has to be examined if rigid C-Frames, made of CFRP, can replace the expensive die set with tooling construction. Yet, there is one fact for sure: Positioning the lighter CFRP tools can reduce the time of positioning; it also helps to save kinetic energy and thus increases the production output.

REFERENCES [Chern et al., 2006] Chern, Gwo-Lianq; Wu, Ying-Jeng Engin; Liu, Shun-Feng; Development of a micro-punching machine and study on the influence of vibration machining in micro-EDM; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, pp. 102-109; 2006 [Chern et al., 2007] Chern, Gwo-Lianq; Wang, Sen-De; Punching of noncircular micro-holes; In: Precision Engineering, pp. 210-217; 2007 [Joo et al., 2005] Joo, Byung-Yun; Rhim, Sung-Han; Oh, Soo-Ik; Micro-hole fabrication by mechanical punching process; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, pp. 593-601, 2005 [Giolli et al, 2009] Giolli, C.; Turbil, M.; Rizzi G.; Rosso M.; Scrivani A.; Wear Resistance Improvement of Smal Dimension Invar Massive Molds for CFRP Components; In: Journal of Thermal Spray Technology ,pp. 652-664, 2009 [SECAR, 2009] Joint Industry Project; Internal Report; Secar Technologie GmbH, 2009; Mrzzuschlag-Hnigsberg, Austria

Investigation of segmented hydro-elastic blank holder for deep drawing

Bernd-Arno Behrens, Sven Hbner, Claus-Peter Eckold, Peter Groche and Metin Ertugrul Leibniz Universitaet Hannover, Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machine, An der Universitt 2, 30823 Garbsen, Germany eckold@ifum.uni-hannover.de

Abstract: Deep drawing is broadly implemented in the sheet metal processing industry as one of the most important methods of forming. For further process optimization, new tooling systems have to be developed. Especially, flexible blank holder systems are a promising way to extend the maximum drawing ratio. This paper presents the FE-based design of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder system for a rectangular deep drawing part and the influence to the characteristical failure modes of deep drawing processes. Furthermore, first validation by experimental tests with standard drawing grade steel sheet metal is included. Keywords: Deep drawing, elastic blank holder, maximum drawing ratio 1. INTRODUCTION Traditionally used rigid tools have gained a high development status nowadays. Costintensive multistage forming processes result from the ongoing demand for deep drawing parts of rising complexity made of high strength materials [Doege et al., 2007]. The material flow in corner areas causes tangential compressive stresses resulting in increasing local sheet thicknesses [Doege et al., 2007]. Rigid tools induce higher surface pressure hindering locally the material flow from the remaining flange. Earlier investigations showed that elastic blank holders in general [Rittmeier, 2007], [Roll et al., 2005] and those consisting of a metallic diaphragm under oil-pressure in particular [Behrens et al., 2004] extend the process boundaries, e. g. the maximum drawing ratio. Nevertheless, this elastic blank holder concept works with one global pressure and can not be adapted locally with different pressures. Furthermore, the application to complex part geometries is not possible. In the course of a currently executed project the Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines (IFUM) of the Leibniz Universitaet Hannover and the Institute for Production Engineering and Forming Machines (PtU) of the Technische Universitaet Darmstadt are developing an improved blank holder system with hydroelastic segments for deep drawing processes. This system attempts to overcome the disadvantages of the single diaphragm blank holder at lower costs by having hydroelastic segments in the areas of the highest increase in local sheet thickness.

2. DEEP DRAWING WITH RIGID BLANK HOLDER The sheet thickness in the flange area increases during the deep drawing process. In the case of non-rotationally symmetric geometries the distribution of sheet thickness is highly inhomogeneous. Corner areas show higher thicknesses in contrast to straight edges. Lower sheet thicknesses effect lower contact forces, which often lead to wrinkling. Increased blank holder forces can avoid wrinkling but at the same time lead to reduced material flow and therewith to intensified thinning in critical corner areas. There is a conflict between the avoidance of wrinkling and the appearance of cracking. The segmented hydro-elastic blank holder tends to increase the contact normal stress in areas with lower sheet thickness. The main idea of a segmented hydro-elastic blank holder is to integrate specifically designed areas in the blank holder in order to compensate the increasing sheet thicknesses. The contour of the blank holder adapts to the surface of the part flange. The parameters effecting the design of the elastic areas are the distribution of the sheet thickness and the real contact area in the part flange. The design parameters of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder can be achieved through a three-dimensional forming simulation of the deep drawing process using a rigid blank holder. 2.1. FEA Model The three-dimensional forming simulation indicates characteristical areas with sheet thickness increase and thus identifies the required elastic areas. Furthermore, it allows the comparison of rigid tools and segmented hydro-elastic blank holder, concerning the evolution of the contact areas and the distribution of the sheet thickness as well as the formation of wrinkling and cracks. The analyzed part geometry is a rectangular cup with a flat bottom. The width is W = 150 mm and the length L = 2 x W = 300 mm. The FEA simulation is implemented in ABAQUS-Explicit. The model is composed of a drawing die, a punch, a blank holder and the blank sheet (see Figure 1).
Punch Initial blank Parameters: Blank holder type = rigid Blank holder force = 400 kN Material = DC06 Initial sheet thickness = 1 mm Drawing ratio = 1,63 Drawing depth = 60 mm Friction coefficient = 0,07 Punch radius = 13,5 mm Drawing plate radius = 13,5 mm Sheet blank length = 455 mm Sheet blank width = 314 mm

Die

Figure 1; FEA model and model parameters.

Due to the symmetric shape of the part, the forming simulation runs on a quarter model. The blank is meshed with hexahedron elements of an edge length of eL = 2 mm and with three elements in the thickness direction. Other parameters are shown in Figure 1. The rigid blank holder is not displayed here. 2.2. Selected Results of the FEA Simulation with Rigid Blank Holder The distribution of the sheet thickness in the flange area as well as the thinning in critical corner areas indicates the influence of different parameters on the forming process. The sheet thickness distribution at projection path 2 (at the drawing die radius) in figure 2 shows the highest value at the corner region at about sCorner,Max = 1,12 mm. The thickness distribution at the long straight edges runs below this in a range of sEdge,Min = 1,04 mm and sEdge,Max = 1,10 mm. The displacement of the bottom side contour of the sheet shows an uplift from the drawing die particularly in the area of the straight edges. This can be recognized in the distribution of the contact normal stresses displayed on the sheet surface as well (see Figure 2). According to this, there is a need for compensation through the segmented hydro elastic blank holder in the corner area.
0,18 0,16 0,14

Long edge

Corner

Short edge
1

1,20 1,18 1,16

1 Contour, top side 2 Contour, bottom side 3 Sheet thickness

Sheet thickness s [mm]

Displacement of the sheet surface z [mm]

0,12 0,10 0,08 0,06 0,04 0,02 0,00 -0,02 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275

1,14

1,12 1,10 1,08

No-contact area Flange Drawing die radius

Contact area

1,06 1,04 1,02 1,00

Corner Edge Projection path 2

Unwinded length according to projection path 2 [mm]

Figure 2; Contour of the flange alongside the drawing die radius and the sheet thickness at a blank holder force of FBH = 40 MPa. However, the thickness distribution perpendicular to the projection path 2 denotes an additional elastic area along the straight edges (not displayed here). The increase of the sheet thickness at the projection path 1 i. e. is comparatively high as well (see Figure 3). The difference of the sheet thickness is at about 0,1 mm in the flange and has to be compensated by the local elasticity of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder, too. An optimal design of the blank holder leads to a support of the sheet throughout the whole forming operation. 2.3. Validation In order to validate the FEA model for deep drawing with rigid blank holder experimental values have been compared with the results of the FEA concerning the developing of sheet thickness in the corners of the pressing. The actual sheet thicknesses in the corners of three pressings drawn under the same conditions have been measured with a coordinate measuring machine Leitz PMM 864 (Figure 3).

Developing of sheet thickness [mm]

1,3 1,3

Sheet thickness [mm]

1,2 1,2

Measurement of 3 pressings, material: DC 06, s0 = 1,0 mm, rolling direction: across, lubrication on die side: Raziol CLF180, blank holder: quasi-rigid, force: FNH = 400 kN, drawing depth: h = 60 mm drawing ratio = 1,63 Experimental values
DC06 400 03 DC06 400 02 DC06 400 01 DC06 400 FEM

1,1 1,1

Blechdicke [mm]

1 1,0

Result FEA

0,9 0,9

FEA with = 0,07

0,8 0,8

Flange
0,7 0,7

Drawing die radius

Side wall

0,6 0,6

1
0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60

Flat projection pathPfad[mm] Abwicklung 1 1 [mm]

Figure 3; Comparison of FEA and experimental values for developing of sheet thickness in corner The result of the FEA shows only little deviation from the experimental values in the flange area (6 % and less). In the area of the drawing die radius the highest difference of about 12 % between experimental values and FEA results appears at the transition to the side wall. As the local sheet thickness in the flange is crucial for the dimensioning of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder, the results of the FEA in that area are matching sufficiently to validate the simulation. 3. DEEP DRAWING WITH SEGMENTED HYDRO-ELASTIC BLANK HOLDER

3.1. Design of the Pressure Pockets The pressure pockets are designed according to the contact area in the flanges as well as the local distribution of the sheet thickness in the flange area. To simplify matters, the contour is displayed only at projection path 2 (see Figure 2) and 3 (see Figure 5). According to the evaluation of the sheet thickness and the contact areas in the flange, the pressure pockets are implemented in the quarter model. They are positioned in the corner area and in the both straight edges of the segmented hydro elastic blank holder (see Figure 4). The dimensions in sheet plane are optimized according to the wrinkling in the flange as well as the thinning in the critical regions of the part geometry. The thickness of the pressure pockets underlies additional requirements concerning fatigue strength. After several optimization loops with different blank holder forces and pressure loads in the pockets the design shown in Figure 4 gives the best results in terms of the wrinkling in the flange as well as the stress values in the blank holder.

Segmented hydro-elastic blank holder

Design parameters - bottom view

Top-view
b1

b2 l2 a1 a2

Bottom-view

l3

b3

a3

Corner pocket a1 = 8 mm b1 = 40 mm t1 = 4 mm

Long edge pocket a2 = 40 mm b2 = 30 mm l2 =70 mm t2 = 5 mm

Short edge pocket a3 = 40 mm b3 = 30 mm l3 =30 mm t3 = 5 mm

Figure 4; Design of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder 3.2. Selected Results of the FEA Simulation with Segmented Blank Holder One characteristic failure mode of the deep drawing process is wrinkling in the flange area. Figure 5 shows a comparison of the sheet metal formed with a rigid and with a segmented hydro-elastic blank holder at a blank holder force FBH = 400 kN. The wrinkling shown for rigid dies is completely suppressed with the segmented blank holder. However, the sheet thickness at critical areas of the part decreases from sMin = 0,46 mm (rigid blank holder, FBH = 400 kN) to sMin = 0,3 mm (segmented blank holder, FBH = 400 kN). In the first instance, the effect of the segmented blank holder is worse with regard to cracking failures.
0,15
Long edge Corner Short edge x Rigid BH, FBH = 400 kN Seg. hyd.-el. BH, FBH = 400 kN Seg. hyd.-el. BH, FBH = 100 kN Flange

Displacement of the sheet surface at bottom side z [mm]

0,10
Drawing die radius Corner

0,05

0,00

Edge No-contact area

-0,05 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Contact area

Unwinded length according to projection path 3 [mm]

Projection path 3

Figure 5; Bottom contour of the flange alongside the edge at a blank holder force of FBH = 40MPa, pPP =20 MPa (segmented hydro-elastic blank holder) However, the segmented blank holder offers the possibility to reduce the blank holder force due to the increased contact area at the flange. Wrinkling can still be suppressed using the segmented blank holder with a blank holder force of FBH = 100 kN. Hence, the amount of the sheet thickness at critical areas now can be improved to sMin = 0,49 mm. According to this, the segmented hydro-elastic blank

holder enables an essential improvement of the wrinkling behavior as well as the thinning for deep drawing processes. 3.3. Design of the Segmented Hydro-Elastic Blank Holder On the basis of the presented results combined with experience gained in earlier investigations [Behrens et al., 2004], [Groche et al., 2005] a segmented hydro-elastic blank holder has been designed for the existing deep drawing tool (Figure 6). Particularly, the following conditions have been taken into consideration during construction and design: Pressure pockets should be exchangeable individually, eg. in case of defect Venting of the pressure pockets should be possible easily in the mounted blank holder Leak tightness of the interstices within the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder should be achieved by an optimal segmentation of the blank holder inserts. Finally, the hydro-elastic blank holder consists of three layers (Figure 7): Blank holder mounting plate, Blank holder intermediate plate with inlet pipes and Eight blank holder inserts with vent pipes. The three layers are interconnected by screws and aligning pins. Each of the eight blank holder inserts incorporates one pressure pocket with its flexible metallic diaphragm. An elastomeric gasket placed around each pressure pocket provides for leak tightness of the insert connected to the intermediate blank holder plate. Each pressure pocket can be vented in the mounted blank holder individually. The inlet and vent pipes are positioned for easy operation.
Blank holder intermediate plate Blank holder inserts Blank holder mounting plate Punch Vent valves

Vent valves

Blank holder inserts

Drawing die

Center Segmented sleeves hydro-elastic blank holder Punch

Inlet pipes left corners

Inlet pipes short sides

Inlet pipes long sides

Inlet pipes right corners

Figure 6: Design of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder, left: in deep drawing tool, right: top view

Blank holder (top view)

Blank holder inserts (bottom view)

Vent pipe Inlet pipe Pressure pockets

Blank holder inserts Blank holder mounting plate

Screw Aligning pin Gasket

Blank holder (sectional drawing)

Detail pressure pocket

Vent pipe Diaphragm Gasket

Screw

Blank holder insert Aligning pin

Blank holder intermediate plate Inlet pipe Pressure pocket

Figure 7: Design of the segmented hydro-elastic blank holder, details 4. CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS The concept of a segmented hydro-elastic blank holder shows high potential to broaden process limitations for deep drawing proved by FEA. Construction and design of a segmented hydro-elastic blank holder system has been accomplished and the validation of its potential will be done as soon as the manufacturing of the prototype blank holder has been finished. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the German Federation of Industrial Research Associations (AiF) for funding this research project EFB/AiF 15540 N1 Development of a segmented hydro-elastic blank holder for deep drawing processes. REFERENCES [Behrens et al., 2004] Behrens, B.-A.; Hajduk, K.; "Entwicklung eines hydroelastischen Niederhalters fr den Praxiseinsatz"; Abschlussbericht EFB/AiF 13052, Hannover 2004

[Doege et al., 2007] Doege, E.; Behrens, B.-A. ; "Handbuch Umformtechnik Grundlagen, Technologien, Maschinen"; Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg 2007; ISBN-10 3-540-23441-1 [Groche et al., 2005] Groche, P.; Metz, C.; Erturul, M.; "Material Flow Control and Optimization using Active-Elastic Tools for High-Pressure Forming of NonRotationally-Symmetric Sheet Metal Parts"; In: Steel Research International, Special Issue on Sheet Metal Hydroforming; Vol. 76; Dsseldorf 2005 [Rittmeier, 2007] Rittmeier, S.; "Systemuntersttzte Umformung"; CUVILLIER VERLAG Gttingen 2007; ISBN 978-3-86727-419-7 [Roll et al., 2005] Roll, K.; Hoffmann, J.; "Eine Mglichkeit zur Bercksichtigung der elastischen Werkzeugeigenschaften bei der Blechumformsimulation"; In: 4. LSDYNA Anwenderforum; Bamberg 2005

Measuring and Simulation of Deformations on Sheet Metal Forming Die

B. Haller,* K. Kardos**, I. Czinege,** A. Buczk** *Audi Hungary Motor Company Ltd **Szchenyi Istvn University, Egyetem tr 1. H-9026 Gyr, Hungary czinege@sze.hu

Abstract: The upper and lower tool housing of a sheet metal forming die is a casting of complex shape with several ribs and internal walls. Various parts of the die are loaded during the forming operation in different ways and as a consequence of load, stresses and deformations can occur. The die shape was optimized by finite element analysis. Stress and strain simulations were carried out by a FEM software. The validity of the numerical simulation was checked by strain gage measurements. Comparisons between calculated and measured deformations verified the model. Conclusions were drawn from the simulations how is it possible to optimize the shape and thickness of different part of dies decreasing the weight of die without significant loss in stability and rigidity. Keywords: stress and strain analysis, numerical simulation, sheet metal forming die

1. INTRODUCTION The tool housing of large car-body tools are usually complex shaped castings [Lange, 1985; Paquin et al., 1987 ; Reid, 1991]. The shape of the tools is determined by standards and guidelines that are based on experiential sizes. There is few information on whether the sizes of the used tools are optimal or perhaps rather safely dimensioned. The paper presents the research project implemented in cooperation of AUDI Hungria Motor Ltd and Szcheny Istvn University (HU-Gyr). The research aimed at examining the possibilities of weight decrease of sheet metal forming die casting houses with extensimeter die measuring and FEM simulation. Out of the five forming operations of a sheet metal component the currently ongoing examinations include a trimming and a drawing operation of the same sheet metal part. Each of the examined tool housings are castings of complex shape with several ribs and internal walls. The aim is to find a weight and cost decreasing solution of the concerned tools casting base that doesnt have an adverse affect on the durability and satisfying operation of the construction The research until now had every time the same course : straing gage measurements in the castings were first carried out in the factory of AUDI Hungria

Motor Ltd. CAD models and finite element simulations of the components were afterwards prepared and completed in the simulation lab of Szchenyi Istvn University. During the research the basic principle and methodology is that if a real model is designed so that the outcomes of simulation and strain gage measurement conform, then the calculations of the modified geometrics with the same settings will have a real result too. This way one can have a reasonable answer about the effects of wall thickness decrease with preserving tool durability.

2. MEASURING METHODS 1.1. Strain measurements First step of the tools examination was the measurement of strain gages arising from the loadings. On the specific surfaces of the tool strain gage rosettes were stamped which made it possible to measure the strain of the loaded casting house. The simultaneous signal processing of more rosettes was carried out with Spyder 8 strain amplifier which made the later data evaluation easier. After the sticking and wiring of the rosettes the real sheet metal forming process and some loading cases of the forming machine and tool were reproduced at the hydraulic press machine. During the tool operation sampling rate was 50 Hz. Out of the five forming steps of the sheet metal component the second one, so the trimming operation was examined, then the first deep drawing operation was measured. Due to the design of the tool housing the measurement points were limited because the secure fitting of the wires running to the strain gages had to be solved in a mounted position so that there was enough place for the wiring between the moving tool parts. For the accuracy of the measurement every loading case was repeated more times, this way the achieved results were comparable. During the research more different loading options were set on the press out of which one is detailed under.

Figure 1; Strains measured at the corners of die (Rosette 10 13)

First the tool parts of the trim die were closed without blank with maximum loading and strain values were measured at the corners. This simple case made it possible to control the lower and upper die and the parallelism of the press. The measurements proved that the surface of the table and the ram were not quite parallel during the closure and the press did not evenly convey the 2500 kN loading (Figure 1). In spite of this the prepared sheet metal component completely fulfilled the requirements. As at the same time only one forming step was tested on the press, it could be stated that the strain differences at the four tool corners didnt influence the forming of the prepared component and the difference between the measured strain values was insignificant. Examination of the deep drawing step was also started with the measuring of the tool parts. This method differed from the previously presented measurement process because this time the calibration of the forming machine was carried out first to which four load cells were used. During the calibration process dynamometers were placed between the lower and upper part of the deep drawing tool. According to the results of the measurements loading was distributed equally between the four dynamometers (Figure 2).

Figure 2; Calibration of tool and press With additional measurements the scale of holding force and drawing force was measured through the separate operation of the tool parts. The complexity of the forming surface did not make it possible to use dynamometer cells during deep drawing thats why strain gage dies could only be compared with the later simulation data. 1.2. Position measurements The exact position of the strain gage dies was determined with GOM TRITOP photogrammetrical system. This made the later evaluation at the simulation model and

the determination of strain of the exact die places possible. During the process the dies were equipped with reference marks and snapshots about the tool were made from more directions. The analyzing software of the system automatically calculates the positions of the reference points based on the digital snapshots. Calculations and coordinate transformations happen with the use of coded marks and standard elements placed systematically on the tools. Evaluation of the measured data was carried out by inserting the calculated points and CAD models into one common coordinate system. For the proper inserting the six-point registration often used in the measurement technologies was applied so that the coordinate system was defined with 3-2-1 points. The points connected to this were preliminary defined through the placement of marks on the tool, on typical form specialities. After the coordinate transformation die positions can be marked as measurement positions at the CAD model of the tool or the distance from one given point of the tool can be queried. This way the die positions could be easily identified with help of the coordinates or measured distance.

3. FEM ANALYSIS 3.1. CAD model, meshing CAD models of the tool parts were designed with CATIA V5 software. After the export from parametric models surface casting defects appeared at the model which were improved and later meshed with ANSA software. After the completion of the .iges surface model to a closed bulk meshing could follow. First mesh was preperad on the surface of the model which served later as a base of the bulkmesh. With the triangle elements of 10 mm average edge length a convenient mesh could be established. After the automatical mesh generation special attendence had to be paid to the triangle elements established near the borings because if there are not enough knots in its circle it may lead to more failures during the design of the bulk mesh. After the necessary corrections bulk mesh was generated from outstanding tetrahedron elements. For the later design of the simulation model and the ease of loading set SET-s from the concerned surface parts at the meshed geometrics were established. The designed mesh model saved in an ABAQUS input file format served as a base to the simulation model. 3.2. Process modelling Modelling of the forming operation was carried out with ABAQUS software. Material charachteristics of the casting determinted by measurement were prepared with ABAQUS CAE preparer [Abacus]. Its important to mention the relation between the model preparation, the meshing and the simulated results. In this case for the meshing of the examined tools the use of 15 mm tria and terta mesh proved to be the most appropiate. The different loading cases were set as static calculation tasks for the solution of which ABAQUS Strandard solution was used. All tool parts and the effecting forces

were defined as different loading case ; this was mainly important for easier evaluation. Loading forces at the mesh knots were set as distributed loading namely the forming power depending on the loading case was set equally by knowing the contacting surfaces and their knots. At more complex surfaces SETs defined in ANSA software were used. Freedom degree of knots of the tool part contacted with the machine or at the laying surface were fixed, this way the fixing of the casting to the machine ram was defined. With the knowledge of the power set at the forming press the calculated loadings were given as surface pressure. After the definition of the constrains the created JOB file was run which was evaluated with ABAQUS Viewer. Based on the coordinates got from the GOM Tritop system strain values could be seen exactly at the strain measurement place. This way the measured and the simulated strain at the same point could be compared.

Figure 3; Strains obtained from the FEM simulation

4. EVALUATION Concerning the trim die the measured results fairly harmonized with the simulated results, but in some loading cases, at some die positions significant strain gage differences were experienced. Reason for that may be the uneven distribution of load, also apparent during the measurements, because the loadings during the modelling were assumed evenly distributed. Thats why no simulations of geometrics with decreased weight were carried out in every loading case. The modelling results achieved so far have shown a maximum rate of 15-20% of weight decrease of the original geometrics without modifying the base material. A higher decrease of wall thickness would have an

adverse affect on the stability and rigidity of the design. The force measurements of the draw die allowed more accurate definition of loading cases during the simulation; finalization of these calculations are in progress.

5. SUMMARY The upper and lower tool housing of a sheet metal forming die is a casting of complex shape with several ribs and internal walls. Different parts of the die are loaded during the forming operation in different ways and as a consequence of load, stresses and deformations can occur. The die shape can be optimized by finite element analysis which has been verified by strain gage measurements. This paper presents the complex analysis of trimming and drawing dies. The accuracy of the numerical simulation was evaluated by strain gage measurements. According to our presupposition and the achieved results of the research will verify that with application of simulations it is possible to optimize the shape and thickness of different part of dies decreasing the weight of die without significant loss in stability and rigidity.

REFERENCES [Lange 1985] Lange, K.: "Handbook of Metal Forming", McGraw Hill, New York, (1985) [Paquin et al., 1987] J. R. Paquin and R. E. Crowley, "Die Design Fundamentals". New York, Industrial Press ISBN 0-8311-1172-0 [Reid, 1991] D. T. Reid, "Fundamentals of Tool Design". Dearborn, Michigan: Society of Manufacturing Engineers. ISBN 0-87263-412-4 [Abacus] Abaqus Users Guide, http://www.autoform.com

Tribological properties of steels and the effect of lubrication when punching UHS sheet
Fredric Bergstrm Uddeholm AB, Research and Development, SE-683 85, Hagfors, Sweden

Abstract: To minimize the usage of lubricants in tooling applications is of importance from both industrial and environmental point of view. Traditionally lubrication is often used when punching for instance annealed 300 series stainless sheet. But is lubrication always a necessity when it comes to UHSS? Is it possible to do without it, by perhaps making an adequate choice of tool material? This paper reports Uddeholm Toolings studies on the effect that lubrication has on the retraction force in stamping/punching. A wide array of UHS stainless as well as HSLA sheet materials has been tested with different set-ups such as cutting clearances and lubricative medias. Measuring the retraction forces is an effective and simple way to show the effects that the lubricant has on the tribosystem. It also provides information of the wear rate on the tool in the long run. The surface roughness and topography of the tool itself is off course also an important aspect that has an influence on the performances and wear mechanisms. From these tests, conclusions can be made regarding whether the lubrication of UHS sheet is necessary in certain applications and the effect it might have on certain material combinations. Keywords: Stamping/punching, tool steel, lubrication, wear, backstroke force

1. INTRODUCTION Tribology deals with the interaction between tools and workpiece and plays a very important role in sheet applications. Friction and wear are always key problems which significantly influences the performance and economics of the stamping/punching operation. To further increase the understanding of wear and failure mechanisms and the effect lubrication has on a stamping/punching operation, a number of investigation prior to this are made [Fox-Rabinovich, et al., 1995] and [Veenstra, et al, 1978]. The tests in this article have been performed with the focus on wear, lubrication and backstroke force. The backstroke force, is the amount of force it takes to pull up the punch back through the already punched out hole in the sheet metall. Prior work has also shown that backstroke force changes with usage of different lubricants in punching tests [Fox-Rabinovich, et al., 1995] and that backstroke force may cause fatigue cracks in the punch while present [Bergstrm, 2009].

When backstroke force is present, lubrication will lower its intensity as well as the wear rate of the tool. Backstroke force is present in many unlubricated punching/stamping operation; this fact was studied with especial focus on stainless steel in previous works [Bergstrm, 2009]. In this report similar effects are presented in stamping/punching operations of UHSS. This phenomenon depends on many parameters of the tribosystem. Therefore have backstroke-force measurements been tested on different combinations of sheets and tool steels. This allowed the author to draw some conclusions about the magnitude of backstroke force and its effect on the tool in the long run. Prior tests have showed that the presence of an initial relatively high backstroke force gives information of the failure mechanism and wear rate on the tool when stamping stainless steel [Bergstrm, 2009].

2. EXPERIMENTAL 2.1 Equipment The type of press being used in this test is an ESSA, eccentric, with a capacity of 15 000 kg, with a variable stroke rate between 100-600 strokes/min. The stroke rate used is 200 strokes per minute and the feed rate is set to 15 mm. The force is registered using a piezoelectric load element, type Kistler 9061A, connected to a Kistler amplifier, type 5015. The load element has a load capacity of maximum 200 kN and was preloaded with 50 kN. The vertical position of the tool is measured with an inductive linear position sensor. The wear of the punches are measured with a Taylor-Hobson, Talysurf 4, surface measuring instrument, which makes use of a sharply pointed stylus to trace the profile of the surface irregularities. The wear is observed at angels 0, 90, 180 and 270 in circumferential direction of the punch. In the cases lubrication was used, it has been applied to the sheet material by using a micro lubrication system: Steidle Lubrimat L50. The system sprays the sheet material with an applied amount of 180 mg/min. For the long-run test the vegetable oil Ecolubric E200L was used. Another oil: Fuchs Renoform 96, has also initially been tested for the backstroke force measurements 2.2 Material The steel grades used for the manufacturing of the punches are all tool steels from Uddeholm: Vancron 40, Vanadis 4 Extra and Sleipner (Table 1). Vancron 40 is a nitrided PM type steel with a uniform dispersion of nitrides of MN type (14 volume-%) and carbides of M6C type (5 volume-%). Vanadis 4 Extra is also a PM type with uniform dispersion of carbides, MC type (9 volume-%). The Sleipner grade is a conventionally produced ingot cast tool steel with carbides of M7C3 type (6 volume-%).

Steel grade Vancron 40 Vanadis 4 Extra Sleipner

C 1,1 1,4 0,9

N 1,8

Si 0,5 0,4 0,9

Mn Cr (Weight-%) 0,4 4,5 0,4 0,5 4,7 7,8

Mo 3,2 3,5 2,5

W 3,7

V 8,5 3,7 0,5

Table 1 Chemical composition of the Uddeholm tool steels (wt%). All punches are initially being ground with a CBN grinding wheel, to an average roughness, Ra, of about 0,4 m on the end surface and about 0,2 m on the envelope surface. The hardness is approximately 60-62 HRC for all punches. The diameters of the punches are 9,52 mm, and the dies are of AISI A2 type, for all the tests except for the Docol 1000DP and Docol DPZE sheets. AISI M2 dies are used for these tests (die: 10 mm, punch: 9,80 mm). The diameter of the die was changed to give the different cutting clearances. The sheet material being used is UHS (Table 2). Grade Docol 800DP Docol 1000DP Condition Cold-rolled, ferritemartensitic Cold-rolled, ferritemartensitic Cold-rolled, ferritemartensitic, electrogalvanized Cold-rolled, fully matrensitic Hot-rolled, micro alloyed, ferritic Thickness [mm] 1,00 1,00 Rp0,2 [MPa] 500 700 700 1150 700 Rm [MPa] 800 1000 1000 1350 750

Docol 1000DPZE

1,00

Docol 1400M Domex 700MC

1,00 2,00

Table 2 Sheet steel grades and mechanical properties. Supplied by SSAB. All sheet mechanical properties data were supplied by the manufacturer [SSAB]. The width of the sheet is 50 mm for all sheet grades.

3. RESULTS 3.1 Backstroke force Different tool steel, cutting clearance and sheet material combinations have been tested (Table 3) in order to get a combination for further testing. The most interesting tribosystem is one in which a backstroke force is present and where lubrication has a measurable, positive effect, i.e. lowers the backstroke force when used. The oil type used also has an effect on the backstroke force [Bay et al., 2008]. However, in these tests there are no measurable differences between the two oils, in terms of reduction in backstroke force. The backstroke forces presented in Table 3 are mean values from six measurements, in which the maximum forces are registered. Example of a typical graph is seen below (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Typical punch force measurement graph with the punch level.

Sheet material Docol 800DP Docol 800DP Docol 1000DP Docol 1000DP Docol 1000DP Docol 1000DP

Steel grade Vancron 40 Sleipner Vanadis 4 Extra Vanadis 4 Extra Sleipner Sleipner

Condition Delivery Delivery Delivery Ecolubric Delivery Ecolubric Delivery Ecolubric Delivery Ecolubric Delivery Delivery Delivery Delivery Degreased Degreased

Cutting clearance [%] 4 4 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 2 2 2 2

Backstroke force; start [kN] 0,0 0,0 0,9 0,3 1,2 1,1 1,1 0,9 0,3 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 1,9

Docol 1000DPZE Vanadis 4 Extra Docol 1000DPZE Vanadis 4 Extra Docol 1000DPZE Sleipner Docol 1000DPZE Sleipner Docol 1400M Docol 1400M Domex 700MC Domex 700MC Domex 700MC Domex 700MC Vancron 40 Sleipner Vancron 40 Sleipner Vancron 40 Sleipner

Table 3 Test matrix, backstroke force at the start of the test. New tools. The Docol 1000DP and Docol DPZE sheets have a relative high backstroke force value which varies with tool steel grade and condition. The materials combination form Table 3 that gives the highest backstroke force is the degreased Domex 700MC, with a 2% cutting clearance and a Sleipner punch The Docol 1000DPZE sheet and the Vanadis 4 Extra punch is further investigaded in a long-run test.

Measurements of the backstroke force of the last mentioned worn tool at the end of the long-run test (after 200000 strokes) shows a slight increase of the backstroke force for both the punch with the sheet in delivery condition as well as the lubricated one. This increase in backstroke force has been observed by [Bay et al., 2002] Sheet material Cutting clearance [%] 10 Backstroke force end [kN] 1,2

Steel grade Vanadis 4 Extra

Condition

Docol Delivery 1000DPZE Vanadis 4 Extra Docol Ecolubric 10 1,0 1000DPZE Table 4 Test matrix, backstroke force at the end of the test. worn tools.

3.2 Wear Long-run tests have been performed with the Vanadis 4 Extra punch and the sheet material: Docol 1000DPZE in delivery, as well as lubricated condition. The cutting clearance is 10%, and the number of strokes for the series is 200 000. The wear on the punches is seen below in Figure 2. The lubrication had a somewhat lowering effect on the backstroke force as well at the start of the test (Table 3) as at the end (Table 4).
6

W orn area [m ] m

0 De liv e ry condition Lubricate d; Ecolubric

Figure 2 Worn area of Vanadis 4 Extra punches, mean value with standard deviation, under different conditions. Sheet material: Docol 1000DPZE. 200000 strokes.

The scanning electron microscope pictures presented below are taken in secondaryelectron mode and illustrate the envelope surfaces on the edge boundary of the punch. One can see that the sheet grade Docol 1000 DPZE, in combination with the Vanadis 4 Extra tool steel grade gives some fatigue cracks (Figure 3). This is not the case for the lubricated punch with the same set-up (Figure 4). An abrasive, as well as an adhesive wear component is also present. Other work [Bay et al., 2002] has shown that pick-up of sheet material also has an effect on backstroke force.

Figure 3 Punch with fatigue cracks and pick-ups. Docol 1000DPZE, delivery condition.

Figure 4 Punch with mild abrasive wear and few pick-ups. Docol 1000DPZE, lubricated

4. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY With lubrication the initial backstroke forces were lower for all combinations of sheets and tool steels in the cases when the backstroke force was initially present. The measured wear rate was significantly lower in the long-run test as well as the amount of pick-ups on the tool from the sheet. Fatigue cracks were observed in the unlubricated punch but not in the lubricated one in the long-run test. Although a backstroke force was present under the lubricated long-run test. This indicates that a slightly lowered backstroke force, as in this case, will prolong the fatigue tool life and the oil has preserved the punch form cracking at this amount of strokes

A greater backstroke force applies higher tensile stress to the punch which could shorten the punch tool life. It seems that an initial high backstroke force will eventually lead to fatigue in the punch. These trends has also been observed in other work with Sleipner and Vancron 40 punches in stainless AISI 316L [Bergstrm, 2009] The backstroke force increases slightly with time as the tool gets worn down. The punching force also increases for the unlubricated punch, but stays the same for the lubricated one It might be so that the different surface properties on the punch active surface, amount of hard phase, topography etc. affect the backstroke force and the entire tribosystem differentely. The obtained results differ depending on choice of punch parameters, tool material and sheet material. To avoid backstroke force and the negative effects it might have on wear, the combination of tool steel grade and sheet steel grade can be as important as the use of lubrication. However, lubrication has shown a positive effect on the tool performance in all tests that have been done. Measuring backstroke force gives an indication of the suitability for a specific material combination and whether lubrication is an option to consider to avoid failure.

5. REFERENCES [Fox-Rabinovich et al., 1995] Fox-Rabinovich, GS.; Kovalev, A.; Characteristic features of blanking die wear with consideration for the change in composition, structure and properties of the contact surfaces; In: Wear, 189, pp. 25-31; 1995 [Veenstra et al., 1978] Veenstra, P.C.; Ramaekers, J. A. H.; A criterion for critical tool wear in blanking; In: Ann CIRP, Vol. 27/1, pp.157-158; 1978 [Bay et al., 2008] Bay, N.; Olsson, D. D.; Andreasen, J. L.; Lubricant test methods for sheet metal forming; In: Tribology International 41, pp. 844-853; 2008 [Bay et al., 2002] Bay, N.; Olsson, D. D.; Andreasen, J. L.; Analysis of pick-up development in punching, In: Ann CIRP, 51(1), pp. 185-190; 2002 [Bergstrm, 2009] Bergstrm, F.; The effect of lubrication on wear of tool steel used in punching of stainless and HSLA sheet; In: Proceedings of the international tooling conference, pp. 47-54; Aachen 2009; ISBN 10 3-8613-0770-6 [SSAB] http://www.ssab.com

Characterization of sputtered laboratory scale V-Al-C-N hard coatings and industrial scale-up for deposition on segmented forming tools for the automotive industry
C. Ziebert*, M. Stber*, S. Ulrich*, S. Kolozsvri**, P. Pesch**, S. Wstmann*** Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Materials Research I, Hermann-vonHelmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany, Carlos.Ziebert@kit.edu ** TZO Technologiezentrum fr Oberflchentechnik Rheinbreitbach GmbH, Maarweg 30, 53619 Rheinbreitbach, Germany *** ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, V/E 74 Forming Processes, Eberhardstrae 12, 44145 Dortmund, Germany
*

Abstract: Nanocrystalline quaternary V-AI-C-N hard coatings were deposited by reactive r.f.-magnetron sputtering in Ar/CH4 plasma (0-4 % of total gas flow) on a laboratory scale Leybold Z550 machine using a combinatorial materials science approach. In each experiment, six coatings of different composition and/or microstructure were obtained simultaneously by placing six substrates in individual positions relative to a segmented target, composed of ceramic VC and AlN half plates. Significant changes in the coatings topography, microstructure, mechanical and tribological properties were observed as a function of sample position and carbon content. The processes have then been scaled up to an industrial-scale CemeCon CC800/8 machine by using graphite and VAl-plug targets (metallic V targets with 20 Al-plugs). After a thorough characterization and optimization of the coatings on Si (100) substrates and polished 1.2379 steel substrates the coatings were tested in a steelstrip-drawing-test. The next step will be the deposition of the coatings onto model forming tools from ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG and segmented industrial forming tools from Volkswagen AG. These OEMs will perform model and production tests in order to validate the approach. Keywords: quaternary hard coatings, forming tools, scale-up, tribological properties, friction coefficient

1. INTRODUCTION Currently an emerging new approach for the development of advanced protective and functional coatings is the design of carbon-based nanostructured composite (CBNC) coatings being composed of nanocrystalline metastable hard phases homogeneously dispersed in an amorphous carbon matrix or covered by an amorphous carbon grain

boundary phase. Typical examples are (Ti, Al)(C, N) or fcc (Ti, Cr)(C, N) coatings [Zhang et al., 2002; Shieh et al., 2002; Lackner et al., 2004; Stueber et al., 2005; Stueber et al., 2006]. The possibility to vary the microstructural design of CBNC coatings (i.e. by adjusting the volume fraction of crystalline and amorphous phases) enables not only to provide simultaneously wear protection and low friction but also other tailor-made functionalities such as tribological properties. Therefore such coatings could be used to locally tailor the friction coefficient of forming tools in order to optimize the steel sheet forming process, to increase the manufacture accuracy, to reduce the error rates and to increase the tool service life as planned in the publicly funded project IMAUF (Innovative methods for the design of forming tools in the automotive industry). Up to now mainly the increase of tool service life was in the focus of the research on coatings for forming tools [Taube, 1998, Zeng et al., 2000; Pesch et al., 2005]. E.g. for the forming of C-rich cold-welded steel the deposition of ternary TiCrN- or TiAlNcoatings lead to an service life increase of a factor of 3-4. [Zeng et al., 2000]. Thus in a very recent [Ziebert et al., 2009] and the present work for the first time the local tailoring of the friction coefficient was investigated. Reactive magnetron sputtering from a segmented target was applied on laboratory scale [Stueber et al., 2006] to deposit nanocrystalline quaternary V-Al-C-N hard coatings with varying composition, microstructure and coefficient of friction. Afterwards the processes and coatings were scaled-up to an industrial-size machine and the coating performance was tested in a steel-strip-drawing-test.

2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS On laboratory scale three series of quaternary single layer V-Al-C-N coatings of various constitution and microstructure were deposited onto polished commercial cemented carbide substrates by reactive and non-reactive r.f.-magnetron sputtering from a segmented target (11.3 W/cm2 power density, 6 cm target-substrate distance, 150 C substrate temperature, 4 hours deposition time, grounded substrate) using a Leybold Z 550 machine. The Ar gas flow was kept constant giving a total pressure of 0.6 Pa, while the CH4 gas flow was systematically varied to give CH4 volume fractions of 0-4 % in the gas. Series No. 1 was deposited non-reactively with pure Ar and series No. 2 and 3 were grown reactively with increasing CH4 content of 2 % and 4 %. In each experiment, six coatings of different composition from VC-rich at Position No.1 (Pos. 1) to AlN-rich at Pos. 6, and/or microstructure were obtained simultaneously by placing six substrates in individual positions relative to the segmented target, composed of ceramic VC and AlN half plates. The coating thickness was determined by using a calotester (LSRH, aldest). The chemical composition of the coatings was measured by electron microprobe analysis (EPMA, Camebax Microbeam) and the topography, crystal structure and microstructure were characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM, Digital Instruments, Dimension 3100), X-ray diffraction (XRD, Seifert C-3000 diffractometer) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Jeol, SM 840). By using nanoindentation (CSIRO, UMIS2000) and

ball-on-disk tribometer tests against 100Cr6 steel balls the correlation with the mechanical and the tribological properties was investigated. The parameters for the unlubricated sliding friction experiments were: room temperature, 50 % r. h., 10 N normal load, 0.03 m/s rotation speed, 4 mm radius of rotation, 500 m sliding distance, 6 mm ball diameter). After the successful development of quaternary V-Al-C-N coatings with adjustable local coefficient of friction on the laboratory scale the processes have been scaled up to an industrial-scale four-cathode unbalanced CemeCon CC800/8 machine by using graphite and VAl-plug targets (metallic V target with 20 Al-plugs, V purity 99.9 %, Al purity 99.95 %, target geometry patented by Cemecon AG). The size of the commercially available targets - mounted on the unbalanced, power controlled magnetrons (maximum power 8 kW per cathode, maximum power 3 kW applicable on the VAl-targets) - is 200 mm 88 mm 15 mm. Both non-reactive and reactive sputtering in Ar/CH4 atmosphere has been applied in order to deposit the coatings onto Si (100) substrates and polished circular 1.2379 steel substrates (40 mm diameter, 5 mm thickness). After a thorough characterization and optimization of the coatings the performance was tested in a steel-strip-drawing-test [Pesch et al., 2003]. A steel strip, 50 mm wide, 0.8 mm thick, 700 mm long is held by the face of two testing tools, onto which the coatings to be tested are deposited. Each is 60 mm 20 mm with two rounded upper and lower edges (R = 5 mm). They are pressed together with the total force of FN. During the test the surface pressure is raised from 5 MPa to 20 MPa and the steel strip is pulled for a distance of 500 mm through the braking testing tools with a constant speed of 66 mm/s and an increasing pressing force FZ. The coefficient of friction and the surface pressure can be calculated from the measured forces FN and FZ. The 1.2379 cold work steel was used for the testing tools, the corrosion protection oil Fuchs Anticorit RP4107S with a small oiling quantity of 0.5 g/m2 as lubricant and electrolytically zinced cold-rolled DC05 steel for the steel strips.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Results for laboratory scale V-Al-C-N coatings Independent of the CH4 content in the sputter gas the samples grown at the VC-rich site (Pos.1-2) of the coating series 1, deposited without CH4, showed more than the double thickness or growth rate of the samples grown at the AlN-rich site (Pos. 5-6). This can be attributed to the lower sputter rate of the AlN part of the segmented target. The maximum in the thickness was reached at Pos. 2 with about 12 m or 3 m/h and the minimum at Pos.6 with about 5 m and 1.25 m/h. Table I shows the dependence of the elemental concentration of V, Al, C and N on the sample position for the three different CH4 contents. For series No. 1 without CH4 addition the V- and the C-concentration decreased from 44.2 at.-% V and 48.5 at.-% C at Pos. 1 to 31 at.-% V and 32.2 at.-% C at Pos. 6. The Al- and the N-concentration show a position dependent increase from 5.1 at.-% Al and 1.9 at.-% N at Pos.1 to 23 at.-

% Al and 12.6 at-% at Pos. 6. A similar trend was found, when the CH4 content is increased. In comparison to coatings, which were non-reactively sputtered from a composite target with a VC:AlN mixture ratio of 60 mol-%:40 mol-% [Stueber et al., 2009], the C-concentration in the coatings was largely increased by up to 70 % and the constant metal ratio [Al]/([V]+[Al]) of 40 % was varied in a wide range between 8 % and 43 % by the combinatorial approach with a segmented target. The XRD diffractograms shown in Figure 2 reveal a nanocrystalline structure with considerably broadened peaks. The measured diffractograms have been fitted by pseudo-Voigt functions using the Rietveld program LS1 [Lutterotti et al., 1992], which allows the determination of the crystallite sizes and the lattice constants. Apart from the tungsten carbide substrate reflexes in all diffractograms three broad peaks at diffraction angles of around 37, 43 and 63 can be attributed to the (111), (200) and (220) planes of the fcc structure of metastable fcc (V, Al)(C, N) [Stueber et al., 2009]. With increasing CH4 addition these peaks broaden and their intensity decreases, which can be interpreted as a decrease in crystallinity and crystallite size. For 0 % CH4 content the crystallite size is 10-25 nm, it decreases to 5-10 nm at 2 % and to 2 nm at 4 %. For all reactively sputtered coatings the C concentration (s. Table I) exceeds the upper limit of the range of a V1-xCx monocarbide [Aouni et al.; 2004] by more than 10 %. free carbon in an amorphous state (a-C) can be expected as it was found by Sainte Catherine et al. [Sainte Catherine et al.; 1992]. CH4 content in the process gas in % Elemental concentration in at.-% V 44.2 39.0 40.6 31.0 40.0 36.2 31.3 29.6 36.8 32.2 33.5 25.7 Al 5.1 10.6 12.7 23.0 5.1 10.2 14.6 19.4 3.2 7.8 9.7 13.4 C 48.5 45.1 38.9 32.2 53.4 50.0 48.2 41.5 59.5 57.9 53.9 55.0 N 1.9 5.3 7.9 12.6 1.1 3.3 5.3 9.2 0.1 1.4 2.5 5.1

Sample position 1

3 4 6 1 3 4 6 1 3 4 6

Table I; Elemental composition of laboratory scale V-Al-C-N coatings for three different CH4 contents in the process gas.

WC (001)

VAlCN (111)

VAlCN (200)

WC (101)
0% CH4 2% CH4 4% CH4 0% CH4 2% CH4 4% CH4

WC (110) WC (002)

Pos.6

Intensity in a.u.

Pos.4

0% CH4 2% CH4 4% CH4

VAlCN (220)
Pos.1

35

40

45

50 55 2 in

60

65

70

Figure 1; XRD diffractograms of laboratory scale V-Al-C-N coatings deposited at Position 1, 4 and 6 in dependence of the CH4 content in the process gas. Significant changes in the related mechanical and tribological properties were observed both as a function of the sample position and of the carbon content. In particular, a wide range variation of the hardness (15-35 GPa), the reduced elastic modulus (120-600 GPa) and of the coefficient of friction (0.15-0.45, s. Figure 2) were achieved [Ziebert et al., 2009] and correlated with constitution, microstructure and effective wear mechanisms. Figure 2 shows the dependence of the coefficient of friction on the sample position as a function of the CH4 volume fraction in the process. Without CH4 addition the coefficient of friction versus 100Cr6 is around 0.4 and is almost independent on the sample position. The ball wear rates are one to two orders of magnitude higher than the coating wear rates due to the high hardness (> 30 GPa) and no carbon excess. For 2 % CH4 content, an interesting switch from low friction behaviour at Pos.1, 2 and 3 ( 0.15) to higher friction behaviour at Pos.4, 5 and 6 ( 0.35-0.45) was found. With higher CH4 content of 4 % increases continuously from values around 0.15 at Pos. 1-2 to 0.35 at Pos. 5-6. With increasing CH4 addition the coating wear rates increase and the ball wear rates decrease corresponding to the decrease in hardness of the coatings. Thus for all coating series the lowest coefficients of friction and wear rates correspond to the C-rich positions 1 and 2, which possess a free amorphous carbon phase, which acts as a solid lubricant thereby reducing coefficient of friction and wear rate in the tribosystem.

0.6 0.5
0% CH4

0.4

2% CH4 4% CH4

0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Pos 1 Pos 2 Pos 3 Pos 4 Pos 5

Pos 6

Figure 2; Coefficient of friction of laboratory scale V-Al-C-N coatings versus sample position as a function of the CH4 content. 3.2 Results for industrial scale V-Al-C-N coatings After the successful development of quaternary V-Al-C-N coatings with adjustable local coefficient of friction on the laboratory scale the processes have been scaled up to an industrial-scale machine by designing three different coatings systems, shown schematically in Figure 3. Coating system No.1 is a nanocrystalline metastable ternary VAlN single layer coating that was deposited with a Ar/N2 ratio of 250/150 sccm and a substrate bias voltage US of -110 V. This coating was already thoroughly investigated in a very recent study [Kolozsvri et al., 2009]. A hardness value of 41 GPa, a high friction coefficient against 100Cr6 of 0.7 and a very good adhesion were found. Therefore this coating was also used as adhesion layer for the deposition of the two other quaternary V-Al-C-N coating systems, which were designed as multiple layer systems.

V-Al-C-N VAlN VAlN Substrate

System No. 1: high

V-Al-C-N with C-excess

V-Al-C-N VAlN Substrate

System No. 3: low

Substrate
System No. 2: medium

Figure 3; Schematical drawing of layer structure of industrial scale VAlN and V-Al-C-N coating systems with different coefficients of friction.

(a)

(b)

System No. 2 C from solid phase

System No. 3 C from CH4 gas phase

Figure 4; Comparison of coefficients of friction of industrial scale V-Al-C-N coating systems. System No. 2 consists of the VAlN adhesion layer and a V-Al-C-N coating. The VAlN adhesion layer was deposited from two VAl-plug targets with an Ar/N2 ratio of 250/150 sccm and a substrate bias voltage US of -110 V, the V-Al-C-N coating was deposited from two VAl-plug and 2 graphite targets with an Ar/N2 ratio of 250/75 sccm and a substrate bias voltage US of -110 V. Figure 4(a) shows an exemplary friction curve for this coating giving a medium value for the average coefficient of friction of 0.55. In Figure 5 the resulting XRD diffractogram reveals that both layers possess a nanocrystalline structure with crystallite sizes of 5 nm for the fcc VAlN layer and 10 nm for the fcc V-Al-C-N layer respectively. System No. 3 is a three-layer system, that is composed of system No. 2 with an additional C-rich V-Al-C-N toplayer, that is deposited using a constant CH4 gas flow and a gradually decreasing target power on the VAl-plug targets. This system shows a low coefficient of friction of 0.18 as can be seen in Figure 4(b). To test the performance of these three coatings in forming applications the coatings were deposited onto three pairs of testing tools, as described in section 2, and the steelstrip-drawing-tests were carried out. The results of these tests are shown in Figure 6. System No. 2 and 3 show a smoother running-in process than the uncoated tools and the coefficient of friction is 0.08, which is a little lower than 0.1 for the uncoated tool. Both the running-in process and the coefficient of friction of system No. 1 are comparable to the one of the reference. Thus the large differences in the coefficients of friction that have been found in the unlubricated tribometer tests can not be easily transferred to the steel-strip-drawing-tests due to the dominating influence of the lubricant. Both V-Al-C-N coatings show a much lower tendency for stick-slip effects than the VAlN coating and the uncoated reference. System No. 3 is running very smooth up to the maximum surface pressure of 20 MPa and even offers the opportunity for running a dry steel-strip-drawing-test without any lubricant.

160 140 120 Intensity in cps 100 80 60 40 20 0 20

c-VAlN: a=0.42 nm; t= 5 nm; =1.0x10 ; (111)-texture=0.8 -3 c-VAlCN: a=0.40 nm; t=10 nm; =1.0x10 ; (111)-texture=0.55

-3

VAlCN (111)

VAlN (111)

VAlN (200) VAlCN (200)

VAlN VAlN (220) (311) VAlN (222) VAlCN Si (220) (400) VAlCNVAlCN (311) (222)

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

2 in

Figure 5; XRD diffractogram of industrial scale V-Al-C-N coating system No. 2

0.25 0.2 1.2379 VAlN+VAlCN VAlN VAlN+VAlCN+(VAlCN+C) VAlN+VAlCN+VAlCN

0.15 0.1 0.05

mit 66mm/sec u. Be lung 1.5g/m 0 0 5 10 15 Surface pressure in MPa 20 25

Figure 6; Comparison of results from steel-strip-drawing tests for the three coating systems.

4. CONCLUSIONS On laboratory scale nanocrystalline coatings with different microstructure and properties have been grown by applying a combinatorial materials science approach using reactive r.f.-magnetron sputtering from a segmented VC/AlN target. In particular it was possible to vary successfully hardness, the reduced elastic modulus and the coefficient of friction on a wide range. The scale up to an industrial-scale machine was achieved by using graphite and VAl-plug targets in order to deposit different multiple layer systems with varying C-content. These systems showed a large difference of the coefficients of friction in laboratory scale tribometer tests. However, in steel-stripdrawing-tests only little differences in the coefficients of friction were found due to the lubricant, which is added in comparison to the dry-running tribometer test. Nevertheless the new up-scaled coatings seem to be very promising for forming applications with little or without use of lubricants due to the beneficial effect of the free carbon phase, which acts as a solid lubricant. The next step will be the deposition of the new coatings onto model forming tools from ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG and segmented industrial forming tools from Volkswagen AG. These OEMs will perform model and production tests in order to validate the approach.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This R&D project is funded by the Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) within the framework Research for the Production of tomorrow; under the grant 02PU2000 and is supported by the Project Management Agency Karlsruhe (PTKA) in the field of production and manufacturing technologies (PFT).

REFERENCES [Aouni et al; 2004] Aouni, A.; Weisbecker, P.; Loi, T. H.; Bauer-Grosse, E.; Thin Solid Films 469; 2004; p. 315-321 [Hovsepian et al., 2008] Hovsepian, P.Eh.; Ehiasarian, A.P.; Deeming, A.; Schimpf C.; Vacuum 82; 2008; p. 1312-1317 [Kolozsvri et al., 2009] Kolozsvri, S.; Pesch, P.; Ziebert, C.; Ulrich, S.; Plasma Processes & Polymers 6; 2009; p. S146-151 [Lackner et al., 2004] Lackner, J.M.; Waldhauser, W.; Ebner, R.; Bakker, R.J.; Schberl, T.; Major, B.; Thin Solid Films; 468; 2004; p. 125-133 [Lutterotti et al., 1992] Lutterotti, L.; Scardi, P.; Maistrelli, P.; J. Appl. Cryst. 25; 1992; p. 459-462

[Pesch et al., 2003] Pesch, P.; Sattel, S.; Woestmann, S.; Masarczyk, P.; Herden, K.; Stucky, T.; Martens, A.; Ulrich, S.; Holleck, H.; Surf. Coat. Technol. 739; 2003; p. 163164 [Pesch et al., 2005] Pesch, P.; Sattel, S.; Woestmann, S.; Ulrich, S.; Surf. Coat. Technol. 200; 2005; p. 1065-1070 [Sainte Catherine et al.; 1992] Sainte Catherine, M.C.; Farges, G.; Surf. Coat. Technol. 54/55; 1992; p. 266-272 [Shieh et al., 2002] Shieh, J.; Hon, M.H.; J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 20; 2002; p. 87-92 [Stueber et al., 2005] Stueber, M.; Barna, P.B.; Simmonds, M.C.; Albers, U.; Leiste, H.; Ziebert, C.; Holleck, H.; Kovacs, A.; Hovsepian, P.; Gee, I.; Thin Solid Films 493; 2005; p. 104-112 [Stueber et al., 2006] Stueber, M.; Albers, U.; Leiste, H.; Ulrich, S.; Holleck, H.; Barna, P.B.; Kovacs, A.; Hovsepian, P.; Gee, I.; Surf. Coat. Technol. 200; 2006; p. 6162-6171 [Stueber et al., 2009] Stueber, M,; Holleck, H.; Leiste, H.; Seemann, K.; Ulrich, S.; Ziebert, C.; J. Alloy. Compd. 483; 2009; p. 321-333 [Taube, 1998] Taube K., Surf. Coat. Technol. 98; 1998; p. 976-984 [Zeng et al., 2000] Zeng, X.T.; Zhang, S.; Muramatsu, T.; Surf. Coat. Technol. 127; 2000; p. 38-42 [Zhang et al., 2002] Zhang, S.; Fu, Y.; Du, H.; Zeng, X.T.; Liu, Y.C.; Surf. Coat. Technol. 162; 2002; p. 42-48 [Ziebert et al., 2009] Ziebert, C.; Albers, U.; Stber, M.; Ulrich, S.; Holleck, H.; Plasma Processes & Polymers 6; 2009; p. S560-565

Extending Tool Life Using Simulation-Based Wear Prediction

Dipl.-Ing. Axel Maurer AutoForm Engineering Deutschland GmbH Technologiezentrum Emil-Figge-Strae 76-80 D-44227 Dortmund, Germany Axel.Maurer@autoform.de

Abstract: When working with high strength steel (HSS) and ultra high strength steel (UHSS) parts, it is necessary to consider die process optimization early during the product design phase in order to achieve acceptable production performance. Efforts to balance product geometry and forming geometry require process layout experience and rigor; only with great care in performing the forming simulation will such efforts yield a robust condition devoid of splits and excessive springback. The stamping of UHSS parts involves drastically higher forces exerted on tool components over that of mild steels. The surface wear of UHSS tools in particular requires significant attention prior to design release as one must carefully select an adequate yet cost effective base tool material often in combination with a complementary hardening process and/or surface coating material and process. If proper tool material and treatment decisions are made early, a substantial amount of costs resulting from rework and over-engineering will be avoided from the very start of die construction. 1. STATE OF THE ART IN TOOL DESIGN It is common practice to employ tool material and coating standards which are developed heuristically. Unfortunately, very little experiential data on newer and increasingly relevant HSS and UHSS grades are available to most organizations. Aside from this limitation, heuristic means provide limited direction for managing precise geometric details such as small radii and protruding corners which inherently drive local high-pressure zones and are therefore susceptible to excessive wear. Simulation-based wear analysis offers insight into such details. Where general standards may only consider part families, materials, thicknesses, and production volumes, a simulation-based approach allows one to study specific process and product geometry in fine detail. Thus, individual measures such as local steel inserts or optimal coatings can be determined in the subsequent layout of the tool design.

Currently, a lot of toolmakers already use wear analysis for their tool layouts. This approach has been successfully been applied for mild steel outer panels and for HSS and UHSS structural parts [VDI-Z Integrierte Produktion, Ausgabe 6-2008 Automobilhersteller optimiert Verschleischutz beim Umformen]. Typically wear analysis is performed well after the process layout has been defined, and process planning traditionally focuses primarily on achieving sufficient product quality. The attention of the process planner is therefore consumed by the management of wrinkles, splits, excessive thinning, surface defects, springback, and material utilization, among other topics. Having realized the quality requirements, the process layout is released. The wear analysis is pushed later in the development time line as the other factors are optimized, and the opportunity for an optimal wear condition becomes limited to a predetermined product and process configuration.

Figure 1; Today, the wear analysis is commonly performed after process engineering and before the start of tool design. 2. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS IN TOOL LAYOUT FOR HSS AND UHSS The common process of tool layout outlined in Figure 1 allows for the determination of a suitable selection of tool material, hardening processes, and coating mechanisms constistent with the wear loads due to the process layout. Two essential measures are bypassed in this scenario: Draw die geometry is not configured for a minimal wear load; product geometry is not designed with wear implications taken into account. In case of mild steel parts, wear considerations could in the past be postponed until the start of tool design without castastrophic results. Now, with the increased prevalence of HSS and UHSS, the engineering process must not be as frivolous during early feasibility. Additionally, regardless of product material, the costs of rework and tool repair are under scrutiny as all stamping operations struggle to become more

competitive, so the current practices for handling mild steel tool material selection and treatment also need to be re-examined.

Figure 2; Improved process for wear analysis especially for HSS and UHSS. Alternatively, as in Figure 2, the topic of wear can and should be introduced during the part feasibility and process engineering phases of the tool development program. Using the analytical methods described herein it becomes possible to integrate the consideration of wear into these tasks without an appreciable expenditure of additional effort. In this way, the engineer can address wear before the product and process is set. 3. CONCEPT FOR THE REALIZATION OF A WEAR ANALYSIS A standard deep drawing simulation forms the starting basis for a wear analysis. The wear analysis is an additional evaluation that does not require a separate simulation run. Friction shear stress is calculated already in the deep drawing simulation for all tool components coming into contact with the sheet at each time step. The friction work at each element on each tool component is determined by integration over the entire forming process. In the wear analysis, the friction work together with macro-parameters such as planned production volume and press stroke rate is compared to the empirical values stored in the expert knowledge database. The expert knowledge database includes characteristics for available tool materials, surface treatments, and coatings already used in practice.

During post-processing, wear susceptibility is mapped over the tool geometry for each tool component.

Figure 3; Workflow: Wear analysis with AutoForm-DieAdviser.

3.1. Expert Knowledge Database The expert knowledge database was developed collaboratively with a well-known tool material and treatment company possessing a significant level of tool wear expertise. It has been calibrated in collaboration with several companies using the AutoForm software. Comprehensive correlations with actual tool conditions found in production environments were performed to validate the model. These comparisons have been performed for both outer panel parts and high strength reinforcement parts (Premiere of AutoForm-DieAdviser was the European Press-Shop Meeting EPM 2007). It is AutoForms goal to complete this expert knowledge database with all materials and coatings relevant to the stamping industry.

3.2. Current Combinations of Tool Materials, Treatments and Coatings Available in AutoForm-DieAdviser

Figure 4; AutoForm-DieAdvisers currently available tool materials, treatments and coatings for steel blanks. Figure 4 lists the tool materials, treatments, and coatings for steel sheet metal materials represented in the expert knowledge database. A cast iron substrate can be selected along with the options of no treatment, surface hardening, nitrated, or hard chromed. For higher wear loads, hardened tool steel (12% Cr steel) with or without different hardening component coatings can be selected. For maximum wear loads, 8% Cr steel can be selected. Common tool materials and coatings for aluminum and stainless steel materials are also available.

4. REALIZATION OF A WEAR ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE The analytical method using AutoForm-DieAdviser will now be introduced using an example of a typical reinforcement body part (right and left part) constructed with UHSS CP-W 800. The starting point for a wear analysis is the standard drawing simulation with AutoForm-Incremental.

Figure 5; Simulation results of AutoForm-Incremental as starting point of the AutoForm-DieAdviser wear analysis. A process layout has been developed for the part using a rectangular blank. During process layout optimization, material utilization had been emphasized. Thus, the flanges were predominantly developed on the binder. The draw stage is designed symmetrically with open ends and without draw beads. The simulation results in Figure 5 show a drawn part without any splits.

4.1. Additional Wear Analysis Inputs The wear analysis is based on the simulation results of AutoForm-Incremental. For the realization of a wear analysis with AutoFrom-DieAdviser, additional inputs are required: Blank: without Zinc-coated Planned production volume: 2,000,000 parts (in the next 6 years) Planned Press: Transfer Press with 18 strokes/minute

4.2. Tool Design Concept Assessment with Wear Analysis Results

Figure 6; Tool design assessment using results. (Green/yellow/red for go or no-go). The draw die material condition is to be determined. Three concepts are compared in the wear analysis which considers the punch, upper die, and binder separately. The upper die result is illustrated in Figure 6: (a) hardened 12% Cr without coating, (b) 12% Cr with advanced PVD coating, and (c) 8% Cr with CVD coating. Option (a) is clearly unacceptable, with visible damage expected after a mere 2000 hits. Option (c) confirms that it is possible to countermeasure the wear completely, but the

material and treatment process is unreasonably expensive. The results of option (b) show that most of the tool will perform satisfactorily and also provide specific feedback about where to focus for minor product concessions so as to yield an optimal wear management solution. 4.3. Wear Reduction by Local Radii Increase in the Part

Figure 7; Wear analysis results after a local Part modification. In coordination with the part designer, the step radii have been slightly increased as shown in Figure 7. This modification has been integrated in the draw die and the deepdrawing simulation has been re-run. The subsequent analysis shows the desired reduction of wear. As a result of the analyses the cheaper tool concept is selected with confidence using conventional steel (12% Cr steel) and a comparably low priced PVD coating.

5. SUMMARY The extremely high tool wear conditions inherent when forming HSS and UHSS parts drive a need for diligent efforts to determine wear reducing measures. It is necessary to detect and countermeasure local high intensity wear zones early during the product and process engineering phase. This article introduces an approach to simulation-based wear analysis; this approach was developed to enable engineers to successfully navigate through die wear considerations, resulting in sufficiently robust tool surface conditions. AutoForm-DieAdviser provides an analytical means for deciding an optimal wear protection solution. This solution provides a suitable combination of tool material, hardening and, if necessary, coating. The analysis is based on standard deep drawing simulation with AutoForm-Incremental considering the tool geometry, blank material, press forces, and lubrication. The analysis also considers planned production volume and press stroke rate.

Strategies to increase the tool performance in punching operations of UHSS

Ingrid Picas*, Ricardo Hernndez*, Daniel Casellas* and Isaac Valls** * Department of Materials Technology, CTM-Technological Centre, Av. Bases de Manresa 1, 08242 Manresa, Spain **Rovalma S.A., Hrcules 49, Can Parellada, 08228 Terrassa, Spain ingrid.picas@ctm.com.es, ricardo.hernandez@ctm.com.es, daniel.casellas@ctm.com.es, isaac@rovalma.com

Abstract: The mechanical performance of tools made of three types of cold work tool steels was evaluated during a punching process of a Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS) sheet. The effect of the tool steel microstructure, and the hardness level, on the failure mechanisms acting on punches was analyzed. To further understand the tools behaviour, Finite Element (FE) simulations were carried out to determine the von Mises stress distribution in the punch. This study takes also into account the influence of process parameters such as cutting clearances and punch edge radii, on the maximum load in tools and burr formation in sheets. Keywords: punching, stress, microstructure

1. INTRODUCTION The usage of Ultra High Strength Steels (UHSS) in structural automotive components has been broadened during the past few years to satisfy the increasing demands towards vehicle safety and weight reduction, allowing to decrease the fuel consumption and thereby, CO2 emissions. Despite showing excellent strength to weight ratios, the extended use of UHSS is being mainly hampered by the high loads acting in cutting tools, which decrease considerably their performance. Traditionally, failure mechanisms like wear or sinking were overcome by increasing the hardness of tools. However, this strategy can no longer be applied for UHSS since high toughness levels are also required to avoid premature failure of tools. Thus, the hardness - toughness relationship must be optimized through an appropriate tool steel microstructural design. The effect of the microstructural constituents of tool steels on their micromechanical properties, i.e. the role of primary alloy carbides and the metallic matrix, has been studied in the last two decades by authors such as [Berns et al., 1987], [Rammerstorfer et al., 1999], [Shiozawa et al., 2002], [Fukaura et al., 2004], [Sohar et al., 2008], amongst many others. They generally stated that broken primary carbides are located at the fracture and fatigue origins and also reported that the size, shape and

arrangement of the carbides in the matrix play a major role determining fracture resistance and thus the tool steel behavior. However, during industrial forming applications the service life of tools is not only governed by the tool steel selection, but also by the process parameters such as clearances, edge radii, angles, geometries, etc. Especially in case of the UHSS, the extremely high mechanical loads generated in tools make of the process adjustment a real challenge. Tools must be robustly build and cutting angles and clearances must be very well adjusted. Slight blank movements in the moment of the cut locally increase the stress on the tool due to clearance maladjustments, and poor die cleanliness leads to material build-up near the cutting edge. Since nominal loads are already extremely elevated, minimal stress intensifications can lead to premature failure, generally by chipping in the cutting edge, as previously reported by the authors [Picas et al., 2008 (1)]. Thus, the aim of this study is to better understand the way how the tool steel material and hardness level, which combined to the cutting clearances and tool cutting edge radii, affect the performance of tools and the burr formation in sheets. The work is focused on a punching operation of a UHSS sheet, with punches made of three types of cold work tool steels showing different microstructural features. Finite Element (FE) simulations are employed to estimate the stresses generated in tools during the punching process, enabling to further comprehend their behavior.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1.1. Material Three different cold work tool steels were used in this study: DIN 1.2379 (AISI D2), and UNIVERSAL and HWS, both developed by ROVALMA S.A. The 1.2379 is a high chromium high carbon steel with ledeburitic microstructure. UNIVERSAL and HWS have the same chemical composition, with lower chromium and carbon contents than 1.2379, but higher of vanadium. The chemical composition of the three steels is shown in Table I. Table I; Chemical composition of the studied steels (in wt. %)
Steel 1.2379 UNIV., HWS C 1.5 - 1.6 0.9 - 1.2 Cr 11.0 - 12.0 6.8 - 8.5 Mo 0.6 - 0.8 V 0.9 - 1.0 2.5 - 3.0 W 1.1 - 1.4

1.2379 and UNIVERSAL are conventional ingot cast steels, while HWS is produced by Powder Metallurgy (PM). For more details on the microstructure of these steels, the reader is referred to [Picas et al., 2008 (2)].

All punches were machined from cylindrical bars in annealed condition, with their axis following the rolling direction. Heat treatment was applied in order to get hardness levels of 58 60 HRC and 60 62 HRC, as scheduled in Table II. Mechanical characterization was conducted by evaluating the fracture toughness and bending strength. Fracture toughness, KC, was determined according to the ASTME399 procedure. Bending strength, R, was performed in polished prismatic specimens, using an articulate fixture to minimize torsion effects during testing. Table II; Heat treatments applied to the studied steels and obtained mechanical properties
Steel 1.2379A 1.2379B UNIVERSAL HWS Austenizing (quench in oil) 1050 C, 30 1050 C, 30 1070 C, 40 1060 C, 30 Tempering 530 C 2 h (x2) 400 C 2 h (x2) 540 C 2 h (x2), 560 C 2h 540 C 2 h (x2), 560 C 2h HRC 60 - 62 58 - 60 60 - 62 60 - 62 KC (MPam1/2) 23.3 30.5 29.4 21.5 R (MPa) 2847 96 2853 199 3974 119 4382 111

1.2. Experimental setup The blank material chosen for this investigation was a commercially produced Dual-Phase steel grade with an ultimate tensile stress (UTS) of about 1000 MPa (DP1000). Their mechanical properties were determined using conventional tensile test and are shown in Table III. Table III: Material properties determined in conventional tensile test
Steel DP1000 Thickness (mm) 2.0 0.2 (MPa) 785 UTS (MPa) 1045 TE (%) 11 n 0.13

Single punching tests were performed in a laboratory tooling mounted on a universal testing machine (figure 1 a)). These tests were aimed at evaluating the effect of the cutting clearance on the maximum load in the punch and the burr formation in the sheet. The obtained experimental load-displacement curves were also used to validate the Finite Element (FE) simulations. Continuous punching tests were then performed in a laboratory bench facility (figure 1 b)) especially conceived to easily remove and replace punches for inspection after certain numbers of strokes, as shown in figure 1 b). Nominal cutting clearance was chosen to be 0.2 mm (radial) in all punches (the 10 % of the sheet thickness), and it was well adjusted after each inspection. The punch edge radius was 0.01 mm for the punches tested in this study. However, in order to asses the influence of the cutting edge angle, a set of 1.2379A punches were polished so that their edge was rounded up to 0.1 mm. The surface integrity of all punches was assessed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Inspection of tools was regularly performed with the increasing number of

strokes, so that damage in punches could progressively be identified and compared for the three studied steels. A total number of 30,000 strokes was carried out in this study. It was enough to enable tools behaviour evaluation, but it can not be used as indicator of the effective service life of punches, since they could actually work further cycles in an industrial process.

a)

b)

Figure 1; Experimental setup for: a) single punching; b) continuous punching tests

3. FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION Stress distribution in the punch was determined by means of Finite Element (FE) analysis, using the implicit quasi-static formulation of ABAQUS 6.8-1. The system was modeled assuming bidimensional axisymmetry, and the size of the elements was 510-4 mm at the near punch edge and 510-5 mm in the sheet surface. The sheet material was modeled using the mechanical properties shown in Table III and the tool was considered as linear elastic with a Youngs modulus of 210 GPa. The boundary conditions were displacement constraint in the outer surface and controlled displacement at the upper part of the punch. The contact condition was solved using Node to Surface formulation applying a friction coefficient of 0.15. Simulation results were validated by comparing simulation and experimental load displacement curves until a good correlation was obtained.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Effect of the cutting clearance on maximal loads and burr formation In figure 2, maximal punching loads are plotted versus the radial clearance, from the 2.5 to the 25 % of the sheet thickness. Maximal loads are found to slightly decrease with increasing the clearance, with a reduction close to the 5 %. Burr formation is evidenced both at. 2.5 and 25 % of clearance, whereas no burr is observed in the range from the 5 to 20 %.

45,5
NO Burr

45,0

Load (kN)

44,5 44,0 43,5 43,0 42,5 0 5 10 15 20 25

Burr 0.15 mm Burr 0.17 mm

Clearance (%)
Figure 2; Maximal punching loads plotted versus the radial clearance. Schema of the fractured sheet edge and burr measurement 4.2. Stress distribution in the punch Punching FE-simulations were carried out for three different clearances: 10, 15 and 20 % of the sheet thickness, and also for the two punch edge radii: 0.01 and 0.1 mm. Figure 3 a) shows the influence of these parameters on the maximal von Mises stresses registered in the punch. Increasing the clearance from 10 to 20 %, leads to an increase in the maximum stress in the punch of 50 MPa. In the meanwhile, when the punch edge radius goes from 0.01 to 0.1 mm, there is a decrease of about 500 MPa. Therefore, the maximal stresses registered in the punch seem to be more affected by the punch edge radius than the clearance, even though the maximal loads required to punching the sheet are pretty close from one to each other, as shown in figure 3 b). These results can be rationalized considering the stress distribution in the punch. As shown in figure 4, stresses are localized around a very small area near the punch edge (approximately 600 m). As a consequence, when the punch edge is so rounded that the radius is higher than this area, no stress concentration is found and thus, stresses are considerably reduced in the punch. Figure 5 shows the stress distribution in the punch for the two radii studied. Von Mises stresses are as high as 2000 MPa in the 0.01 mm punch edge radius, while the highest value registered in the 0.1 mm punch edge radius remains close to 1500 MPa.

Maximum Von Mises Stress (MPa)

2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1E-3

50

~ 50 MPa

Load (kN)

10% 15% 20%

40 30 20 10 R = 0,01 mm R = 0,1 mm

~ 500 MPa

0,01

0,1

0,0

0,4

0,8

1,2

1,6

2,0

a)

Punch edge radius (mm)

b)

Displacement (mm)

Figure 3; a) Maximal von Mises stresses calculated in the punch for the 10, 15 and 20 % clearance values and the 0.01 and 0.1 mm punch edge radii; b) Experimental load displacement diagram comparing the curves using a punch of 0.01 mm edge radius and a 0.1 mm edge radius

600 m

Figure 4; The punch edge acts as stress concentrator in a very small area of 600 m
a) R = 0,01 mm b ) R = 0,1 mm

50 m

Figure 5; Stress distribution in the punch for: a) the 0.01 mm and b) the 0.1 mm punch edge radius

4.3. Fractographic analysis of tools The inspection of runnout punches evidenced that, regardless of the material type and hardness level, the main failure mechanism encountered was the fracture along their cutting edge, as shown in figure 6. This type of failure can be explained according to the stress distribution determined by means of FE simulations; maximal stresses are confined just in the area near the cutting edge of the punch. In the punches with an edge radius of 0.01 mm, stresses locally attained more than 2000 MPa at a distance from 20 to 50 m from the surface (see figure 5 a)). Stresses decreased in a rather steep manner (1500 MPa at 100 m) and then the reduction was gradual up to the 1000 MPa at 500 m from the surface. Damage in the punches with an edge radius 0.01 mm is shown in figure 6 after 3000 strokes. In 1.2379A fractures were already observed along the cutting edge already at the first numbers of strokes (less than hundred), as shown in figure 6 a); after 3000 strokes the whole punch edge was fractured. Fracture was found to be within a zone of about 300 - 400 m from the surface, corresponding to the 1000 MPa von Mises stress region. When increasing number of cycles (up to 30,000) wear and rounding of the fractured edge was evidenced. In 1.2379B a damaged zone along the cutting edge was also observed within the 300 400 m from the surface and at the very low numbers of cycles. In contrast to the 1.2379A, these punches showed sinking instead of fracture, as a consequence of the lower hardness of the steel. In these punches, many primary carbides were found to be broken and small fatigue propagating cracks were observed to be emanating from them, as shown in figure 7 a). However, the high toughness of the metallic matrix improved crack growth resistance, and fractures started to appear at higher numbers of cycles than 1.2379A. These fractures were observed within the 100 m from the surface, corresponding to the 1500 MPa region. The performance of punches was mainly governed by premature rounding of edges and deformation due to the low hardness (58 - 60 HRC), as illustrated in figure 6 b). UNIVERSAL punches showed better performances than the 1.2379. Damage was mainly confined in smaller areas around the cutting edge, meaning that the steel was able to resist even at the highest stress levels generated, as shown in figure 6 d). Just small cracks were identified close to the 50 m from the surface (corresponding to the 2000 MPa zone) and beyond the 30,000 strokes. Besides showing the same type of fracture at the near edge than the other materials, HWS punches also presented fatigue chipping by coalescence and growth of small superficial cracks, as shown in figure 6 d). In addition, the surface was found to be rather worn out after 15,000 strokes, as illustrated in figure 7 b). In the 1.2379A punches with edge radius of 0.1 mm, no signs of damage after 15,000 strokes could be observed, as shown in figure 7 d). With further increasing the number of strokes, small fatigue chipping started to appear. Beyond the 30,000 strokes, the surface was mainly affected by wear. The performance of tools in forming operations can be rationalized by understanding the failure mechanisms and the mechanical properties. For the studied punching operation, steels showing high fracture resistance can be expected to present

the best performance, because tools mainly fail by nucleation and growth of cracks at the cutting edge. In this sense, the UNIVERSAL steel, with a high R, was found to show the best performance against fracture. However, such result cannot be solely explained by the fracture resistance values, since HWS showed the highest R values, as shown in Table II. It means that not only fracture resistance is an important parameter to dictate the mechanical behavior of tools, but also fracture toughness must be considered. In fact, PM steels present lower fracture toughness than conventional ingot cast steels, as illustrated also in Table II. In PM steels, carbides are very small (2 4 m), homogeneously distributed in the matrix, close from one to each other and, in contrast to ingot cast steels, there are no high-spaced bands of metallic matrix, where high toughness levels could be attained and crack propagation resistance increased [Casellas et al., 2009]. For this reason, PM steels show high sensitivity to defects induced during machining processes such as grinding or polishing lines, as shown in figure 7 c). These defects can act as stress concentrators where cracks can start to nucleate. Once a crack is nucleated, its propagation in PM steels is easier than in ingot cast steels as 1.2379 or UNIVERSAL. On the contrary, if such machining flaws are not present in tools, the high fracture resistance of PM steels dictates the tool performance and their behavior is optimum. Thus, one should care more about the surface finished quality of tools in PM steels, so that the potential of the microstructure and mechanical properties of these steels is completely developed. When surface finish quality of tools is unfortunately poor, conventional ingot cast tool steels could be even a better option than PM steels.
a) b)

c)

d)

Figure 6; Fractograhpies of the studied punches with edge radius of 0.01 mm after 3000 strokes: a) 1.2379A; b) 1.2379B; c) UNIVERSAL; d) HWS

a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 7; a) 1.2379B; b) and c) HWS; d) 1.2379A with 0.1 mm edge radius

5. CONCLUSIONS Based on the experimental and numerical results of the punching operation studied in this work, some statements can be concluded. Cutting clearances from 5 to 20 % must be used to avoid burr formation in the DP1000 grade of sheet analyzed, and maximal punching loads decrease about a 5 % from the 2.5 to the 25 % clearances tested. Thus, it is plausible to use a nominal clearance comprised between the 10 15 % of the sheet thickness, in order to prevent not only burr formation, but also accidents due to punch matrix contact in case of die misalignments in the press. The effect of the punch edge radius on the von Mises stresses generated in the punch is found to be more important than the effect of the clearance. The maximal stresses in the punch show a decrease close to the 500 MPa from 0.1 to 0.01 mm edge radius, while this is only about 50 MPa from 10 to 20 % of clearance. In addition, FE simulations allow to determining that the von Mises stresses are only confined in a very small area around the cutting edge of the punch (approximately 600 m). Regarding the mechanical performance of the punches, UNIVERSAL showed the best compromise between fracture toughness and wear resistance. 1.2379 punches show premature failure because of fractures or sinking in, at higher and lower hardness respectively. HWS punches show high sensitivity to machined flaws such as the grinding and/or polishing lines, meaning that in forming UHSS, the surface finished quality of tools is critical determining their performance. Fractography of 1.2379A punches whose edge radius was 0.1 mm reveals a net improve in mechanical behavior, compared to those whose radius was 0.01 mm. Thus, the strategy to get the highest tool performance in severe forming operations, as punching of UHSS, is to select steels combining high fracture and wear resistance, as

PM steels, together with a very good surface finish of the forming tool, and a rounded radius on the cutting edge.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work is part of the tasks held by CTM and ROVALMA in the Forma0 research project. It is funded by CDTI (National Board for Technological and Industrial Development) within the frame of Spanish National funds.

REFERENCES [Berns et al., 1987] Berns, H.; Lueg, J.; Trojahn, W.; Whling, R.; Wisell, H.; "The fatigue behavior of conventional and powder metallurgical high speed steels"; In: Powder Metall Int, vol. 19, pp. 22-26; 1987 [Rammerstorfer et al., 1999] Rammerstorfer, F.G.; Plankensteiner, A.F.; Fischer, F.D.; Antretter, T.; "Hierarchical models for simulating the mechanical behavior of heterogeneous materials: an approach to high speed tool steel"; In: Mat Sci Engng, vol. A259, pp. 73-84; 1999 [Shiozawa et al., 2002] Shiozawa, K.; Lu, L.; Ishihara, S.; "S-N curve characteristics and subsurface crack initiation behavior in ultra-long life fatigue of a high carbonchromium bearing steel"; In: Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct, vol. 24, pp. 781790; 2002 [Fukaura et al., 2004] Fukaura, K.; Yokoyama, Y.; Yokoi, D.; Tsuji, N.; Ono, K.; "Fatigue of cold work tool steels: effect of heat treatment and carbide morphology on fatigue crack formation, life and fracture surface observations"; In: Met Mat Trans, vol. 35A, pp. 1289-1300; 2004 [Sohar et al., 2008] Sohar, C.R.; Betzar-Kotas, A.; Gierl, C., Weiss B.; Danninger, H.; "Fractographic evaluation of gigacycle fatigue crack nucleation and propagation of a high Cr alloyed cold work tool steel"; In: Int Journal Fat, vol. 30, pp. 2191-2199 [Picas et al., 2008 (1)] Picas, I.; Hernndez, R.; Casellas, D.; Casas, B.; Valls, I.; "Tool performance in cutting hot stamped steels"; In: Proc of the Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance Steel, pp.179-189; Kassel 2008; ISBN 978-3937057-18-7 [Picas et al., 2008 (2)] Picas, I.; Casellas, D.; Llobet, A.; Hernndez, R.; Riera, M.D.; Valls, I.; Casas, B.; "Mechanical performance of tools in cold forming of high strength steels"; In: Proc of the Int Conf on New Developments in Advanced HighStrength Sheet Steels, pp. 391-400; Orlando 2008; ISBN 978-1-886362-99-4 [Casellas et al., 2009] Casellas, D.; Picas, I.; Castell, M.; Goez, A.; Llanes, L.; Casas, B.; Valls, I.; "Effect of carbides properties and microstructural characteristics on crack nucleation and propagation in cold forming tools "; In: Proc of the 8th Int Tooling Conf, vol. 1, pp. 479-490; Aachen 2009; ISBN 3-8613-0700-6

Investigation of a composite cast cutting tool for blanking of AHSS sheet materials
Andreas Mackensen, Martin Ostermair, Hartmut Hoffmann Institute of Metal Forming and Casting (utg) Technische Universitt Mnchen, Fakultt fr Maschinenwesen Walther-Meiner-Str., 85747 Garching, Germany Martin.Ostermair@utg.de

Abstract: In this study, a novel concept is presented for the manufacture of highperformance cutting tools. This concept outlines a production process, in which a steel and cast iron are recast to form one solid cutting tool. Steel of comparably high quality, such as powder-metallurgical steel (PM-steel), used for the area of the cutting bar, is therein combined with a relatively low-priced cast iron to form the tool body. Blanking operations with up to 100.000 strokes are performed to prove the general tool functionality and to determine the wear development on the cutting edge. The sheet materials used include a twinning induced plasticity steel (TWIP steel) as well as a micro-alloyed steel of grade H320LA. The results showed only an insignificant level of wear on the cutting edges. In addition to these findings, the quality of the sheared-edges of the test pieces is determined by use of a tactile measuring system. Keywords: Sheet metal, shearing, cutting tool, wear, composite casting

1. INTRODUCTION The modern sheet metal-working industry is faced with various challenges since not only the quality requirements of the components to be manufactured have been increasing, but also the strength of sheet materials has continuously been improved. This development therefore needs to be considered throughout the entire manufacturing process. At the same time, due to the globalized markets the sheet metal-working industry is affected by the growing pressure to reduce the production costs. In order to comply with these requirements and to keep up with competitors, companies have to achieve a high-quality production at fair cost. These requirements also have to be met in the production of cutting tools. In this context, for the blanking operations of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) cutting tools are usually preferred which are of high quality in terms of stiffness and dimensional accuracy in order to minimize wear as well as to improve tool life [Carlsson, 2005]. This strategy is applied in order to provide the best possible consistent production process of high-quality components, but comes along with the need of cost-intensive materials. One symptomatic phenomenon of AHSS sheet materials when used on large scale, however, is reduced tool life. This problem is due to the high cutting and shear forces occurring during the cutting process.

[Mori et al., 2008] suggest the use of warm and hot shearing operations when cutting ultra high-strength steel sheet materials in order to realize a shear cutting operation with reduced process forces. By using a heated punching process, they were able to improve the quality of the sheared edge as well as to reduce the necessary cutting force. Similar results were obtained in [Brecher et al., 2009], in which the experimental set-up was based on a novel laser-assisted punching process. In [Gram et al., 2008], a comprehensive investigation is shown which focuses on the validation of the standard formula by [Doege, 1999] which is applied to determine the peak shearing force value occurring during the processing of AHSS materials exhibiting different strength levels. The results indicate an increase of the maximum shearing force which, according to the specific ultimate tensile strength, is lower than calculated. Therefore, a new force equation is proposed, in which the influence of friction as well as of deformation are taken into consideration. [Chen et al., 2009] conducted experiments to determine the quality of the sheared edge of three different dual phase steels possessing different strength levels by varying the die clearance while also considering the materials texture. The pick-up development occurring during punching operations of stainless steels is the main focus of [Olsson et al., 2002]. In [So et al., 2009], blanking operations are carried out with boron-manganese alloyed steel of grade 22MnB5. Therein, the influence of the punch edge radius on the quality of the sheared-edges of the test pieces is investigated. Also, the influence of the punch velocity on the necessary cutting forces is determined as well as the wear development depending on the number of blanking strokes is analyzed. The most important aspects when selecting an appropriate cutting tool material are, above all, high strength, good ductility, high wear resistance and hardness [Hoogen, 1999]. Nonetheless, a compromise has to be found to meet all these requirements, as a material of high strength is resistant to wear and deformation on the one hand, but on the other hand also exhibits a characteristically reduced ductility. In this context, the hardness of the cutting punch is an important parameter. According to analyses of [Kienzle, 1957], the degree of wear development on the cutting edges declines for materials with increasing hardness. An adequate approach to reduce material and production costs when manufacturing cutting tools is the employment of a hybrid tool design in which the tool material is adapted according to the expected load impact. According to this concept, components of a tool need to be made of different materials depending on their specific mechanical properties, such as wear resistance or ductility. For the technical implementation, an important aspect is the specific nature of the joint between the different materials of the tool. In this context, composite casting represents a possible approach, provided that either a positive locking and/or a material locking joint are formed (Figure 1a). In this study, a novel concept is presented for the manufacture of high-performance cutting tools. The main principle of this concept consists of a composite casting process. Therein, comparatively high-quality steel for the area of the cutting bar is recast with cast iron to form a hybrid cutting tool. With this concept, the advantages of both

materials can be combined in an optimal way: a high-strength and wear-resistant material, which is subjected to a high load impact during the blanking operation, and a relatively low-quality but at the same time low-priced cast iron material, which is subjected to an only low mechanical load (Figure 1b). The functionality of the concept is demonstrated with blanking operations of two different sheet materials exhibiting different strength levels. The sheet materials used include a TWIP steel and a microalloyed steel of grade H320LA. In addition, the wear development and the inherent quality of the sheared edges are evaluated.

Figure 1: (a) positive locking versus material locking (schematic illustration); (b) detailed illustration of the composite cast cutting tool

2. CASTING FUNDAMENTALS In composite casting processes, the formation of solid solutions is crucial for the quality of the material locking joint. An improved material locking joint requires a sufficient interpenetration of atoms based on interfacial diffusion. This can be induced if one of the two materials used is kept in a thixotropic or molten state for a certain amount of time. In the process of composite casting, it is generally possible to combine two ironbased alloys (PM steel and cast iron), and the materials may either be connected by positive locking and/or by material locking. The thermal conditions in the compound zone are of great importance for the development of a material locking, as the temperature determines the degree of wettability which in turn affects the quality of the joint. Furthermore, the formation of the characteristic interdiffusion area is dependent on the thermal conditions prevailing [Ileib et al., 1995]. In order to improve the properties of the positive and/or material locking area between a base body made out of PM steel and the recast part out of cast iron, the thermal conditions should preferably be chosen to provide for the temperature along the contact surface to exceed the solidus temperature of one of the materials used (Figure 2a). According to [Ileib et al., 1995], the temperature in the contact area (TCA) and the required time to actually reach this temperature are dependent on the preheating temperature (TP) of the base body and the casting temperature (TC) of the liquefied material. In addition, the ratio between the mass of the molten metal and the surface of the contact area, mM/ACA, as well as the ratio between the mass of the molten metal and the mass of the base body, mM/mB, have a significant influence on the quality of the compound.

Although a higher temperature in the contact area (TCA) can easily be achieved by increasing the casting temperature (TC), the use of this method is restricted. If the casting temperature is too low, casting defects, such as cold shuts are the result, which are induced by an insufficient and inhomogeneous mould filling. In contrast, an exaggeratedly overheated casting temperature requires an increased overcooling effort for the initiation of the nucleation, resulting in an undesired coarse grain structure of the casting. Another possibility of influencing the temperature of the contact area (TCA) is to increase the preheating temperature of the base body (TP). Figure 2b illustrates the development of the melting temperature and the temperature of the base body starting from two different preheating temperatures. It can be seen that the compensating temperature at the contact area increases if the preheating temperature of specimen TCA2 is on a higher level compared to the reduced preheating temperature of specimen TCA1. The higher the ratio between the mass of the molten metal (mM) and the contact area (ACA), the higher is the temperature in the contact area. Also, the more melt is surrounding the contact area, the higher is the heat input into the base body. Furthermore, the higher the weight ratio between the mass of the molten metal (mM) and the specimen (mB), the higher is the compensating temperature in the contact area (TCA). Another important aspect is the material-specific melting temperature. Basically, one may differentiate between the recasting of a low-melting material with a high-melting material and recasting a high-melting material with a low-melting material. According to [Ileib et al., 1995] the latter combination is the preferable alternative as far as the preheating temperature TP of the base body is concerned. This finding is also reflected in the combination of PM steel or cold work steel and cast iron as used in the cutting tool concept presented herewith.

Figure 2: (a) contact area of a composite cast test piece (schematic illustration); (b) adjustment of the compensating temperature of the contact area (according to [Ileib et al., 1995])

3. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS In the first place, in order to analyze the best quality achievable for a compound between high-quality steels and cast iron, the casting fundamentals described prior were investigated in preliminary tests. The identification of decisive casting process parameters was the main objective therein. For this purpose, steel specimens were recast on the face side with molten cast iron, as shown in Figure 3a. As the casting temperature has a significant influence on the compound quality, two different casting temperatures TC were applied for the cast iron in the preliminary tests, namely 1350 C and a slightly overheated casting temperature of 1500 C. The steel grade was varied in order to analyze the influence of the base body material on the quality of the compound. Therefore, in addition to a powder-metallurgical steel (type 1.3344), also a ledeburitic cold working 12 % chrome steel (type 1.2379) was used. In this context, the cold working steel represents a common tool material in sheet metal processing operations and is used for the purpose of comparison. Both materials were used in their original annealed state without further influencing their properties. Additionally, the specimens were varied in their surface structure on the face side (plain, shot-blasted, fluted) in order to analyze their influence on the positive locking joint (Figure 3b). For an evaluation of the positive and/or material locking compound, metallographic tests as well as a very basic tensile test were carried out. The geometry of the tensile test specimen is indicated in Figure 3c, whereas the results of the tests are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3: (a) composite cast specimen; (b) specimen surface modifications; (c) tensile test specimen It can be seen in Figure 4 that the maximum tensile strength achievable in the tests is strongly dependent on the surface structure. The highest value of tensile strength for the specimen with a fluted surface reaches up to 260 N/mm2. In contrast to this, the shotblasted surface experiences a tensile strength in the range of only 170 N/mm2. Test pieces with a plain surface demonstrate characteristic premature failure, reaching comparably low tensile strengths of about 50 N/mm2. With respect to the materials selected for the specimen base body, no significant influence on the quality of the

compound could be observed in the preliminary tests, since the achieved tensile stresses all show similar tendencies. The casting temperature, however, has a considerable influence on the quality of the compound, as it supports the formation of material locking joint. For plain or shot-blasted surfaces a satisfactory compound can only be achieved at increased casting temperatures of about 1500 C. Test pieces with a fluted surface already obtain a sufficient quality of the compound at a lower casting temperature of about 1350 C, which is characterized to a great extent by a positive locking joint and to a minor extent by a material locking joint. The achieved tensile strengths are in the range of 170 N/mm2. At higher casting temperatures, the fraction of areas with a material locking compound increases and the specimens fail at a tensile strength of about 260 N/mm2. In this case, however, the casting material partly represents a limiting factor, as the maximum tensile strength of cast iron lies within 230 - 260 N/mm2.

Figure 4: Influencing factors on the quality of the compound

4. DEMONSTRATOR CUTTING TOOL The results obtained from the preliminary tests were used to design, manufacture and set up demonstrator cutting tools produced by composite casting in order to analyze their quality and prove their general applicability in industrial-scale cutting processes. Figure 1 shows the basic design of the cutting tool consisting of punch and die. For hybrid cutting tools, the area of the cutting edge consists of a cold working steel of type 1.2379 and a powder-metallurgical model of it, which are used as an insert and are recast with a lamellar graphite cast iron (type EN-GJL-250) by the process of sand casting, as shown in Figure 5. The compound between the two different insert materials and the cast iron has to meet two fundamental requirements. Firstly, the compound has to withstand the load impact under cutting process conditions. Secondly, the necessary manufacturing effort to produce a compound of sufficient quality needs to be reduced as much as possible in order to simplify the application of the hybrid cutting tool design to qualify the process for use in industrial processes. The preliminary tests showed that

specimens with shot-blasted surface can be adequately combined with cast iron by positive locking and material locking. Shot-blasting can be considered as a simple method to positively manipulate the contact surface characteristics by inducing compressive strength in the surface. This is beneficial for the joint formation during the casting process. Consequently, the process of shot-blasting was used for the treatment of the cutting bar inserts. As far as the dimensions of the cutting bar inserts are concerned, a compromise had to be made in order to provide a sufficient dimensional contact area as well as to provide a good workability within the manufacturing process. The casting mold was designed in such a manner that punch and die can be manufactured in one process step. In order to obtain comparable casting conditions for the punch and die, they were placed into the mold in parallel order. Furthermore, the sand mold includes an overflow system, which is filled primarily in the casting process. The advantage of such an arrangement is that it improves the quality of the compound by indirectly preheating the cutting bars with the overflowing melt, which thus inducing an increased temperature in the contact area (compare Figure 2b). With this arrangement, the liquefied cast iron overflows the surface of the cutting bars before reaching into the overflow excavation of the mold. The casting temperature was amounted to 1500C.

Figure 5: Composite cast cutting tool - (a) mold part with arranged cutting bars; (b) composite cast raw part with marked cutting tool area; (c) milled and grinded die

Figure 6: (a) main components of the cutting tool; (b) tactile measuring system (schematic illustration)

The shearing operations were performed using a single-active mechanical high-speed stamping press of the type BSTA 800-145 B from Bruderer AG, Frasnacht, Switzerland. The cutting tool is shown in Figure 6a. The sheet materials used in the tests include a micro-alloyed steel of type H320LA (DIN EN 10268) with a sheet thickness of 1.75 mm as well as an AHSS steel grade of type TWIP steel (ultimate tensile strength ca. 1.000 MPa) with a sheet thickness of 1 mm. The sheet width was 50 mm, the initial cutting velocity was in the range of 0.25 m/s and thus comparable to the cutting velocities applied in press shops. The die clearance was amounted to 10 % of the specific sheet thickness. The degree of wear occurring on the cutting edges was determined at different stroke stages, namely at 0, 50.000 and 100.000 strokes, using a tactile measuring system as demonstrated in Figure 6b. Figure 7 and 8 present the wear development on the cutting edge for the tested cutting bar steels. Thereby, the illustrated two-dimensional profiles are representative for the whole cutting edge at the specific number of punch stroke.

Figure 7: Wear development of the cutting edge (PM steel 1.2379)

Figure 8: Wear development of the cutting edge (cold working steel 1.2379)

It can be seen in figure 7 that after 100.000 strokes only an insignificant degree of wear could be measured on the cutting edges. Contrary to this, after 50.00 strokes the cold working steel shows distinct abrasive wear in the case of blanking the TWIP steel grade (Figure 8). In addition, neither could a general failure of punch or die be detected in the compound area, nor could any chip formation be observed along the cutting edge. The characteristic abrasion is due to the high strength of the TWIP steel grade compared to the relatively low strength of the micro-alloyed steel grade from figure 7. However, the achieved degree of wear after 100.000 strokes appears very promising and the potential of the tool concept can be clearly demonstrated, especially considering the simple applied manufacturing method. The general tendency of a reduced wear development is due to the fact that the melt adds heat to the inserts during the casting process, which results in a thermal hardening. This phenomenon could be clearly verified by comparing the hardness of the PM steel cutting bars when still exhibiting their original properties as-delivered to their properties inherent after being recast. The results of tactile measurement of the sheared edge for the H320LA steel grade as well as for the TWIP 1000 steel grade are presented in Figure 9. The diagrams show for each specific test piece, depending on the number of punch strokes, the determined fraction of the rollover, burnish, fracture and burr zone. It can be seen that with increasing number of punch strokes the burr zone increases too. For the H320LA steel the burr zone has a characteristic insignificant formation with fractional values less than 2.5 %.

Figure 9: Determined quality of the sheared edge versus the number of punch strokes

5. CONCLUSION In this work, a novel approach for the design of cutting tools is presented, which is based on the use of a hybrid tool produced by composite casting. Here, a high-quality steel grade, such as cold working steel or powder-metallurgical steel, was used for the cutting bar and recast with cast iron to form the tool body. In preliminary experiments, the casting temperature and the insert surface structure were identified to have a

significant influence on the quality of the material compound, formed either by a positive locking and/or material locking joint. Blanking operations were performed to verify the main functionality of the cutting tools, in which two different sheet materials were used (H320LA, TWIP 1000). The determination of the wear development depending on the number of punch strokes showed only an insignificant modification of the cutting edges. Thus, it was possible to prove the high potential of the process of composite casting for the manufacture of cutting tools, and further analyses of this issue are to follow.

REFERENCES [Carlsson, 2005] Carlsson, B.; Tooling Solutions for Forming and Punching of Ultra High Strength Dual Phase and Martensitic Steels; In: 10th EAEC European Automotive Congress, Paper EAEC05YU-AQ03; Beograd 2005 [Mori et al., 2008] Mori, K.; Saito, S.; Maki, S.; Warm and hot punching of ultra high strength steel sheet; In: Annals of the CIRP - Manufacturing Technology 57(1), pp. 321-324; 2008 [Brecher et al., 2009] Brecher, C.; Emonts, M.; Laseruntersttztes Scherschneiden hochfester Blechwerkstoffe; In: wt Werkstatttechnik online 99(10), pp. 699-706; 2009 [Gram et al., 2008] Gram, M.D.; Wagoner, R.H.; Fineblanking Cutting Force Prediction for High Strength Steels; In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Numerical Simulation of 3D Sheet Metal Forming Processes (Numisheet 2008), pp. 461-464; Interlaken 2008 [Doege, 1999] Doege, E.; Schneidkraftbedarfsermittlung beim Scherschneiden von Feinblechen; In: EFB-Forschungsbericht No. 133; 1999 [Chen et al., 2009] Chen, X.M.; Du, C.; Wu, X.; Zhu, X.; Liu, S.-D.; Sheet metal shearing and edge characterization of dual phase steels; In: Proceedings of the IDDRG 2009 International Conference, pp. 809-823; Golden 2009 [Olsson et al., 2002] Olsson, D.D.; Bay, N.; Andreasen, J.L.; Analysis of Pick-Up Development in Punching; In: Annals of the CIRP - Manufacturing Technology 51/1, pp. 185-190; 2002 [So et al., 2009] So, H.; Hoffmann, H.; Golle, R.; Blanking of press hardened ultra high strength steel; In: 2nd International conference on HOT SHEET METAL FORMING OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE STEEL, CHS2; Sweden 2009 [Hoogen, 1999] Hoogen, M.; Einfluss der Werkzeuggeometrie auf das Scherschneiden und Reien von Aluminiumblechen; In: Dissertation, TU Mnchen; 1999; [Kienzle, 1957] Kienzle, W.; Verschleimerkmale beim Schneiden von Stahlfeinblechen zwischen Stempel und Schnittplatte; In: Dissertation, TH Hannover; 1957 [Ileib et al., 1995] Ileib, A.; Friedel, A.; Lubojanski, I.; Verbundgieen fr Verschleiteile - Stand und Zukunftsaussichten; In: Gieerei-Praxis 7/8, pp. 146150; 1995

Surface topography on trimming dies and the influence of wear

Per Jonsson*, Johan Berglund**, Kenneth Kjellsson*** and B-G Rosn**** * Olofstrm School of Automotive Stamping Vllaregatan 30, SE-293 38, Olofstrm, Sweden **Sandvik Tooling R & D Center Olofstrm , Vllaregatan 30, SE-293 38, Olofstrm, Sweden *** Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Die Development, Volvo Cars, 293 80 Olofstrm, Sweden ****Halmstad University, Functional Surfaces Research Group, Box 823, 301 18 Halmstad, Sweden per.jonsson@iuc-olofstrom.se

Abstract: In this paper it is investigated how surface topography on trimming dies influences the wear process. Surfaces on both semi-industrial test dies and dies used in production were analyzed with different surface topography analysis methods. The result shows that the wear process is different on the different sides of the trimming edge. The texture direction of the surface is changed due to wear, with the strongest change on the clearance side of the edge. The roughness on sheet side of the edge is reduced due to a hammering effect from the sheet material. The result on the test dies and the production dies correlates well. Keywords: trimming dies, wear, surface roughness, scale-sensitive fractal analysis 1 INTRODUCTION

An increasing number of car models are introduced on the market, the life cycle has decreased from 7 to 5 years and the volume sizes are becoming smaller. Thus, less number of products must be able to cover the costs of the tool and die manufacturing. The consequence is a need for manufacturing with reduced cost and lead time. When manufacturing cost effective tools, it is important that the tools fulfill the needed requirements set by the expected production volume scenarios, sheet material quality (Mild steel to High Strength Steel) and thickness. These requirements affect the choice of tool material, hardening methods as well as the needed surface topography on the dies. It is also important to relate the manufacturing methods to the lead time. With all these variables in control, cost and lead time reducing guidelines can be stated. Previously, several investigations have been made on FEM simulation of the punching and trimming process. The results have been focused on both the geometry of the cut part, and on the wear of the punch and die. Wear simulations have mainly been done on circular punches [Hambli, 2001] and [Stenberg et al, 2008]. In these studies the

punching process was simulated as a rotation symmetric process, since the punch is circular with a relatively small diameter. The trimming process does not have the same geometrical properties. Therefore the wear process of the tools is not believed to be exactly similar. The wear was simulated using constant friction coefficients with no correlation to the surface topography. In the literature there is a lack of information on how different surface topographies on trimming dies affect the wear properties. The investigation in this paper is part of a larger investigation where the final goal is to establish guidelines for how the surface topography on trimming dies should be selected and manufactured. This paper focuses on how the surface topography on trimming dies influences on the wear process 2 MATERIALS

Data about the investigated trimming dies is tabulated in Table I. The two semiindustrial test tools evaluated will be refereed to as Calmax and Fermo test tools throughout this paper. The two industrial production dies used in this investigation will be refereed to as Prod die 1 and Prod die 2. Further information about the semi-industrial testing procedure is found in [Jonsson et al, 2008]. For both the semi-industrial dies and the industrial production dies the burr height on the produced parts were well below critical values, this can also be translated to that the level of wear on the tools were relatively low. The surfaces on the semi-industrial testing dies were all manufactured using a surface grinding machine, all of the unworn surfaces of the test dies had therefore a similar initial surface. The manufacturing process for Prod die 1 was surface grinding on the sheet side and wire EDM on the clearance side. Prod die 2 was manufactured by CNC milling combined with manual grinding/stoning/polishing.
Table I, Material data for investigated trimming dies
Material data for the investigated trimming dies
Tool materials Test tool Calmax (wrought steel) Fermo (cast steel) Fermo Calmax Prod die 1 (wrought steel) ICD-5 Prod die 2 (wrought steel) Calmax SIS Wr.nr Hardening Sheet material Docol 600DP (EHSS) Docol 800DP (UHSS) H430 LSA (EHSS) HX 220 YD (MS) Thickness [mm] 2,0 2,0 2,0 0,8 number of strokes 100 000 150 000 200 000 80 000

clearance 12% 12%

2248 1.7140 Laser hardened 2248 1.2358 Laser hardened 2248 1.7140 Trough hardened Flame hardened

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The surface topography on both dies used in semi-industrial testing and industrial production dies were measured and evaluated. Figure 1 gives a principal description of a trimming die with the nomenclature used in this paper. The sheet material is clamped between the lower trimming die and the spring pad. The scrap piece is cut from the part by the moving upper trimming die. Four different surfaces are investigated in this paper: the sheet side and the clearance side of both the upper and lower trimming edge. The

sheet side is the surface that meets the surface of the sheet material. The clearance side is the surface on the trimming edge between the upper and lower dies, these surfaces interact with the cut surface on the part and on the scrap piece.
Upper trimming die Sheet side

Part

Spring pad

Lower trimming die Scrap piece Clearance side

Figure 1, Principal description of trimming edges and the different surfaces

3.1 Surface measurement method Surfaces on semi-industrial test tools have been measured in a WYKO RST Plus White Light Interferometer. Surface roughness parameters were calculated from measurements made at 10x magnification. 2,5x magnification was used for the 3D visualization of surfaces. The profile measurements were made with a Somicronic Surfascan 3CS3 mechanical stylus, the measuring method is further described in [Jonsson et al, 2008]. Surfaces on production dies were first replicated using Heraeus Provil novo Light, then measured in WYKO RST Plus White Light Interferometer at 10x magnification. For this replica technique, average height parameters such as Sa and Sq deviate 0-10% from the real surface at this level of magnification. However, peak and valley sensitive parameters such as Sz, Sp and Sv deviate significantly more [Berglund et al., 2008]. These parameters are therefore not calculated for the replicated surfaces. 3.2 Surface analysis methods Surface roughness parameters and texture direction were calculated using Mountainsmap premium 5.1.1. The measured surfaces (577x428m) were cropped to 548x281m (700x310 points) to assure that a correct section of the measurement was analyzed (the selected surface begins approximately 20m from the trimming edge). The cropped surface was leveled using least square plane. 3D surface roughness parameters were calculated according to ISO/DIS 25178. Presented surface parameters are presented as mean values from 3 measurements with 95% confidence intervals. To facilitate characterization of the surfaces in several scales, the multi-scale method scale-sensitive fractal analysis, with the parameter relative area, was used [ASME B46.1]. Multi-scale methods are based on the principle that the apparent area of a rough surface depends on the scale of observation. The software Sfrax (www.surfract.com) was used for this analysis. Relative area is calculated using a tiling algorithm where the topography of the surface measurement is modeled using triangular tiles. At each scale all tiles have the same area. The relative area at each scale is the

calculated area at that scale divided by the nominal area. The calculated area at each scale is found by multiplying the number of tiles by the area of the tile at that scale. The area of the tile is also used to represent the scale [ASME B46.1]. In the present study, relative area was calculated at 433 scales for each surface measurement. For each evaluated surface, a mean relative area was calculated from 3 measurements at every scale (Figure 5). The change in relative area as an effect of wear was calculated as the difference in relative area at each scale between an unworn reference surface and the worn surface (Figure 6). A positive change, e.g. 5%, means an increase of the relative area of 5% at that particular scale. All mean values are presented with 95% confidence intervals. 4 RESULTS

Profile measurements of a worn and unworn upper trimming edge are presented in Figure 2. The edge radius was 80m on the new trimming die. It is visible that the geometry has changed on both the clearance and the sheet side of the edge. The material loss is largest on the clearance side. This together with the fact that this side is exposed to the larger relative (die/sheet) sliding distance [Hambli, 2001] indicates that this side is exposed to the highest amount of wear. The result is similar on the lower die.
P ro file measurement, Upper die Calmax Unwo rn 3400 Wo rn

Clearance side Sheet side

3200 [m] 3000

Cutting direction
2800

2600 2500 3000 3500 [m] 4000

Figure 2, Profile measurement of an upper trimming edge, Calmax.

4.1 Surfaces and texture direction on semi-industrial dies Four different surfaces from a used test die (Fermo) are presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Texture direction for a new (unused) surface and a worn surface is presented in rosette plots together with a 3D view of the surface (2,5x). In every figure, the height scale is fixed (0-15m) and the trimming edge is the lower left side of the sample. The results indicate that the texture direction has changed. The lay parallel to the trimming edge from the manufacturing process (surface grinding) have changed to a texture perpendicular to the trimming edge due to wear. This change is visually strongest on the clearance side of the upper die (Figure 3 left), also the clearance side of the lower die has a relatively strong change in texture direction. The length of this worn area is about 0,8 mm, somewhat longer compared to the measured shearzone on the part

[Jonsson et al, 2008]. The worn part of the sheet side on the lower die has the least strong texture direction. This result correlates well to Figure 2, and indicates that wear is largest on the clearance side. The result is similar on Calmax test dies.
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
100 90 80 110 70 120 60 130 50 140 40 150 30 160 20 170 180 10 0

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

90 80 100 90 80 70 110 70 60 120 60 50 130 50 40 140 40 30 150 30 20 160 20 10 170 10 0 180 0

Isotropy 17,5% First direction 90

Isotropy 2,5% First direction 7

Isotropy 27% First direction 90

m 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Isotropy 9,9% First direction 0,3

Worn

Unworn Worn

Unworn

m 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 3, 3D surface measurement of an upper trimming die. Edge is to the left in each figure, 2,5x. Left: Clearance side. Right: Sheets side.
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 90 80 100 90 80 100 90 80 70 110 70 110 70 100 90 80 60 120 60 120 60 110 70 120 60 50 130 50 130 50 130 50 140 40 40 140 40 140 40 150 30 150 30 30 150 30 20 160 20 160 20 160 20 10 170 10 10 170 170 10 0 180 0 0 180 180 0

Isotropy 8,5% First direction 90

Isotropy 3,5% First direction 0,2

m 15

Isotropy 32,9% First direction 90

Isotropy 4,1% First direction 178

Worn

Unworn

Worn

14 13 12

Unworn

m 15 14 13

11
12

10
11

9 8 7 6 5 4 3

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

2
2

1
1

Figure 4, 3D surface measurement of a lower trimming die. Edge is to the left in each figure, 2,5x. Left: Clearance side. Right: Sheets side.

4.2 Surface height parameters on semi-industrial dies Surface roughness parameters for Calmax and Fermo test tools are presented in Table II and Table III. There is only one unworn surface presented in each table since the unworn surfaces were similar for all four sides (same manufacturing method). For both

tool sets, the clearance side of the upper edge has the highest roughness values, this side is exposed to the largest amount of wear. The sheet side of the lower edge has the lowest values, even lower than the unused surface.
Table II, Height parameters for Calmax trimming tools, 95% conf. int.
Height Parameters, Calmax (ISO 25178) 14,00

9,00

4,00

-1,00
Upper, clearance Upper, sheet Lo wer, clearance Lo wer, sheet unused

Sq [m] 1 ,54 0,98 0,90 0,86 0,81

Ssk -0,24 -0,65 -0,53 -0,31 -0,72

Sku 3,56 3,34 3,43 2,26 3,96

Sp [m] 5,98 2,29 2,99 2,29 2,82

Sv [m] 7,22 4,41 4,27 3,07 4,23

Sz [m] 1 3,21 6,70 7,27 5,36 7,05

Sa [m] 1 ,20 0,79 0,71 0,73 0,63

Table III, Height parameters for Fermo trimming tools, 95% conf. int.
Height Parameters, Fermo (ISO 25178) 14,00

9,00

4,00

-1,00
Upper, clearance Upper, sheet Lo wer, clearance Lo wer , sheet unused

Sq [m] 1 ,60 0,57 0,78 0,52 11 ,1

Ssk -0,49 -0,1 9 -0,36 -0,52 -0,69

Sku 3,56 3,84 3,05 3,48 4,41

Sp [m] 5,53 3,90 2,27 1 ,59 4,46

Sv [m] 6,79 3,25 3,50 3,1 2 4,90

Sz [m] 1 2,32 7,1 4 5,77 4,70 9,36

Sa [m] 1 ,25 0,45 0,62 0,41 0,83

4.3 Scale-sensitive fractal analysis of surfaces on testing tools Figure 5 shows relative area calculations of the surfaces on Calmax and Fermo test dies. The relative area is highest for the clearance side of the upper die. The sheet side of the lower die has the lowest relative area, lower than the unworn surface. This result correlates well with the calculated height parameters. The difference in relative area occurs on area scales below 103 m2, this corresponds to a length scale of approximately 45m.

Calmax
1,12 1,10 1,08 Rel. Area 1,06 1,04 1,02 1,00 0,98 0,1 10 1000 Scale (m2) 100000 upper sheet low er sheet upper clearance low er clearance unused 1,12 1,10 1,08 Rel. Area 1,06 1,04 1,02 1,00 0,98 0,1

Fermo
upper sheet low er sheet upper clearance low er clearance unused

10 1000 Scale (m2)

100000

Figure 5, Relative area for: left: Calmax, right: Fermo tool material.
Calmax, clearance
12% 10% Diff. Rel. Area Diff. Rel. Area 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% -2% 0,1 10 1000 Scale (m2) 100000 upper low er

Fermo, clearance
12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% -2% 0,1 10 1000 Scale (m2)

upper low er

100000

Figure 6, Change in relative area relative to the manufactured (new) surface. Left: Fermo tool material. Right: Calmax tool material

Figure 6 shows results from calculations of the change in relative area for the clearance side of the upper and lower trimming edge. The worn surface close to the trimming edge is compared to the new unused surface. The clearance side of the upper trimming edge has a larger change in relative area, compared to the clearance side of the lower trimming edge, this is valid for both Fermo and Calmax testing tools.

4.4 Worn tool surfaces on production dies Figure 7 shows 3D surface measurements and texture direction of the clearance side on the upper trimming die at 10x magnification from Prod die 2. The texture direction has changed due to wear from the cut edge of the sheet material, similar to the result seen on the test dies. When the sheet side of the same trimming edge was evaluated, no major change of the surface was seen.

Isotropy 16,8% First direction 16,6

100 90 80 110 70 120 60 130 50 140 40 150 30 160 20 170 10 180 0

m 15 14 13 12 11

100 90 80 110 70 120 60 130 50 140 40 150 30 160 20 170 10 180 0

Isotropy 33,2% First direction 81,6

m 15 14

Unworn

Worn

13 12 11

10

10
9

9
8

8
7

7
6

6
5

5
4

4
3 2 1 0

3 2 1 0

Figure 7, Production die 2, upper tool, clearance side, magnification 10x. Left: Unused surface. Right: Worn surface

In Figure 8, a surface measurement from the clearance side of the lower die is visible. The trimming edge is to the left in the figure. The manufacturing process (milling) has left waviness on the surface. This waviness is still clearly visible on the worn surface. The topography direction has changed, close to the trimming edge it is perpendicular to the edge, and the main direction of lay on the unworn surface is 17.
100 90 80 100 90 80 110 70 110 70 120 60 120 60 130 50 130 50 140 40 140 40 30 150 30 150 20 160 20 160 170 10 170 10 0 180 0180 m
15

Isotropy 20,2% First direction 93

Isotropy 7,8% First direction 0,3

Worn

Unworn

14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 8. 3D measurement of the lower die, clearance side. Prod die 2, 2,5x Table IV. Height parameters for Prod die 1 Height parameters Prod die 1
Sq [m] avg clearance side, unused upper die clearance side, used sheet side, unused sheet side, used clearance side, unused lower die clearance side, used sheet side, unused sheet side, used 1,56 0,93 0,82 0,95 1,80 1,41 1,03 1,61 conf 95% () 0,17 0,05 0,17 0,38 0,40 0,19 0,12 0,02 Ssk avg -0,49 -1,32 -0,70 -1,33 0,08 -0,91 -0,51 -0,49 conf 95% () 0,27 0,48 0,11 0,90 0,30 0,17 0,46 0,34 Sku avg 3,12 7,07 3,59 7,70 2,86 4,08 3,46 4,77 conf 95% () 0,45 2,08 0,31 1,03 0,34 0,01 0,78 2,28 Sa [m] avg 1,25 0,67 0,65 0,65 1,45 1,09 0,82 1,28 conf 95% () 0,14 0,03 0,14 0,22 0,33 0,15 0,09 0,05

Height parameters for Prod die 1 and Prod die 2 are tabulated in Table IV and Table V. Since the manufacturing process was different for all four surfaces on each die, values from the worn and unworn surface were calculated for each surface. For the sheet side on Prod die 2 there is no major change in height parameters, no major change could be visualized when studying the 3D surface measurements visually, and there was no major change in texture direction.
Table V, Height parameters for Prod die 1 Height parameters Prod die 2
Sq [m] avg clearance side, unused upper die clearance side, used sheet side, unused sheet side, used clearance side, unused lower die clearance side, used sheet side, unused sheet side, used 2,27 1,03 2,51 2,59 1,27 0,50 0,88 1,17 conf 95% () 0,32 0,20 0,78 0,51 0,30 0,24 0,10 0,60 Ssk avg -0,52 -0,98 -0,29 -1,03 -0,80 -0,16 -0,95 -1,35 conf 95% () 0,36 0,70 0,08 0,30 0,06 0,57 0,44 0,57 Sku avg 3,30 5,07 2,52 3,75 3,45 4,58 4,91 6,35 conf 95% () 1,22 2,74 0,62 0,76 1,02 1,98 0,86 3,03 Sa [m] avg 1,82 0,80 2,08 2,01 1,01 0,40 0,66 0,89 conf 95% () 0,32 0,12 0,74 0,42 0,26 0,19 0,06 0,50

For the clearance side of both the upper and lower die on both Prod die 1 and Prod die 2, the unworn surface was relatively rough compared to the test dies. The surface roughness is reduced when worn. 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The results presented in this paper indicate that the wear process is different on the different surfaces of a trimming die, there is a difference between the wear on the clearance side and the sheet side of the edge. Simulation results from [Rafiee R. et al, 2008] and [Hambli, 2001] indicates that the sheet side in close vicinity of the trimming edge of both the upper and lower trimming die is exposed to relatively high normal forces. The size of this area is likely to depend on sheet material quality and thickness. However the normal force is higher on the clearance side, with the highest values on the upper die. The simulation results also indicate that the relative (die/sheet) sliding distance has a maximum on the radius of the trimming edge and is decreasing along the clearance side of the die. This result is consistent with the results presented in this paper. The clearance side has the larger change in surface topography and texture direction due to wear from friction between the die and sheet. The sheet side of the die does not have the same relative sliding, therefore the wear is low. However the surface have been exposed to a hammering and flattening process making the surface less rough, the Sq value changed from 1,1m to 0,5m in Fermo test die, this is mainly visible on the sheet side, close to the trimming edge on the lower die as seen in Figure 4, right. When comparing the surface topography of the test dies to the production dies, there are both similarities and differences. The texture direction on the clearance side has changed in a similar way on all tools, from parallel to the edge to perpendicular, as a result due to abrasive wear from the cut edge on the produced part and the scrap piece.

When the sheet side of Prod die 2 was analyzed, no major change of the surface was seen. This is believed to depend on a low amount of cut parts and a relatively low quality of the sheet material cut in this tool (Mild steel, t= 0,8mm). The force on the die is simply to low to plastically deform the surface. When visually inspecting the sheet side of Prod die 1 there was a difference between the worn and unworn surface, this difference could not be explained with surface height parameters. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This investigation is part of the industrial research project OPTIDIES, financed both by VINNOVA and the participating companies.

REFERENCES [Hambli, 2001] Hambli R.; Blanking tool wear modelling using the finite element method. In: International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol. 41(12):pp. 18151829; (2001) [Stenberg et al, 2008] Stenberg, N., Melander, A.. "Modeling the circular blanking process including tool wear"; In: Proceedings of IDDRG 2008 International Conference; Olofstrm (2008) [Jonsson et al, 2008] Jonsson, P., Kjellsson, K., Stenberg, N, Wiklund D.; Laser hardened trimming tools; wear test and tool geometry evaluation; In: Proceedings of IDDRG 2008 International Conference, pp 639-650; Olofstrm (2008) [Berglund et al., 2008] Berglund J., Jonsson P., Rebeggiani S., Rosn B.-G.: "Measuring strategies for smooth tool steel surfaces"; In: Proceedings of the XII. International Colloquium on Surfaces, pp. 110-119; (2008). [ASME B46.1] US National Standard ASME B46.1, "Surface Texture (Surface Roughness, Waviness, and Lay)"; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York (2002) [Rafiee R. et al, 2008] Rafiee, R., Rolfe, B. Yan, W.. "Simulation of contact pressure in Sheet Metal Trimming/ Blanking process"; In: Advance Materials Research, vols. 41-41, pp 463-468; (2008)

Hard cutting of tailored hardened 22MnB5

Till Laumann*, Ingrid Picas**, Marc Gran**, Daniel Casellas**, M. Dolores Riera**and Isaac Valls* * Rovalma S.A., Hrcules 49, Can Parellada, 08228 Terrassa, Spain ** CTM Centre Tecnolgic, Av. Bases de Manresa 1, 08242 Manresa, Spain tlaumann@rovalma.com, ingrid.picas@ctm.com.es, marc.grane@ctm.com.es, daniel.casellas@ctm.com.es, md.riera@ctm.com.es, isaac@rovalma.com

Abstract: In the present work, the feasibility of creating low strength zones in flanges of tailored hardened 22MnB5 is evaluated by means of the combining high and low thermal conductivity tool materials. Finite Element (FE) simulations are performed in order to determine the temperature distribution in sheets when different tool materials and cooling strategies are applied. In addition, the feasibility of reducing the stress acting on tools during hard cutting of 22MnB5 steels is assessed in case of punching fully and partially hardened materials. Keywords: cutting, tailored tool, strength, thermal conductivity

1. INTRODUCTION In the last few years, the automotive industry has been focused on the development of an innovative sustainable vehicle design, allowing reducing CO2 emissions and increasing the energy efficiency in all phases of vehicles life cycles. Accordingly, the application of Ultra High Strength Steels (UHSS) in structural vehicle components has enabled to satisfy the increasing demands towards vehicle safety and weight reduction. However, cold forming of UHSS shows difficulties primarily due to the high elastic recovery of strains (springback) and the high loads acting on tools, which decrease considerably their performance. Thus, hot sheet metal stamping of 22MnB5 steel is strongly emerging as a promising technology to overcome such awkward limitations. Structural components of complex shapes and extremely high strength levels (1500 MPa) can be manufactured by combining a high work piece temperature and a rapid quenching in the die. In addition, functionally graded components can be produced by means of a good combination of high and low thermal conductivity tool materials, enabling to control sheet microstructures and mechanical properties to full-fill different requirements in a unique finished part. Ulterior hard cutting and/or punching operations of fully hardened 22MnB5 are nevertheless, challenging processes for the automotive industry due to the high strength level of this steel. Laser cutting is often the only technique enabling to perform these operations, despite this is quite expensive and rather time consuming. In order to

increase the process efficiency with economic and functional criteria, press cutting is aimed at being used due to its higher competitiveness. A smart design of the hot forming tooling may turn out to be the most feasible strategy to enable such operations. Thus, low thermal conductivity tool materials can be applied to produce low strength microstructures in flanges or areas aimed at being cut.

2. HARD CUTTING OF FULLY HARDENED 22MNB5 IN COMPARISON TO PARTIALLY HARDENED 22MNB5 MATERIAL [Picas et al., 2008] evaluated the tooling performance in hard cutting of fully hardened 22MnB5 steel. Von Mises stresses in tools were determined by means of FE simulation, and they were found to be above 2500 MPa, as shown in figure 1. Tool steels obtained by Powder Metallurgy (PM) were compared in order to assess the best strategy to overcome such a high mechanical solicitations generated in tools. A set of tools was brought up to high hardness levels (63 - 64 HRc) so that it showed good wear resistance. Another set was used at 59 - 60 HRc so that it showed higher fracture toughness. As illustrated in figure 2 a), after 5000 strokes tools with high hardness were completely fractured. Although tools with lower hardness showed a better behaviour against fracture, cutting edges became worn and rounded already at low number of cycles, as illustrated in figure 2 b).

Figure 1; Maximal von Mises stresses at each node during one stroke of the cutting operation

a)

b)

200 m

200 m

Figure 2; Damage in the cutting edge of the same punch after 5000 strokes for a) the highest hardness tools and b) the lowest hardness tools In fact, in cold cutting fully hardened 22MnB5 material, not only tool steel selection must be optimized, but also tools must be robustly built, and cutting angles and clearances must be very well adjusted. Slight bank movements in the moment of the cut locally increase the stress on the tool due to clearance maladjustments and poor die cleanliness leads to material build-up near the cutting edge. Since nominal loads are already extremely elevated, minimal stress intensifications can lead to premature failure. In front of these difficulties, mechanical solicitations in cutting tools can be significantly decreased by a smart combination of high and low thermal conductivity tool steels during hot stamping. In this sense, [Picas et al., 2009] carried out punching tests on fully and partially hardened 22MnB5 steel. Accordingly, the fully hardened material was formed during quenching under high cooling rates and showed a bainite martensite microstructure with small presence of ferrite and a tensile strength of about 1500 MPa. The partially hardened material was obtained in flanges were low heat extraction rates were applied and as a consequence, the microstructure consisted in a lower bainitic structure with some plates of upper bainite and high content of ferrite. The tensile strength was close to the 800 MPa. Punching tests results are shown in figure 3 for different clearances, from 5 to 21 % of the sheet thickness (1.9 mm). A 42 - 44 % reduction in punch maximal loads was obtained in the partially hardened material in comparison to the totally hardened. As a consequence, the stresses generated in the punch also decreased in such a remarkable manner, the maximal von Mises stress values went from 2900 in case of the totally hardened to 1700 MPa in the partially hardened, as illustrated in figure 4. Thus, after these results the reduction of the mechanical solicitations acting on cutting tools seems plausible to be attained using partially hardened 22MnB5 material, showing softer microstructures formed through the application of low heat extraction rates during the hot stamping process.

60 50 40

60

60

5%
Load, kN

50 40 30 20

8%
Load, kN

11 %
50 40 30 20 10 0 0,7 0,0

Load, kN

Higher strength Totally hardened Lower strength

0,3 0,4 0,5

30 20 10 0 0,0

Partially hardened
0,1 0,2 0,6

10 0 0,7 0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

Displacement, mm
60 50

Displacement, mm
60 50

Displacement, mm

Load, kN

Load, kN

40 30 20 10 0 0,0

16 %

40 30 20 10

21 %

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0 0,7 0,0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,7

Displacement, mm

Displacement, mm

Figure 3; Load displacement diagrams of punching tests

Figure 4; Von Mises stress distribution in the punch. a) Totally hardened 22MnB5 and b) partially hardened 22MnB5

3. PRODUCTION OF 22MNB5 SHEETS WITH GRADED MECHANICAL PROPERTIES BY MEANS OF DIFFERENT HEAT EXTRACTIONS The mechanical properties of the 22MnB5 hot formable material can be altered and adapted to the specific demands of each component by different approaches. As the microstructure and the resulting properties are strongly correlated to the heat treatment,

the mechanical properties in a component can for instance be altered by locally different extraction rates during quenching or different annealing or subsequent tempering strategies. Within this work a strategy is proposed to functionally adapt the mechanical properties of the desired part by quenching the austenized 22MnB5 steel in a tool consisting of zones having different thermal conductivities and thus different heat extraction rates. Therefore various materials were developed providing thermal conductivities in the range of 5 up to 70 W/mK, while common tool steel grades show thermal conductivities in a comparatively small range of just 24 up to 29 W/mK. Assuming a sufficient contact pressure between the sheet and the tool during the quenching process the microstructure and thus the mechanical properties can be altered according to the thermal conductivities applied in desired zones of the components. Generally high extraction rates in zones of high thermal conductivity result in a hard and martensitic microstructure, whereas low extraction rates in zones of reduced thermal conductivity result in softer ferritic and bainitic microstructures. Assuming a sufficient pressure and good contact between the tool and the sheet to be formed the cooling rate is mainly given by the thermal conductivity of the tool steel and the cooling system. The combination of materials with different thermal conductivities allows producing components with graded mechanical properties and a sharp transition zone. This approach involves no additional process steps like selective annealing or tempering and is thus very promising concerning functional and economical aspects. To evaluate the influence of different thermal conductivities on the temperature distribution, simulations of tools built of three different segments were performed, see figure 5. All tool set-ups have the objective to produce components with soft flanges to ease subsequent steps like hard cutting for instance, a maximum strength in the middle part and a preferably small transition zone of the mechanical properties. While the central part is equipped with a water cooling system to guarantee maximum extraction rates and high strength levels, the outer segments have a low thermal conductivity to retard the cooling of the sheet and enable reduced strength levels. The properties of the cooling system are the same for each configuration. Beside the widely-used DIN 1.2367 tool steel with a thermal conductivity of approximately 27 W/mK different high and low thermal conductivity materials from Rovalma were investigated within the simulations. The HTCS 130WU has a thermal conductivity of 57 W/mK, the GTCS550 11 W/mK and the GTCS550-K160, see figure 5. The application of high thermal conductivity steel grades in the central part has different advantages in comparison to the DIN 1.2367. The total cycle time which is necessary to cool down the part below the martensitic start temperature with a sufficient high cooling rate - in order to achieve a fully martensitic structure - can be reduced from 22 seconds to 11 seconds. Another benefit of the high thermal conductivity and thus of the reduced cycle time is a sharp transition zone between the segments and a higher temperature in the flange areas, which is essential for producing zones with a reduced strength level. Comparing case a) and b) of figure 5, this means tool set-ups with GTCS550 in the outer segments for both cases, a big difference of the surface

temperature, 320C (case a)) compared to 460C (case b)), is visible due to the reduced cycle time in case that HTCS 130WU is used for the central segment.

a)

b)

c)

Figure 5; Temperature distribution and evolution of different tool set-ups: a) 1.2367 + GTCS55 b) HTCS 130 WU + GTCS550 c) HTCS 130WU + GTCS-K160

Try-out tests were performed to evaluate the mechanical properties of the 22MnB5 being quenched with the parameters following the results of the simulations. In each case stripes of the austenized 22MnB5 were quenched between two blocks of GTCS550 and GTCS-K160 respectively, which were preheated to the required surface temperature. The parameters for each set-up and the results of the tensile tests are displayed in table 1.
Flange material: GTCS-550 GTCS-550 GTCS-K160 flange temperature [C] 320 460 660 holding time [s] 12 4 4 Rp0,2 [MPa] 970 579 391 Rm [MPa] 1177 719 635 A25 [%] 10,48 21,4

a) b) c)

Table 1; Mechanical properties of the 22MnB5 after being cooled down from austenizing temperature depending on the different set-ups As expected a significant loss of strength and an increase of elongation can be detected in direction of higher surface temperatures and reduced holding times. Further on the comparison of case a) and b) reveals that the use of low thermal conductivity material is especially advantageous in combination with high thermal conductivity material, as the total cycle time can be reduced and thus the surface temperature in the flange areas be increased. Comparing a holding time of four respectively twelve seconds and usage of GTCS-K550 material in both cases, a difference in ultimate tensile strength of 458 MPa can be detected, see table 1.

4. CONCLUSION The use of segments with different thermal conductivities combined in one tool allows producing tailored hardened 22MnB5 components with a wide range of properties. In comparison to the fully martensitic microstructure a reduction of the strength levels well below 50% is possible even if the holding time is only four seconds. The combination of low thermal conductivity materials for zones of reduced strength levels and high thermal conductivity materials for zones of maximum resistance is very advantageous, as a holding time of four seconds is sufficient to achieve the desired mechanical properties in the component. Further on the simulations display a sharp transition between zones of high and low thermal conductivity. Zones of reduced strength are advantageous for a number of applications as well as for subsequent processing steps like hard cutting for instance. Hard cutting of fully martensitic and 1.9 mm thick 22MnB5 is adherent to stress levels of more than 2500 MPa. To some extent it is possible to tackle the high loads and to avoid premature failure of the tool by employing specially designed tool materials. Further more the cutting loads can significantly be reduced if the strength of the respective zones in the

blank can be decreased. Experimental punching tests as well as simulations display a markedly decline of punch loads and stresses in the soft zones of the sheet.

REFERENCES

[Picas et al., 2008] Picas, I.; Hernndez, R.; Casellas, D.; Casas, B.; Valls, I.; "Tool performance in cutting hot stamped steels"; In: Proc of the Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance Steel, pp.179-189; Kassel 2008; ISBN 978-3937057-18-7 [Picas et al., 2009] Picas, I.; Hernndez, R.; Casellas, D.; Valls, I.; "Cold cutting of microstructurally tailored hot formed components"; In: Proc of the Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance Steel, pp.115-126; Lule 2009; ISBN 978-3937524-84-9

Formability improvement with independent die and punch temperature control

Reza Bagheriasl, Kamyar Ghavam, Michael Worswick University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo ON Canada N2L 3G1 rbagheri@uwaterloo.ca

Abstract: A combined experimental and numerical study of the effects of die and punch temperature on the formability of a long-life 3000 series aluminum alloy sheets for a case study sample is performed. An experimental forming setup that incorporates both heated dies and a cooled punch has been developed. A parametric study of the effects of die temperature, punch temperature, and blank holder force on formability of the part was performed. Numerical simulations of the warm forming process were performed using a coupled thermo-mechanical FEA model. The temperature-dependant material model used Bergstrom hardening rule and Von-Mises yield function and was implemented in LS-DYNA as a UMAT (user defined material model). Selected experimental cases were modelled numerically and compared to experiments. The FEA model was validated against experimental results by comparing punch force versus displacement. A simplified failure criterion was used to determine both the location and failure depth for the numerical models. Keywords: Warm forming, Bergstrom hardening rule, formability

1. INTRODUCTION The application of lightweight structures in the aerospace and automotive industries is an important approach of improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions. Aluminum alloys are considered suitable replacement for mild steel structures because of their low density, comparable strength, and stiffness to reduce weight. However forming of aluminum alloy sheets with the conventional forming technologies into desired complex shapes is very difficult and not cost-effective. The reason is that the formability of these alloys at cold conditions is very limited. Warm forming has been widely used to improve the formability of aluminum alloy sheets. The most important advantage of warm forming is that the forming strain limits at the elevated temperatures are increased significantly therefore complex geometries could be achieved by this method. The challenge for process design is the complexity and interaction of mechanical and thermal effects on process. Recently the warm forming process has been considered to improve the formability by applying an elevated forming temperature lower than the re-crystallization temperature

(Tebbe and Kridli, 2004). Warm forming was studied for many years, e.g. in the 1970s and 1980s by Shehata et al. (1978) and Wilson (1988). Shehata et al. (1978) showed that the warm forming improves the formability of AA-5082 and AA-5005 because the strain hardening of these alloys increases at the elevated temperatures. Schmoeckel (1994) and Schmoeckel et al. (1995) studied the drawability of 5XXX series alloys at the elevated temperatures. Temperature has been identified to have a significant influence on the stamping process. Further investigation on warm forming showed that the formability with a partial heating in the holder or die area has much better effect on formability than the uniformly heated tools (Schmoeckel, 1994). Li and Gosh (2003) have shown that warm forming can considerably improve the formability of aluminum alloy sheets. Naka and Yashida (1999) studied deep drawing with different die temperatures and a water cooled punch. Van Den Boogaard and Huetink (2006) studied the cylindrical cup deep drawing at different gradient of temperatures and observed that the formability of the AlMg alloy sheets can be improved by increasing the temperature in some parts of the sheet and cooling the other parts. Finite element analysis (FEA) is an important tool for part and tooling design. By reducing the amount of trial-and-error required, product design can be achieved faster. The finite element models, however, must be accurate and confidence in their suitability for the specific forming process must be verified. Finite element method (FEM) is considered an important tool to reduce the trial-and-error process in designing the part and the tooling. The finite element models, however, must be accurate and confidence in their suitability for the specific forming process must be verified. A temperaturedependant material model based on Von-Mises yield function and Bergstom hardening rule was implemented in LS-DYNA. The current research focuses on the effect of independent die and punch temperature control on formability of a heat exchanger core plate. The goal is to maximize the formability of the material and to form the part without failure or necking.

2. EXPERIMENT SETUP Forming of coreplates were performed using a specially designed toolset, shown in Figure 1, which has a heated die and blank holder as well as a cooled punch. The punch and die entry radii are both 2.36 mm. The die and blank holder temperatures can be set between 25C and 300C using PID controllers with thermocouple feedback loops. The punch can be cooled using a chilled water supply to approximately 14C. The tooling can accommodate the maximum punch speed of 40 mm/s. The experimental variables are summarized in Table I. The warm forming tooling was mounted in a double-acting hydraulic press at the University of Waterloo as shown in Figure 1 (left image). The experimental setup is controlled by a Labview program that records punch and blank holder force, punch velocity, tooling temperatures, and optionally blank center temperature.

The forming process starts by placing the blank on the previously heated die. The blanks are cleaned thoroughly and a siloxane emulsion lubricant is applied. The clamp is closed and then punch advances and pushes the blank to the depth of 1 mm. This is to ensure that the surfaces are in contact and the heat is transferred between the die, punch and blank. The tooling is held at this position for 30 seconds to allow the temperature of blank and dies to equalize. Finally the punch is moved to form the part completely with or without failure.

Figure 1; Left: Servo-hydraulic press at the University of Waterloo, right: Close up view of warm deep drawing die, blank holder, and punch.

Table I; Forming process variables

Variable Dieandblankholdertemperature Punchtemperature Blankholderforce Bubbledepth PunchSpeed Friction(Lubricant) Range 25Cto300C 14C 250Lbfto1000Lbf 1to7mm 4,8mm/s DascoCast1200

2.1 Formability To study the effect of temperature gradient on formability of the part twelve different configurations of three levels of die temperature, two levels of clamping force and two levels of punch speed have been tested. Each configuration has been repeated three times to evaluate the repeatability and reliability of experiments. A maximum punch travel of 5 mm is used for all twelve configurations. All experiments have been performed using Dasco Cast as lubricant. No important difference is observed between two levels of punch speed which means that the material is not very strain ratedependant at the range of current experiment. The results regarding punch speed of 8mm/s are summarized in Table II.

Table II: Summary of experimental results for 8mm/s punch speed and total draw depth of 5 mm
BHF Room temp Failure 250 C Failure 300C Draw

2.24 KN

4.48 KN

Failure (broken part)

Failure (broken part)

Failure (necking)

The room temperature samples failed at all configurations of clamping forces and punch velocities. However for the higher punch velocity and higher clamping force the failure initiates at a lower drawing depth. The maximum possible draw at room temperature observed to be 3.2 mm with a clamping force of 2.24 KN. For the heated dies up to 250C, the part breaks at a draw depth of 4.6mm with a clamping force of 1000 lbf (4.48 KN). By applying a clamping force of 500 lbf (2.24KN) the part can be drawn to the full depth however extreme necking is observed. Heating the dies up to 300C leads to a desirable final shape with a clamping force of 2.24KN however necking is observed at the die entry radius of the part formed with a clamping force of 4.48KN. For all cases the temperature of the centre of blank under the punch is measured 14C. For all cases punch force versus punch travel data is recorded and will be presented and compared for different cases in next sessions. A simplified method for assessing formability is to evaluate necking and thickness reduction. However this is not very easy with the current setup due to the small size part and pretty thin blank. In order to assess the effect of warm forming on the range of acceptable blank holder force was determined at various die temperature cases from 25C to 300C. For a given BHF (800 lbf) the forming was performed at different temperature configurations with and without the lubrication. The maximum draw depths

before necking have been measured at the point of initiation of a sharp drop at punch forces. A summary of results is shown in Table III. Table III: Maximum bubble depth at different temperature setting; BHF=800 lbf
Case 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Die Temperature (C) 25 25 150 150 200 200 250 250 300 300 Punch Temperature (C) 25 25 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 Punch Speed (mm/s) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Lubricant Dasco Cast Dasco Cast Dasco Cast Dasco Cast Dasco Cast Bubble depth (mm) 3.1 3.1 3.3 3.2 4.9 4.4 5.5 4.7 6.0 5.3

The case studies of table II have been repeated with the punch speed of 4 mm/S. No considerable change in results has been observed. The effect of temperature gradient between the bubble center under the punch and the die entry is obvious from the results. Also, it can be seen that the lubricant (DASCO Cast) has an important effect on formability at higher temperature. For temperatures lower than 150C, Dasco cast does not act as a lubricant. 2.1 Punch force Figure 2 compares the punch force vs. punch displacements for three different die temperatures i.e. room temperature, 250C and 300C. For dies at room temperature the punch has been kept at room temperature while for two other cases the punch was kept cold at 14C. Blank holder force was 500 lbf (2.24KN) for all experiments. As per experiment setup, the clamp die was closed, the punch moved to the depth of 1mm to provide sufficient contact surfaces required for heat transfer between the tooling and the blank. The tooling was kept at this situation for 30 seconds so the dies, punch and blank temperatures were equalized. Finally the punch moved with a constant speed of 4 m/S to form the part with or without failure. A maximum punch displacement of 6.8 mm was applied for all samples. All punch forces were recorded for the final forming step i.e. after the initial forming depth of 1 mm. As it can be seen from Figure 2, the recorded data for punch forces were very noisy (dot plots) so trend lines are shown by solid lined which are plotted in MS Excel for are series. The reason for noisy data is that for all of these experiments the blank holder force was less that 2% of the systems capacity. At very low forces the accuracy of the load cell and the servo valve controlling the hydraulics is decreased. It can be seen that the punch force was reduced by 28% and 34% for heated dies up to 250C and 300C respectively.

4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 500 0 1000

250C 300C roomtemp

Punch displacement (mm)

Figure 2; Punch force vs. punch displacement (Clamp force= 500 lbf = 2.24 KN, Punch velocity= 4 mm/s, Punch Temperature= 14 C)

3. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS The numerical models presented in this research were solved using the LS-971 version of the explicit finite element code LS-DYNA. LS-DYNA employs a central difference method of explicit time integration. For coupled thermal mechanical simulations fully implicit thermal time steps (backwards difference) are performed between mechanical time steps. The Bergstrom constitutive model and the Von Mises yield surface were implemented as a user defined material model (UMAT).

2.1 Material model A user define material model, UMAT, was developed in LS-Dyna using Von-Mises and the physically motivated Bergstrom hardening rule to simulate the flow stress of the material. The temperature dependant hardening model is written as: (1) where 1 exp (2) The Bergstrom model is a strain and strain rate dependant model. The effects of strain and strain rate are in term of [Boogard et al, 2006];
U

exp 0.5

exp

(3)

70.5 b C M 1 2.857 3.3422 0.422 8.5 10 10 10

80 1.0917 10 26354 10 2000 K 10 /

Figure 3; Fitted parameters and corresponding flow stress curves at different temperatures

The material in this study is a long-life 3000 series aluminum alloy sheet which is fully characterized at different elevated temperatures. Stress-strain curves are fitted with Bergstrom parameters. Figure 3 shows the fitted Bergstrom parameters for the material and flow stress curves at different temperature based on theses parameters. Also the thermal properties of the blank were modelled with an isotropic thermal material model. The thermal material properties are shown in Table IV. Table IV: Thermal properties of steel and aluminum (Hu,Jack 2002)
Heat Capacity / Thermal Conductivity Density / / Aluminum 900 170 2710 Steel 450 70 7850

2.2 Finite element mesh Solid models of the coreplate tooling were imported into Altair HyperMesh from Solidworks. One half of the geometry was meshed taking advantage of symmetry to reduce computation time. The tools were modelled with four node ridged quadrilateral elements. The tooling meshes are shown in Figure4. A uniform mesh consisting 1.0 mm by 1mm is applied. However a coarser mesh was used for tooling as rigid bodies. The blank mesh is also shown in Figure 4. The blanks were modelled using Belytschko-Tsay Elements with 9 though thickness integration points. 2.3 Thermal Contact The tooling was held at a constant temperature throughout the simulations. The blank temperature was determined by heat transfer from the tooling. The initial blank temperature was set at the room temperature. Thermal contact is one of the least published aspects of warm forming simulations. The most commonly used thermal conductance for contact between tool steel and aluminum sheet is 1400 / and was published by Takuda (2002).

Figure 4; Solid model of the tooling and mesh 2.4 Simulations and results Numerical simulations corresponding to all experiments have been performed. The boundary conditions are exactly the same as experiments. Simulations are in good agreement with experimental results. Figure 5 shows a comparison of the punch force versus punch displacement for a clamping force of 2.24KN and die temperature of 300C. The sharp decline of the punch load curve is interpreted as onset of necking. Both experimental and numerical results show that the onset of necking initiates at the punch depth of 6.0 mm.

Figure 5; Comparison of numerical and experimental results for clamping force of 2.24KN and die temperature of 300C (Data are recorded after 1 mm punch travel) Figure 6 shows the contour plots of temperature distributions during the forming process at different draw depths. The top left shows the temperature distribution of the blank after closing the clam, punch travel of 1 mm and a hold time of 30 S. The temperature of the centre of blank under the punch head equalizes to 14C after 30 S. While the forming proceeds the temperature of the blank under the punch increases to 30C at the middle of forming and again decreases to 10C by the end of forming

process. These contour plots are in good agreement with measured temperatures during the experiments.

Figure 6; Contour plots of temperature at 1mm punch travel (top left), 3 mm punch travel (top right) and 6 mm punch travel (bottom) The simulations show that a higher temperature gradient at the bubble wall results in less thickness reduction. Figure 7 shows the contour plots of thickness reduction for clamping force of 2.24 KN and punch speed of 8mm/s. Also a comparison of maximum thickness reductions for different die temperatures is provided. The contours show that part formed at lower temperature experience higher thickness reduction at the die entry radius. The maximum thickness reduction for room temperature is predicted 46% of initial thickness and it is 26.5% and 16.7% for 250C and 300C respectively. As per graph, if we consider the maximum thickness reduction of 20% as simplified failure criteria, the die temperatures warmer than 200 C result in a successful forming. The effect of the gradient of temperature on formability of part is obviously positive which is in agreement with the experimental results.

Figure 7; Contour plots of thickness reduction for clamping force of 2.24KN and punch velocity of 8mm/s. From left to right: room temperature, 250C and 300C

4. CONCLUSION Experiments have shown that application of independent die and punch temperature control increases the formability of long-life 3000 series aluminum alloy sheets. Increasing the gradient of temperature between the punch and the die improves the formability. Warm forming also reduces required punch force and therefore equipment tonnage. Numerical model accommodating the Von-Mises yield function and Bergstrom hardening rule is capable of capturing both punch force and failure location for studied material.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Financial support for this research from Dana Canada Corporation (Long Manufacturing) and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Ontario Research Fund is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES Abedrabbo, N.; Pourboghrat, F.; Carsley, J; "Forming of aluminum alloys at elevated temperatures Part 1: Material characterization" Int. J. Plasticity 22 (2): 314-341, 2006. Li, D.; Ghosh, A.; "Tensile deformation behavior of aluminum alloys at warm forming temperatures."; Mat. Sci. Eng. A. 352: 279286, 2003 Mckinley et al.; "Effect of independent die and punch temperature control on the formability of 3003 aluminum alloy in warm deep drawing" ; In: Proceedings of the 7th International conference: Numisheet' 2008, 2008. Interlaken, Switzerland Naka, T.; Yoshida, F.; "Deep drawability of type 5083 aluminiummagnesium alloy sheet under various conditions of temperature and forming speed" ; J. of Mat. Proc. Technology 89-90, 19-23, 1999. Palumbo, G.; Tricario, L.; "Numerical and experimental investigation on the Warm Deep Drawing process of circular aluminum alloy specimens" ; Int. J. of Material Processing and Technology 181(2007) 115-123 Boogaard, A.H.; Huetink, J.; "Simulation of aluminum sheet forming at elevated temperatures"; Computer Methods in applied mechanics and engineering, 195 (2006) 6691-6709 Abderabbo, N. ; Pourboghrat, F. ; Carsley, J.; "Forming of aluminum alloys at elevated temperatures Part 1: Material characterization"; Int. J. of Plasticity, 22 (2006) 314-341 Barlat, F.; "Material modeling for sheet metal forming simulations"; In: Proceedings of the 7th International conference: Numisheet' 2008, 2008, Interlaken, Switzerland. Takuda, H.; Mori, K.; Masuda, I.; Abe, Y.; Matsuo, M.; "Finite element simulation of warm deep drawing of aluminum alloy sheet when accounting for heat conduction" ; J. Mater. Process. Technol. 120 (2002), 412418. Tebbe, P.A.; Kridli, G.T.; "Warm forming of aluminum alloys: an overview and future directions"; Int. J. Mater. Prod. Technol. 21, 2440. Schmoeckel, D.;"Temperaturgefu hrte Prozesteuerung beim Umformen von Aluminiumblechen"; EFB-Forschungsbericht Nr. 55. (1994) Schmoeckel, D.; Liebler, B.C.; Speck, F.D.; "Grundlagen und Modellversuche Temperaturgefu hrterStoffflu beim tiefziehen von Al-blech-realversuche"; Bander Bleche Rohre 36 (1995)1421. Shehata, F.; Painter, M.J.; Pearce, R.; "Warm forming of aluminum/magnesium alloy sheet"; J. Mech. Work Technol. 2,(1978)279291.

Investigation of Dies Materials in Hot Stamping Operations

A. Ghiotti*, D. Pellegrini*, S. Bruschi** * Department of Innovation in Management and Mechanics, University of Padua, via Venezia 1, 35131, Padova, ITALY ** Department of Mechanical and Structural Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38050, Trento, ITALY e-mail: andrea.ghiotti@unipd.it

Abstract: Hot stamping has proven to have a great potential of competitiveness in the production of structural parts with increased mechanical properties. However, the final highly resistant martensitic microstructure represents a major obstacle when finishing operations, such as trimming and cutting, have to be designed, making them more expensive and time consuming. The work presented in this paper has the objective of analyzing the feasibility of producing sheet metal parts with a tailored microstructure by using ceramic inserts of appropriate dimensions inside the forming dies in order to obtain a softer microstructure than the martensite. A simulative test was designed and set-up, where ceramic inserts were used to vary the cooling rates during hot stamping. Furthermore, an analytical model based on the heat exchange laws was developed and validated through results of the experimental campaign. Keywords: hot stamping, dies, heat transfer, microstructure. 1. INTRODUCTION Two of the main aims pursued by the modern automotive industry are the reduction of fuel consumption and emissions and the increase of crash safety [Neugebauer et al., 2006, Li et al., 2003]. To fulfil these objectives, new generations of high and ultra-high strength steels are nowadays being utilized, by exploiting new manufacturing routes, such hot stamping of metal sheets, which can assure the production of martensitic components characterized by an high ratio between strength and mass [Merklein et al, 2006, Geiger et al., 2005]. In hot stamping, the sheet is indeed heated in a furnace above austenitization temperature; then, after a given time, it is extracted and formed inside cooled dies that assure sufficiently high cooling rates to have a formed component with a uniform martensitic microstructure. Thanks to this process chain, springback effects are also reduced [Mori et al., 2005, Bariani et al., 2008]. However, the final highly resistant martensitic microstructure represents a major obstacle when finishing operations, such as trimming and cutting, have to be designed, making them more expensive and time consuming [Picas et al., 2009]. Therefore, the possibility to produce components with a gradient of microstructure in a single hot stamping stage is a

challenge that several authors are investigating [George et al., 2009, Kolleck et al, 2009]. The work this paper is based on has the objective of analyzing the feasibility of producing sheet parts with a tailored microstructure by exploiting the hot stamping process. The idea is to use ceramic inserts of appropriate dimensions inside the forming dies, located in those zones where a local decrease in the heat exchange between the sheet and the dies is requested; hopefully, a softer microstructure than the martensitic one can be produced under the ceramic inserts. On the other hand, under the die zones made of steel, the cooling rate is kept sufficiently high to induce only the martensitic transformation. Therefore, in order to evaluate the feasibility of producing tailored microstructure components, a simulative test was designed and set-up, where metal blanks were compressed between flat dies, made of both die steel and ceramic, by imposing a thermal cycle very similar to the industrial one for hot stamping; the most relevant process parameters were varied during the experimental campaign in order to identify their effects on the final achievable microstructures. The occurrence of different microstructures was then assessed by hardness measurements carried out on different sections of the blank. A one-dimensional analytical model of the test, based on the heat exchange laws, was also developed and validated through results of the experimental campaign; even if the model does not take into account the phase transformation kinetics - and therefore the heat release due to it and drastically approximate the geometries of both the blank and the dies, nevertheless it represents an alternative tool to complicated FEM-based models [Erhardt et al., 2009, Shapiro, 2009]. 2. MATERIALS The investigated material is the Al-Si coated 22MnB5 produced by Arcelor (USIBOR 1500P) and provided in 1.5 mm thick sheets. With the aim of analyzing the effect of cooling rates on the mechanical properties of the final components, different die materials were considered: steel inserts were manufactured in H11 steel, commonly used for sheet metal dies, while ceramic inserts were made in Yttrium stabilized Zirconium dioxide, which offers elevated mechanical properties and low thermal conductivity. The properties of the analyzed dies materials are reported in Table 1.
H11 Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) 186 6000 2.70 400 10.3

Youngs modulus [GPa] Density [kg/m ] Thermal conductivity [W/m K] Heat capacity [J/kg K] Thermal expansion [10 /C]
-6 3

210 7750 42.2 460 13.3

Table 1. Thermal and mechanical properties of the dies materials

3. ANALYTICAL MODELLING The heat transfer between the metal blank heated up in an external furnace and the cold dies was described using an analytical model, implemented in Matlab environment, capable to describe the temperatures changes of the blank during both the transferring stage of the sheet to the dies and the subsequent forming and quenching stage. In the former, the heat flux inside the sheet, as well as the heat exchanged due to the convection and the radiation, can be described by using equation (1).
c T 2T 2 2 T Ta 2 T 4 h h x

(1)

where T is the temperature at time , c the specific heat capacity, the density of the sheet material, the thermal conductivity, the convection coefficient with the environment, the Stefan-Boltzmanns constant, the emissivity, h the specimen thickness, Ta the environment temperature. The convection coefficient is calculated as:

0.14 Gr Pr 3 l
where
Gr l 3 2 g T

(2)

(4)

and

Pr

cp

(5)

Gr is the Grashoff number, Pr the Prandtl number, l the characteristic length of the heated surface, the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient, g the gravity constant, and , cp and are the dynamic viscosity, the specific heat at constant pressure and the thermal conductivity of the air, respectively. In the forming and quenching stage, the analytical description of the heat flux inside the sheet does not change, while the interface phenomena are described by a single term represented by the global heat transfer coefficient HTC. As a consequence, the equation (1) can be rewritten as:

T 2T 2 HTCT 2 x h

(6)

The model can take into account neither the latent heat due to a physical change of contacting media (i.e. the sheet metal coating and the lubricants) nor the transformation kinetics in the metal sheet. As a consequence, this model cannot be used to describe the temperature evolution after the onset of martensitic or bainitic transformations. It was verified [Pellegrini et al., 2008] that, for low quantities of bainite transformed during the quenching stage, the error introduced by the model in predicting the thermal field inside the blank can be considered negligible. 4. EXPERIMENTS With the aim of investigating the performances of ceramic inserts in hot stamping, a special experimental apparatus was designed and developed at the Chair of Manufacturing Technologies of University of Padua. The details of the special set-up and the planning of experiments are described in the following paragraphs. 4.1 Experimental apparatus Figure 1 (left) shows the experimental apparatus used in the experiments for the analysis of the heat exchange with different tooling inserts. The specimen was heated up in a muffle furnace, which was controlled by an electronic controller that assures a constant temperature with a maximum uncertainty of 10C at 900C. The temperature on the specimen was locally monitored by using both a k-type thermocouple that was spot welded in its central zone, and an infrared thermo camera to monitor the sheet surface temperature fields. Then, the specimen was transferred and positioned onto the dies, showed on the right side of Figure 1. The dies were designed in order to allow a rapid change of the inserts configuration through modular inserts that are fixed on the die-set. A number of spring seated pins prevented specimen contact with the inserts before and after the pressing phase, to assure proper cooling in calm air. The experiments were carried out using a 50 kN MTS hydraulic testing machine, which assured a continuous control of the applied load. A constant pressure was used for all the tests, which was as close as possible to the average values of industrial hot stamping processes.

Die holder Dies

Furnace

Pins

Ceramic inserts

Thermo camera

Thermocouples Figure 1. Experimental apparatus (on the left) and the die inserts used in the experiments (on the right)

Steel inserts

Pins

25 mm

1.5 mm

Conf. #1

H11 ZrO2 H11 25mm 25mm 25mm

Specimen Symmetry plane

Figure 2 shows the specimen dimensions on the left side and a scheme of the tested die configurations on the right side. In order to check the performance of the ceramic material, the ZrO2 insert was positioned in the central part of both the lower and the upper dies, between the H11 steel inserts. The analysis of the three configurations allowed investigating the influence that the thermal inertia of the dies may have on the specimen temperature and on the transition zone at the interface between the ceramic and the steel. Since the inserts were not cooled during the tests, the temperature of each insert was monitored in order to verify its constancy during the forming and quenching stage. 4.2 Experimental procedure In accordance to the actual industrial hot stamping processes, the metal sheet was heated for 10 minutes at 920 C to assure homogenous thermal and microstructural characteristics. Each specimen was manually extracted from the furnace, positioned on the dies, and, after a set soaking time, the dies pressure built up for a constant time period of 3 s before the final cooling in calm air at room temperature. During the experimental campaign, the soaking time which is the time before the dies pressure build up was varied. After the tests, the AlSi coating on the blanks was removed and the hardness measured by using a 2000T Wolpert Wilson hardness tester. The experimental plan to verify the influence of inserts geometry and soaking time is presented in Table 2.
Geometry dependence 3 25; 50;75 5 2 Soaking time dependence 3 75 5; 10;25;30 2

250 mm

Conf. #2

H11 25mm

ZrO2 50mm ZrO2 75mm

H11 25mm H11 25mm

Conf. #3

H11 25mm

Figure 2. Specimen dimensions (on the left) and die configurations tested in the experiments (on the right)

Soaking time [s] ZrO2 insert length [mm] Soaking time [s] Repeatability

Table 2. Experimental plan

5. RESULTS 5.1 Experimental results The left part of Figure 3 shows the experimental temperature profiles measured when the length of the ceramic ZrO2 insert was varied according to the experimental plan presented in 3.2. It was verified that the thermal inertia of the ceramic specimen does not influence the cooling rate of the specimen. This determines a rapid cooling of the metal sheet assuring a martensitic microstructure at room temperature. The cooling rate changes only after the dies opening below the temperature of 400C and may be due to the temperature of the air around the specimen. According to these results, the values of surface hardness measured on the specimen are closed to those of pure martensite, which is around 42-45 HRC (see the right part of Figure 3). The configuration #3 showed the largest decrease of HRC compared to the one achieved under the steel inserts, with a value of 38 HRC measured under the ceramic insert. In all the tests no significant influence of the interface zone between ceramic and steel inserts was observed.
1000
Temperature [C]

800 600
400

25 mm 50 mm 75 mm

Bainite Martensite 0 20 40 60

200 0

Hardness (HRC)

Init. Temp: 900 C Soaking time: 5s Contact time: 3s

H11 ZrO2 H11

Dies
Specimen

48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34

H11 ZrO2 H11

Init. Temp: 900 C Soaking time: 5s Contact time: 3s ZrO 2 lenght: 25mm

Time [s]

#1

#2 Configuration

#3

Figure 3. Cooling rates obtained varying the ceramic insert length (on the left) and surface hardness measured in the different zones of the specimen (on the right) The left part of Figure 4 shows the experimental temperature profiles measured when the length of the soaking time was varied according to the experimental plan presented in 3.2. The configuration #3, which allows obtaining the largest decrease of surface hardness on the specimen, was chosen to compare the experimental measurements. It was verified that the soaking time has a relevant influence on the specimen cooling rate, and, consequently, on the phase transformation of Usibor steel. A limit value of 15s for the soaking time represents the maximum value in order to obtain fully martensitic structure in the specimen. For values of soaking time larger than 15s, the austenite transforms into bainite, with increasing percentage of transformed constituent depending on the soaking time. According to these results, the measured surface hardness varies on the different specimen zones, as shown in the right part of Figure 4. The HRC values decrease down to 30 HRC for the largest soaking time tested in the experiments.

1000

Temperature [C]

600 400 200 0 0

5s 10s 25s 30s

Bainite Martensite 20 40 60

Hardness (HRC)

800

Contact time: 3s ZrO 2 lenght: 75mm H11 lenght: 25 mm

0 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Init. temp.: 920 C Contact time: 3s ZrO 2 lenght: 75mm H11 lenght: 25mm
ZrO2 ZrO2
x2 x1 x0 x2 x1 x0 x2 x1 x0 x2 x1 x0

H11 Dies H11 x2 Metal sheet

x0

x1

Time [s]

5s

10s 25s Soaking time (s)

30s

Figure 4. Cooling rates obtained varying the soaking times (on the left) and surface hardness measured in the different zones of the specimens (on the right) 5.2 Analytical results Figure 5 shows the comparison of the cooling rates calculated using the analytical model and the experimental results. It was verified that the analytical model allows a good prediction of the temperature evolution in the sheet metal, in the different zones of the specimen. Since the model does not take into account the transformation kinetics, the error introduced after the onset of microstructural transformations is limited only in the case of small amount of transformed bainite.
1000

Temperature [C]

800 600
400

Temperatures analytically calculated

Initial temperature: 920 C Contact time: 3s ZrO 2 lenght: 75mm H11 lenght: 25 mm

Bainite

200 0
0

5s 5s

10s 10s

25s 25s

30s 30s

Martensite
40 60

20

Time [s]

Figure 5. Comparison between the cooling rates calculated by the analytical model and the temperatures measured in the experiments 6. CONLCUSIONS In this paper the feasibility of producing sheet parts with a tailored microstructure by exploiting the hot stamping process has been presented. To this aim, a simulative test was designed and set-up, where metal blanks were compressed between flat dies, made of both die steel and ceramic, by imposing a thermal cycle very similar to the industrial one for hot stamping. The most relevant process parameters were varied during the experimental campaign in order to identify their effects on the final achievable microstructures. The occurrence of different microstructures was then assessed by

hardness measurements carried out on different sections of the blank. An analytical model of the test, based on the heat exchange laws, was also developed and validated through results of the experimental campaign, showing a good capability in predicting the temperature evolution during the process. REFERENCES [Neugebauer et al., 2006] Neugebauer, R.; Altan, T.; Geiger, M.; Kleiner, M.; Sterzing, A.; In: "Sheet Metal Forming at Elevated Temperatures"; In: Annals of the CIRP 55 (2) (2006), pp. 793816; ISSN 0007-8506. [Li et al., 2003] Li, Y.; Lin, Z.; Jiang, A.; Chen, G.; In: Use of high strength steel sheet for lightweight and crashworthy car body, Materials and Design 24 (2003), pp. 177182. [Merklein et al., 2006] Merklein, M.; Lechler, J.; Geiger, M.; In: Characterization of the Flow Properties of the Quenchenable Ultra High Strength Steel 22MnB5, Annals of the CIRP 55 (1) (2006), pp. 229232; ISSN 0007-8506. [Geiger et al., 2005] Geiger, M.; Merklein, M.; Hoff, C.; In: Basic Investigation on the Hot Stamping Steel 22MnB5, Sheet Metal 2005 Conference, Proceedings (2005), pp. 795802. [Mori et al., 2005] Mori, K.; Maki, S.; Tanaka, Y.; In: Warm and Hot Stamping of Ultra High Tensile Strength Steel Sheets Using Resistance Heating, Annals of the CIRP 54 (1) (2005), pp. 209212; ISSN 0007-8506. [Bariani et al., 2008] Bariani, P.F.; Bruschi, S.; Ghiotti, A.; Turetta, A.; In: Testing formability in the hot stamping of HSS, Annals of CIRP 57 (1) (2008), pp. 265268; ISSN 0007-8506. [Picas et al., 2009] Picas, I.; Hernndez, R.; Casellas, D.; Casas, B.; Valls, I.; In: Tool performance in cutting of hot stamped steels, Proc. of the 1st International Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance steel (2008), pp. 179-190. [George et al., 2009] George, R.; Bardelcik, A.; Worswick, M.; "Localized die temperature control for tailored properties in hot forming of boron steels Numerical study; In: Proc. of International Deep Drawing Research Group 2009, pp. 131-139; Golden 2009; ISDN 978-0-615-2941-8. [Kolleck et al., 2009] Kolleck, R.; Veit, R.; Koroschetz, C.; "Hot stamping of car body parts with local strength adjustment; In: Proc. of International Deep Drawing Research Group 2009, pp. 825-834; Golden 2009; ISDN 978-0-615-2941-8. [Erhardt et al. 2009] Erhardt, R.; Bke, J.; In: Industrial application of hot forming process simulation, Proc. of the 1st International Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance steel (2008), pp. 83-88. [Shapiro, 2009] Shapiro, A.B.; In: Using LS-DYNA to model hot sheet metal stamping, Proc. of the 1st International Conference on Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High-Performance steel (2008), pp. 89-96. [Pellegrini et al., 2008] Pellegrini, D.; "Internal report"; in Italian.

Effect of die roughness on coefficient of friction in hot stamping

A. Yanagida, Y. Tanaka and A. Azushima Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, 79-5, Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501 yanagida@ynu.ac.jp

Abstract: A tribosimilator under elevated temperature to measure the coefficients of friction for hot stamping was developed by the authors. The tribological behavior at the interface between the die and strip in hot stamping can be evaluated from the coefficient of friction, because it is one of the quantitative values used to represent the tribological behavior between the die and blank. In this paper, boron alloyed quenchable steels were used for workpiece, the effect of the surface roughness of die (0.07, 0.5 and 0.7 mRa) and scale thickness (10 to 80 m) on the coefficient of friction was investigated. Under dry condition, the effect of the surface roughness of die and scale thickness on coefficient of friction was relatively small, and the coefficient of friction increased with decreasing scale thickness at surface roughness of die 0.07mRa. Under lubricated condition, the coefficient of friction increased slightly with increasing scale thickness in each surface roughness. Keywords: Hot stamping, coefficient of friction, steel 1. INTRODUCTION Recently, ultra-high-strength steels have been introduced for automobile parts in order to reduce the weight of the body and environmental impact. However, the formability and shape controllability of these steels decrease with increasing strength, thus, causing additional difficulties such as complex die design, reverse bending in the die gap, increased wall tension at dead points etc. For these reasons, the use of ultra-highstrength steels with a strength of over 1000 MPa in cold forming gets into difficulties in the automobile industry. On the other hand, a hot stamping process has been developed to produce the steel automobile parts with an ultra-high-strength of 1500 MPa. This process results in better formability and lower springback at elevated temperatures. The hot stamping needs the data of many process parameters such as, the thermo-mechanical and metallurgical interaction and their influence on the formability. The thermo-mechanical properties [Neugebauer et al., 2006, Merklein et al., 2006 ], the formability criterion [Sikora and Lenze, 2006, Bariani et al., 2008], the limit cooling rate or cooling condition for martensitic transformation [Neugebauer et al., 2006, Sikora and Lenze, 2006]. However, in contrast to the conventional sheet metal forming processes, knowledge of the

interfacial phenomena and the material behavior at elevated temperatures is required to obtain the desired properties of the final products in terms of the microstructure, surface condition and strength. Hardell et al. reported the friction behavior of high-strength boron steel at elevated temperatures of up to 800C using a high-frequency, linearoscillation (SRV) friction and a wear test machine [Hardel et al., 2008]. It is estimated that the precise coefficients of friction cannot be obtained quantitatively by fundamental tribo-simulators such as the SRV test machine and pin-on-disk test. The authors have recently developed a new hot flat strip drawing test machine for the purpose of measuring the coefficients of friction. It was confirmed that the coefficient of friction could be measured stably and repeatability at elevated temperatures [Yanagida et al., 2010]. The effect of temperature and contact pressure on coefficient of friction was investigated in SPHC steel and Al pre-coated 22MnB5 steel [Yanagida and Azushima, 2009]. The effect of die surface roughness and scale thickness is one of most important parameter for hot stamping. In this paper, boron alloyed quenchable ultra-high-strength steel was used as workpiece. The surface roughness of die was varied in 0.07, 0.5 and 0.7 mRa and the scale thickness of workpiece was varied in 10, 30, 50 and 80 m by changing the holding time at constant heating temperature. The effect of the surface roughness of die and scale thickness on the coefficient of friction was investigated using tribosimulator. 2. SIMULATION TESTING MACHINE

2.1. Outline of simulation testing machine Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the hot flat strip drawing test machine developed for measuring coefficients of friction at elevated temperatures [Yanagida et al., 2010]. This test machine consists of a compression device driven by a hydraulic actuator, a furnace and a drawing device driven by a ball screw using a 2.2 kW vector control AC motor. The specifications of the test machine are summarized in Table I. An infrared image furnace is placed in front of the compression device. The maximum furnace temperature is 1100 C and the atmosphere is controlled by Ar gas. The
Compression device

Furnace

Tension device

1000

Figure 1; Schematic representation of hot flat strip drawing test machine

maximum compression load is 200 kN and the maximum tension load is 20 kN. The maximum drawing speed is 30 mm/s. Table I; Specification of test machine
Compression load Tension load Drawing speed Furnace temperature 2 - 200 kN Max 20 kN Max 30 mm/s Max 1100 C

2.2. Outline of simulation testing machine The method for measuring the coefficient of friction is as follows. The workpiece edge is clamped with chuck part of the tension device. The workpiece is heated at a given temperature and then it is moved with the tension device at a constant speed. As the heated zone of the workpiece reaches the entrance of the die, the workpiece is compressed at a given load. The coefficient of friction is calculated from the compression load P and the tension load TF using the equation

TF 2P

(1)

3. EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS

3.1. Materials A Boron alloyed quenchable ultra-high-strength steel (0.21%C, 0.25%Si, 1.2%Mn, 0.0014%B) was used as test material. The specimens with the dimensions of a thickness of 2 mm, a width of 22 mm and a length of 2000 mm are used. 3.2. Testing conditions The dies material was SKD61, the flat lengths (in the drawing direction) were 25 mm and the corner radius R was 3 mm. The testing conditions are summarized in Table II. The die surfaces were ground perpendicular to the drawing direction using emery paper. The surface roughness of the die was controlled at Ra = 0.07, 0.2 and 0.5 m. The die surfaces were cleaned with hexane before drawing. The scale thickness was also controlled at furnace temperature 720 C by changing the furnace atmosphere and holding time (the detail was described in sec 3.3). To decrease the growth of the scale during the distance between the furnace and the flat dies, the shield pipe to prevent the oxidation was installed between the furnace and the dies. The experiments were carried out at compression load of 3.5kN and a constant drawing speed of 10 mm/s under dry and lubricated conditions. Under lubricated conditions, the dies were removed from the simulator and preheated to 160C on the die surface. Then the lubricant was sprayed on the die surface before drawing in order to form the lubricant film.

Table II; Experimental conditions of hot stamping test.

Die material Flat length , corner R Tension speed V Compression load P Die pressure p Furnace temperature Tf Ar gas flow pressure SKD61 25 mm , 3 mm 10 mm/s 3.5, kN 6.4 MPa 720 C 0.1 ,0.2 MPa ,

3.3. Heating conditions and scale thickness In Figure 2, the temperatures of the workpiece at three points of 150, 470 and 650 mm from the exit of the furnace during heating are plotted. The workpeice was homogenously heated within this range. The workpiece were fully austenized at furnace temperatures of 720 C. It takes about 180 s to stable condition as shown in Figure 2. The three level of total heating time of 240, 280 and 360 s at Ar gas flow pressure of 0.1 MPa were selected to change the scale thickness and the scale thickness of 30, 50 and 80 m are obtained, respectively. To decrease scale thickness more, the total heating time of 240 s at Ar gas flow pressure of 0.2 MPa was conducted. Then the scale thickness was 10m. The surface roughness of the workpiece increases with increasing scale thickness. These results are summarized in Table III. The change in temperature during sliding from the exit of the furnace to the entrance of the die is shown in Figure 3. The decrease rate of temperature were 15 C/s. It was found that the strip can be drawn at a temperature of approximately 700 C. The compression load was applied when the point b reached the entrance of the die.

Temperature of workpiece ( C)

Temperature of workpiece ( C)

1000 800 600 400 200 0 0

Tf=720 C

1000 Tf=720 C 800 600 400 200 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Sliding distance L (mm) a: 150mm b: 300mm c: 470mm

Furnace temperature a: 150mm b: 300mm c: 470mm

100 200 Time (s)

300

Figure 2; Temperature history during

heating.

Figure 3; Relationships between temperature of workpiece and sliding distance

Table III; Scale thickness and surface roughness.

Ar gas flow pressure /MPa Total heating time /s Scale thickness /m Surface roughness , Ra /m 0.2 240 10 0.99 240 30 1.36 0.1 280 50 1.45 360 80 1.62

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Dry condition Figure 4 shows an example of the experimentally obtained relationships between compression load, drawing tension, coefficient of friction and drawing distance at a furnace temperature of 720 C under dry condition. Although the compression load was controlled at a constant value, the load gradually increased during sliding. The drawing tension and the coefficient of friction are not constant.
0.7 6 Tf= 720 C
o

Coefficient of friction

0.6 0.5 Coefficient of friction

Load (kN)

Compression load

0.4 0.3

Forward tension

0.2 0.1

0 0 10 20 30 Sliding distance (mm) 40

0.0 50

Figure 4; Relationship between compression load, forward tension, coefficient of friction and
sliding distance under dry condition.

As the measured coefficient of friction gradually increases during sliding, the mean value is defined by integrating the following equation from L0 to Ls: L 1 (2) m = dL ,
s

Ls L0

L0

where L0 = 20 mm and Ls = 40 mm under dry condition. For the evaluation, this mean coefficient of friction is used. Figure 5 shows the measurement results of the mean coefficient of friction under dry condition in the condition of different surface roughnesses of die and scale thickness of workpiece. The effect of surface roughness of die and scale thicknesses on coefficient of friction is relatively small at surface roughnesses of surface die of 0.2 and 0.5mRa. On the other hand, the coefficient of friction increases with decreasing scale thickness at a surface roughness of 0.07mRa.

0.7 Mean oefficient of friction m 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Scale thicknes /m 70 80
Dry condition Tf=720 C Surface roughness of die 0.07 mRa 0.2 mRa 0.5 mRa
o

Figure 5; Effect of surface roughness of die and scale thickness on mean friction
coefficients under dry condition

4.2. Lubricated condition Figure 6 shows an example of the experimentally obtained relationships between compression load, drawing tension, coefficient of friction and drawing distance at a temperature of 720 C under lubricated condition. The coefficients of friction are not constant. The mean coefficients of friction are calculated using equation (2). Figure 7 shows the measurement results of the mean coefficient of friction under lubricated condition in the different surface roughness of die and scale thickness of workpiece. The coefficient of friction is significantly reduced under lubricated condition compare with dry condition. The coefficient of friction increases slightly with increasing scale thickness in each surface roughness. The effect of surface roughness of die is relatively large at a scale thickness of 10m, it is estimated that the area of boundary lubricant condition decreases with decreasing surface roughness.
0.7 6 Tf= 720 C Compression load Load (kN) 4
o

0.6 0.5 Coefficient of friction

0.4 Coefficient of friction 0.3

2 Forward tension

0.2 0.1

0 0 10 20 30 Sliding distance (mm) 40

0.0 50

Figure 6; Relationship between compression load, forward tension, coefficient of friction and
sliding distance under lubricated condition.

0.7 Mean oefficient of friction m 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Scale thickness /m 70 80
Dry condition Tf=720 C Surface roughness of die 0.07 mRa 0.2 mRa 0.5 mRa
o

Figure 7; Effect of surface roughness of die and scale thickness on mean friction coefficients under lubricated condition 5. CONCUSIONS The coefficient of friction at the interface between the die and workpiece in the condition of various surface roughness of die and scale thickness of workpiece in flat drawing was evaluated using the simulation testing machine newly developed by the authors. The following results were obtained for boron alloyed quenchable ultra-high strength steel. (1) The effect of surface roughness of die and scale thickness on coefficient of friction was relatively small at rougher surface roughnesses of 0.2 and 0.5mRa, and the coefficient of friction increased with decreasing scale thickness at a surface roughness of 0.07mRa under dry condition. (2) The coefficient of friction is significantly reduced under lubricated condition compare with dry conditions. (3) The coefficient of friction increased slightly with increasing scale thickness in each surface roughness of die under lubricated condition. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Sumitomo metal corporation for their support by supplying boron alloyed quenchable ultra-high strength steel. REFERENCES
[Neugebauer et al., 2006] Neugebauer R, Altan T, Geiger M, Kleiner M, Sterzing, A. ; Sheet Metal Forming at Elevated Temperatures, Annals of the CIRP 55(2), pp.793-816

[Merklein et al., 2006] Merklein, M., Lechler, J., Geiger, M. ; Characterization of the flow properties of the quenchenable ultra high strength steel 22MnB5, Annal of the CIPR 55(1), pp 229-232 [Sikora and Lenze, 2006] Sikora, S., Lenze, F.-J.; Hot-formig-process important parameters for the production of high-strength BIW parst; Proc. IDDRG 2006, pp. 295-301 [Bariani et al., 2008] Bariani, P.F., Bruschi, S., Ghiotti, A., Turetta, A.; Testing formability in the hot stamping of HSS, Annals of the CIRP 57(1), pp. 265268 [Hardell et al., 2008] Hardell, J., Kassfeldt, E. and Prakash, B.; 2008, Friction and wear behaviour of high strength boron steel at elevated temperatures of up to 800 C, Wear 264, pp. 788-799. [Yanagida et al., 2010] Yanagida, A., Kurihara, T. and Azushima A.; Development of tribo-simulator for hot stamping, J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 210, Issue 3, pp. 456460. [Yanagida and Azushima, 2009] Yanagida A. and Azushima A.; Evaluation of Coefficients of Friction in Hot Stamping by Hot Flat Drawing Test, Annals of the CIRP, 58-1, pp. 247-250.

Integration of an Active Forming Die in a Modular Tool System for Sheet-Bulk Metal Forming
B.-A. Behrens*, S. Hbner* and M. Vucetic* *Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines (IFUM), Leibniz Universitt Hannover An der Universitt 2, 30823 Garbsen, Germany vucetic@ifum.uni-hannover.de

Abstract: Due to novel processes like sheet-bulk metal forming, the requirements for sheet metal forming have increased. Within the Transregional Collaborative Research Centre 73 sheet-bulk metal forming of the German Research Foundation, the scope is the design of sheet-bulk metal forming processes at room temperature. For the processlayout a preliminary simulation with reliable flow curves for the sheet material is fundamental. The presented investigations include the material characterization using the tensile test and compression layer test. The findings will be compared and subsequently evaluated for the use in finite element simulation. Furthermore the results of the FE-simulation regarding the process forces and the material behaviour for the sheet-bulk metal forming will be presented. The principal contact pressure response of the pre-stressed forming die will be shown.

Keywords: sheet-bulk metal forming, active forming die, FE-simulation, compression layer test

1. INTRODUCTION Sheet-Bulk metal forming is a novel interconnected process in which the part itself is manufactured by deep drawing and the gearing will be produced with bulk forming in a combined process at room temperature. The focus of the new process is on realizing various functions in a small part spectrum. Therefore a higher complexity and an amplification of the functions of the sheet metal parts is necessary [Merklein, 2009]. The process will be implemented in a modular tool system, shown in Figure 1 left side. Thereby the active forming die represents the external gearing and the punch the internal gearing of the part. Furthermore Figure 1 shows a demonstrator part on the right side.
Schneidring Ziehring Matrizensystem mit Ziehring

Forming die

Sheet Blech
Stempel Punch

metal

Niederhalter Blank holder

Figure 1; Modular tool system for the sheet-bulk metal forming process (left) demonstrator part (right) By the increase of requirements compared with deep drawing on the part itself, the sheet-bulk metal forming process is characterized by a triaxial state of stress and a triaxial dimensional change with effective plastic strains up to v = 1 - 2. For an advantageous layout of the process a finite element simulation with exact material data is required.

2. MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION FOR THE FE-SIMULATION In these studies the sheet material DC04 (AISI 1008) with a sheet thickness of 2 mm has been investigated. Among the wide choice of possibilities to obtain a flow curve, the layer compression test represents an experimental methodology to characterize the flow behaviour of the material [Pawelski, 1967]. In the present section

flow curves from the tensile test are compared with those from the layer compression test. 2.1. Tensile test At first the material is characterized in a standard tensile test described in EN 10130. The specimens are extracted at 0, 45 and 90 to the rolling direction. For the statistic safeguarding three specimens for every rolling direction are analyzed. Figure 2 shows the flow curve 90 to the rolling direction which is experimentally recorded up to the uniform elongation. As of the point of uniform elongation the flow curve is extrapolated by the mathematical approaches of Ludwik, Nadai, Swift and Voce.
600 1 2 500 3

Flow stress kf in N/mm

400

= 27.2 %
300 1

Ludwik kf = k f 0 + k1 n1

kf = 133,4 + 423,4 0.3532

200 2

Nadai

kf = k n kf = 502,4 0.1916 kf = k 2 ( + 0 ) 2
n

Experimentally determined flow curve

3

Swift

100 4 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

kf = 518.8 ( + 0 )
Voce

0.2112

kf = kS (kS k3 ) e C kf = 396.1 (396.1 203.6) e 9.738

0.8 1

True plastic strain

Figure 2; Flow curves of DC04 (AISI 1008) with different extrapolation methods Due to the different mathematical approaches the flow curves show the anticipated characteristics. The maximum difference between Ludwik and Voce at a true plastic strain = 1 is 27.2 %. 2.2. Compression layer test On the basis of the effective plastic strains up to 2 it is necessary to experimentally analyze flow curves with a higher strain value. In this connection the DC04 (AISI 1008) was analyzed in a layer compression test. The compression layer test is not standardized. Therefore the specimens and the preparation are of vital importance. The

sheet material was layered in the same rolling direction and eroded to cylindrical packages. The dimensions of the specimen have to have a diameter height ratio equal to 1 [Bernrath, 2000] as shown in Figure 3 right side. Subsequently, the specimen is positioned on the parallel cavity of the applied testing machine INSTRON VHS 8800. During the positioning of the specimen it is fundamental that all layers are concentrically oriented in the same rolling direction [Merklein et al., 2009]. On top and beneath of the multilayer specimen resides a Teflon foil to reduce the friction between the compression plates and the specimen. The influence of the friction between the layers is to be disregarded up to a true strain of < 0.8 [Wiegels et al. 1981]. Because of the marginal difference of the planar anisotropy of the DC04 the influence remains unconsidered. For the statistic safeguarding three specimens are analyzed. During the test sensors for mechanical quantities measures the force and the displacement. Afterwards the yield stress is calculated with equation 5 and the true strain with equation 6, figure 3 [Sunderktter, 2007].

Figure 3; Comparison of the flow curves (AISI 1008) of the tensile test and the compression layer test The flow curve of the compression layer test is determined up to a true plastic strain of = 0.8. In comparison the extrapolated flow curve of Ludwik shows the best correlation with that of the compression layer test. Due to this fact the mathematical approaches after Nadai, Swift and Voce were disregarded for the further investigations.

3. MODEL The FE-software simufact 9.0 has been used to model the sheet-bulk metal forming process. The primary aim of the numerical modeling was to analyze the material deformation during the process. Therefore the process steps have been defined in concurrent investigation. Further aims are the process forces and the contact pressures which pose the challenge of the sheet-bulk metal forming process. 3.1. Boundary conditions The tools are modelled as rigid bodies. The active modules of the tool are similar like in the deep drawing process. Thereby the punch represents the internal gearing of the part and the forming die the external gearing. For the studies a gearing with two different geometries has been investigated. Geometry (a) has a tooth height of 1.3 mm and geometry (b) a tooth height of 13.7 mm. The local change-over of geometry (b) in the gearing of the forming die is realized by a tractrix geometry. In these studies the circular blank was modelled with a very fine tetrahedron mesh with 99766 elements. In the region of additional forming elements, blank to forming die, a remesh box is used, to permit accurate prediction of the finite element calculation by high plastic deformation value. The friction is indicated by the Coulomb friction law and the process accomplishment was carried out at room temperature. The flow curves which are used for the elastic-plastic material behaviour are shown in section 2.2. 3.2. Process steps The model consists of four process steps. At the first three steps the sheet-bulk metal forming process does not differentiate much from a deep drawing process. During the third step a deep drawing and a concurrent extrusion process take place. The draw depth adds up to 40 mm. In the last forming step the active forming die enable the calibration of the gearing, displayed in Figure 4. The forming path is 0.5 mm.

Punch Blank holder Blank Active forming die

Step 1: Lay up the blank Step 2: Blank holder close

Step 3: Deep drawing + extrusion Step 4: Radial calibration of the gearing

Figure 4; Process steps for the sheet-bulk metal forming process

4. RESULTS

4.1. Deformability behaviour Two gearing geometries were evaluated for the DC 04. The forming process shows an effective plastic strain v = 1.391. Thereby the forming is shown by a cut deviation at 25%, 50% and 75 % of depth of draw after the third and fourth step.
Effective Plastic Strain

y in mm

Step 3 21.3 20

Geometry forming die

1.391 1.237 1.082 0.928 0.773 0.618 0.464 0.155 0.000 Max. 1.391E+000 Min. 7.680E-003 0.309

% 25 % 50 % 75

Cut deviation 0 Step 4 y in mm 21.3 20 22 24 x in mm Geometry forming die

Cut deviation

Geometry (a)

22

24

x in mm

Effective Plastic Strain

23.7
1.391 1.236 1.082 0.927 0.773 0.618 0.464 0.309 0.155 0.000 Max. 1.164E+000 Min. 7.680E-003

Step 3

y in mm

Geometry forming die

10 Cut deviation 0 0 Step 4 10 28,82 x in mm Geometry forming die

Geometry (b)
10 Cut deviation 0 0 10 28,82 x in mm

Figure 5; Effective plastic strain of geometry (a) and (b) plus the cut deviation after the third and fourth process step

y in mm

23.7

With aid of the radial calibration during the fourth process step a near net shape forming is approximated. Even though when the deformation takes place in the sheet thickness (geometry (a)) a near net shape is achieved. Furthermore an irregular material allocation for both geometries is visible. 4.2. Forming loads In figure 6 the forming loads of the third and fourth process step are shown. Anymore the contact pressure for the forming die of geomtry (b) is demonstarted.
271.92 Process step 3 (a) b

Forming Force F in kN

230.19

(b)

0 0 20 40

Contact Pressure E+2 MPa 6.900 6.133 5.367 4.600 3.833 3.067 2.300 1.533

Forming path x in mm Forming Force F in kN

Process step 4 2566.6

(a)

0.767 0.000 Max. 1.231E+002 Min. 0.000E+000

114.1 0 0

(b) 0.5

Forming path x in mm

Figure 6; Formig force of geometry (a) and (b) for step 3 and 4 plus an exampel for contact pressure geometry (b)

4.3. Activ forming die On the basis of the results in section 4.2 it is shown that the contact pressure in the forming die is higher than 690 MPa. According to the VDI 86 [Klocke et al., 2006] a die shrink ring is needed. Furthermore the active forming die has to realize a radial calibration with forming path of 0.5 mm. In order to implement the requirements a pre stressing system by STRECON is needful. The Dynafit system enables a radial closing and opening with aid of a hydraulic system. Furthermore a strip-wound container system is implemented. This system is manufactured by means of a 0.1 mm thick steel

strip material that is wounded around a material core of a high alloyed steel grade or of tungsten carbide. These systems allow contact pressure to 2100 MPa [Groenbaek et al., 2008] and afford for the sheet-bulk metal forming process a good solution.

5. CONCLUSION The present paper has shown that the requirements of the sheet-bulk metal forming process compared with a conventional deep drawing process have gone up. The central process characteristics are the material flow control and the high tool loads. For this purpose the flowing tool design solutions are shown. Material flow control by tool design Tractrix geometry Radial calibration with active forming die High tool loads Die shrink ring Stripwound container systems The feature development will concentrate on the realizing and on the validation of the FEM results.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the German Research Foundation DFG (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) for funding the Transregional Collaborative Research Centre TCRC 73 Manufacturing of complex functional components with variant by using a new sheet metal forming process.

REFERENCES [Bernrath, 2009] Bernrath G.; Weiterentwickelte Memethoden zur Erfassung von Werkstoffdaten fr die Warmumformung, Shaker Verlag, 2009 Aachen. [Groenbaek et al., 2008] Groenebaek J.; Lund E.; Tool Optimization by Means of Effective Prestressing System Proceedings of the International AsiaForge 2008 [Klocke et al., 2006] Klocke F.; Knig W.; Fertigungsverfahren Umformen, Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York 2006, ISBN 3-540-23650-3 [Merklein et al., 2009] Merklein M.; Kuppert A.; A method for the layer compression test considering the anisotropic material behaviour, ESAFORM 2009

[Merklein, 2009] Merklein M.; Manufacturing of complex functional components with variants by using a new sheet metal forming process, Proceedings of the 42th International Cold Forging Group, Shanghai 2009 [Pawelski, 1967] Pawelski O.; ber das Stauchen von Hohlzylindern und seine Eignung zur Bestimmung der Formnderungsfestigkeit Dnner Bleche Archiv fr Eisenhttenwesen, 38: 437-442 [Sunderktter, 2007] Sunderktter C.; Vergleichnde umformtechnische Charakterisierung von Blechwerkstoffen unter mehrachsiger Beanspruchung PZH Verlag, Garbsen 2007 [Wiegels et al., 1981] Wiegels H.; Herbertz R.; Ein Verfahren zur Verwirklichung des reibungsfreien Zylinderstauchversuches fr die Ermittlung von Fliekurven, Stahl&Eisen 101 Heft 2, 1981

Improvements in springback calculation and die compensation taking into account buckling, bottoming and shape control
M. Skrikerud*, C. Borot** * ESI Group, 8840 Trachslau, Switzerland, martin.skrikerud@esi-group.com ** ESI Group, 13 856 Aix-en-Provence, France, caroline.borot@esi-group.com

Abstract. In the recent years, springback calculation and the compensation of the tool shape has become standard practice. This allows shorter prototyping times and lowers the risk for bad die design. However, in some cases the results from simulation have not been as expected, leading to problems and delays as the reason is not always clear. Reasons for this might be found in the phenomenon of buckling or twisting during the springback. This mode(s) can have a significant effect on the total springback. Therefore an additional buckling analysis during springback can help to improve the overall result of the springback simulation. Another possible reason for deviations between simulation and reality might be the bottoming effect. At the very end of the process, the amount of press force applied to the blank can have a very big influence on the amount of springback. This paper looks into the problem of instability during the springback and the bottoming effect. The aim is to improve the overall quality of the die compensation. Also in this paper we look into how to improve the surface quality of successful die compensation by introducing shape control allowing the management of shape control during compensation, particularly important for external panels with design constraints Key words: springback, compensation, buckling, bottoming, shape control.

1. INTRODUCTION As shown in [Ling et al., 2007], Forming simulation technologies continues to develop at a rapid pace, to address formability, tolerance control, and product performance issues in an increasing range of processes, and in ever more detail. Whilst forming simulation in the beginning was only focused on formability, it has moved, and is now focused around more advanced areas, such as springback and the compensation, surface quality and robustness. This shift in focus has also meant new challenges towards the simulation systems. For the formability, strain based formability predictions have delivered good results in

most cases. Springback being an essentially stress based phenomena however required for more advanced modelling techniques. The prediction of accurate stresses is far more sensitive than the prediction of accurate strain. Whist strain based formability assessments have been at an acceptable industrial level; this has not always been the case for springback predictions. [Ling et al., 2007] suggest that there are a number of different parameters, some physical, and some purely numerical that are responsible for the sensitivity to the stress prediction. Parameters such as for numerical improvements using enhanced contact algorithms to ensure accurate respect of the discretized geometry, enhanced finite elements to simulate bending in a very accurate and robust way and sophisticated material models with elasto-plastic springback were discussed. Especially a lot of new materials introduces (Dual phase, TRIP, TWIP etc) made the need for more accurate material models obvious. Parameters for the process such as incorporation of geometric drawbeads as opposed to the more common equivalent drawbead models and closer integration between simulation and geometry were show. By improving a number of these parameters, they could show that the accuracy of springback calculation and compensation could be improved significantly. But still, there remained some cases, where the simulation results could not be improved. Of course there might still be a number of reasons for this. In this paper we will look into 3 different methodologies proposed to further improve the quality of the springback calculation and the compensation thereof.

2. BUCKLING Even though springback calculation has become common practice, in some cases it has failed, see Figure 1. In this case, the solver diverges and still has not found a solution after 337 increments.

Figure 1: Sample where the traditional springback calculation fails.

The reason for the failure in this case is buckling. An Eigen value analysis (Figure 2) of the part shows that the part buckles just after the release from the tools, and solver does not manage to find a stable final position. One reason for the divergence is the fact that numerically, the whole part is released in one single moment. This so called brutal unloading leads to numerical instability.

Figure 2: Eigenvalue analysis of the part Looking into what happens in the solver, when there is a non-linear response, once we reach the limit point, the Standard Newton-Raphson method reaches its limits, see Figure 3. This can lead to divergence of iterative method, plasticity, contact, etc.

Figure 3: Post collapse analysis after limit point. One possible improvement is to use the Arc-length method instead of the NewtonRaphson method in cases where these instabilities occur. Here the load increment becomes a variable, see Figure 4.

Figure 4: Comparison of the tNewton-Raphson method with the Arc-length method. The Arc-length method is efficient when instability affects global load-displacement response. If instability is localized and has no impact onto global response, Arc-length is not efficient. In these cases, we have introduced also a stabilizer by artificial volumetric damping, where a viscous Force is added to the Resdiu; Residu = Fext Fint - Fvisc A combination of the use of the Arc-length method and stabilizer will then depending on the instability found lead to a convergence and a found solution for the solver.

Figure 5: Using the new implemented methods for buckling analysis can in certain cases have a significant effect on the springback.

3. BOTTOMING If the stamping process is followed by a bottoming effect, the high normal contact pressure which results from this, can have a (significant) influence on the springback. Not in all cases this will have an effect, but in some cases where the punch movement is past leaving the final gap equal to the blank thickness, where intendidly the punch force is high, combined with big flat areas, the influence from the normal stress will be noticable, see Figure 6.

Figure 6: If the stamping process is followed by a bottoming effect, this can have a (significant) influence on the springback A new normal stress shell has been introduced for better understanding and capturing of this phenomena. This shell element enables the calculation of the normal stress by adding to new virtual nodes to simulate the upper and the lower faces of the shell, see Figure 7.

Figure 7: New normal stress shell element with 2 virtual nodes. The upper and lower contact forces are transmitted to the upper and lower shell nodes. The upper & lower nodes equilibrium is solved followed by the calculation of the normal acceleration, velocity and displacement. Then the full 3D plasticity equations are solved, giving us the 3D normal stresses. A simple test shows already the changed behaviour and amount of the springback, see Figure 8.

Figure 8: Test of the newnormal stress shell element (left) compared to the normal shell element (right) amount of springback Then a test was done with a box case, where after the stamping the punch pressure was increased until a 10-20% thickness reduction in the bottom was achieved, see Figure 9.

Figure 9: sample case for calculation of the bottoming effect on the sprinback. The results from this test are shown in Figure 10. As it can be seen from these images, the amount and direction of the springback changes completely.

Figure 10: result of the calculation of the test case. Left side, the traditional shell element, right side the new normals stress shell.

4. SHAPE CONTROL Even if the springback calculation and the following compensation has been successful within given tolerances in distance between part after springback and objective, its not sure the final result of the compensated geometry satisfies the requirements towards surface quality. Small waves, bumbs or hollows might be the result. This migh occur even if different smoothing algorithms are applied during the CAD reconstruction phase see samples in Figure 11. This means that already during the springback & compensation stage, a shape control has to be introduced.

Figure 11: Samples of reconstructed surfaces where waves or bumps disturb the surface quality.

Different variations of a so called shape control are possible: Set part of an object with no imposed displacement A homogeneous distribution of nodes which displacements will be imposed for the compensation. Other nodes will be set free. Set a relative stiffness to a given object. Hwich on is best to use depends on the part, geometry etc. But using these options, can significantly reduce the bumbs and waves, and is normally better than the reference used here the smoothing functions from CAD systems, see improved samples in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Significantly improved surface quality after introduction of shape control during the springback compensation.

5. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK In the past, sheet metal forming simulation has moved from being simple formability assessment tools, to become more advanced tools for virtual manufacturing. Calculating springback accurate and compensate it is part of the virtual manufacturing chain. Springback however is a complex phenomenon that sometimes requires more attention than the forming process itself. In the past different measurements have been performed to increase the accuracy such as improved contact algorithms, material models etc. In this paper, 3 more ways to improve the springback quality have been presented, taking into account the bucking and the bottoming effects and the shape control. For certain cases, one or more of these methods will allow the user to improve his results for the springback and compensation. If previous and now added methodologies are enough to solve all the different phenomena that can occur is not sure. More testing is needed to find that out. But the demands on the industry to move towards full end to end virtual prototyping means that the virtual manufacturing part has to work streamlined. For the

sheet metal forming process this means that all stamping, flanging and hemming operations have to be calculated accurate enough to allow decisions to be made based on these results. This also includes springback and the compensation.

REFERENCES [Ling et al., 2007] David Ling, Jean-Luc Babeau, Alain Vaizian, Fouad El Khaldi; "Best practice methodology for Springback Prediction and Compensation "; Proceedings for IDDRG 2007 [Marquette et al., 2008] P. Marquette, A. Chambard, D. Ling, F. El Khaldi, P. Mourgue, H. Porzner; "Best practice methodology for Springback Prediction, Compensation and Assembly"; Proceedings for IDDRG 2007

Springback prediction of high precision thin metallic parts produced by multi-step stamping
M. Azaouzi, S. Belouettar, G. Rauchs and A. Makradi Department of Advanced Materials and Structures Centre de Recherche Public Henri Tudor, 29 Bd J.F. Kennedy L-1855, Luxembourg mohamed.azaouzi@tudor.lu

Abstract: The present paper addresses springback problem specific to the manufacturing by multi-step sheet metal forming process of high precision thin metallic parts for tire industry. Combining aspects such as large strain plasticity, high local field gradients, residual stresses and complex tool kinematics, simulating the multi-step stamping of high precision thin metallic parts represents a challenging task. A Finite Element Analysis (FEA) regarding the springback prediction of these parts is presented in this work. The objective is to study the influence of some numerical and physical parameters on the springback such as: friction coefficient, material hardening and size of the finite element mesh. The selected part is stamped by a manual press and without blank-holder in four successive steps. The numerical simulation of the stamping process is conducted with the finite element code ABAQUS using 2D solid finite element. Keywords: Sheet metal forming, Springback, FEA 1. INTRODUCTION Because springback causes shape changes that present major problems in the assembly process, springback must be considered during the design of the stamping tools. To determine the amount of shape change, a quantitative prediction of springback is very important. The results of springback simulated by Finite Element Method (FEM) may vary significantly according to how numerical factors are set, for example element size, punch velocity, contact penalty constant, damping ratio, etc. The accuracy of springback simulation depends also on the choice of the material constitutive model. For an accurate prediction of springback, an adequate hardening model must be considered to determine accurately the internal stress distribution within the sheet metal after deformation [Gau et al., 2001]. Thus, a great deal of research has been dedicated to develop new constitutive models aiming at better simulation of springback [Chung et al., 2005]. Based on the foundations for isotropic hardening and kinematic hardening, penalty contact algorithm, plane strain assumptions, and experimental observations, a numerical investigation has been performed in this paper to predict the springback of high precision thin metallic part obtained by multistep stamping process.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE STAMPED PART Figure 1 illustrate a high precision thin metallic part (typical dimensions: 50200.5mm) stamped in four successive steps which has been considered for the present study. The part is produced manually by stamping operations using small tools characterized by an accordion pleats as it shown in Figure 2. At each forming step, only two pleats are performed in order to avoid fracture of the part. The blank borders are not clamped into a blank-holder. The stamping depth at each forming step is respectively: 2.1mm, 2.4mm, 2.7mm and 3.1mm. The metallic part is made of very slightly anisotropic stainless steel AISI304 suitable for the deep drawing. The mechanical properties were determined from the simple tensile tests. The material plastic behaviour is described by the Ludwik law.

Figure 1; Shape of high precision thin metallic part (Stainless steel AISI304).

Figure 2; stamping tools.

3. MATERIAL HARDENING MODEL For processes in which the sheet metal is subjected to relatively linear loading paths (such as hemispherical punch stretching and cup-drawing tests), the simple assumption of isotropic hardening may provide good springback predictions. However, the results of simulations for processes in which sheet metal undergoes cyclic loading (such as alternative tension-compression or bending-unbending stresses), this assumption should be relaxed to account for the kinematic hardening effects associated with stress reversal. After a load reversal, a so-called Bauschinger effect can occur, depending on the material. A Bauschinger effect means a reduction of the yield stress when the loading direction is reversed. The Bauschinger effect is not taken into account by an isotropic hardening model, which is usually used for finite element simulations in sheet metal forming. Especially for springback analysis, modeling of the Bauschinger effect and cyclic hardening characteristics of materials is of vital importance. In the present study, Hills quadratic yield function [Hill, 1948] was used as the yield criterion. Three basic hardening models were employed to define the evolution of yield surface: isotropic hardening, kinematic hardening and a combined isotropic-nonlinear kinematic model proposed by Fredrick and Armstrong [Lematre, 1985]. In this model, the evolution for the location and size of the yield surface is defined respectively as: 2 X C0 p p X (1) 3
R C R Rsat R p

(2)

Where X denotes the backstress and R the data related to isotropic hardening, C0 and are material constants associated with nonlinear kinematic hardening, Rsat and CR are material constants associated with isotropic hardening. 4. NUMERICAL SIMULATION The forming stage was first analyzed using ABAQUS/Explicit and then the results were imported to ABAQUS/Standard to simulate the springback stage and obtain the final configuration of the part at equilibrium. There are several critical factors in the simulation of springback in sheet metal forming. After a preliminary sensitivity study of some numerical parameters such as, element type, mesh size and integration scheme, the authors found that the following conditions yielded the best results: - Solid plane-strain elements (denoted by CPE4R in ABAQUS) - A mesh consisting of 10 elements through the sheet thickness and 1000 elements along the length - ABAQUS/Explicit was used to simulate forming, while the ABAQUS/Implicit was used to simulate springback. - A penalty contact algorithm and a friction law of Coulomb were used. - A punch velocity equal to 2m/s was used to simulate the forming.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effects of material hardening, friction coefficient and finite element size on the springback prediction are discussed in this section. It is observed, both experimentally and numerically, that the springback decreases when the number of forming steps increases. That is, as the plastic deformation in the pleat increases, springback reduces. The springback magnitude varies with the successive forming steps. In fact, more the forming steps increase more the curvature of the sheet decreases and consequently its elongation becomes more important. This behavior is due to the increase of plastic deformation and residual stresses localization during deformation at the peak of each pleat. To evaluate the springback, the deviations are measured between the two extremities of the deformed sheet and on the top of the pleats after each forming step as shown in the Figure 3.

a- Step 1.

b- Satge 2.

c- Satge 3.

d- Satge 4. Figure 3; Springback after each forming stage. 5.1. Influence of the friction coefficient and material hardening model A series of 15 simulations were carried out: 5 with isotropic hardening, 5 with kinematic hardening and 5 with combined (isotropic-kinematic) hardening. In fact, for each hardening model a five numerical simulation are performed with different friction coefficient (from 0.1 to 0.3 using an increment of 0.05). Figure 4 shows the deviations between predicted and real final sheet elongation for different forming steps. Different

material hardening models are used to study the effect of the friction coefficent on the final sheet elongation. At each forming step, the sheet forming is performed at constant friction coefficient, then the sheet elongation is measured after the springback. Figure 4 shows the dependence of the predicted sheet elongation on the friction coefficient for different material hardening model at each forming step. The kinematic and combined hardening model lead to a relatively the same predicted elongation at the first and second forming steps. At the first forming step, the kinematic and combined hardening lead to elongations that overcome the real one, with a minimum difference at lower fiction coefficients. In contrast, the isotropic hardening model leads to elongations that underestimates the real one, with a minimun difference using 0.3 as friction coeficient. At the second step, the predicted elongation mutch the real one at about 0.21 as friction coeficient using kinematic and combined hardening and at 0.3 as friction coeficient for the isotropic hardening. At the third forming step, the isotrpic hardening leads to sheet elongation that underestimates the real one. While the predicted elongation can much the real one at about 0.22 as friction coeficient using the combined hardening and at about 0.26 as friction coeficient using the kinematic hardening. At the fourth forming step, only the combined hardening can predict an elongation that much the real one at about friction coefficient of 0.27.

a- Satge 1

b- Satge 2

c- Satge 3 d- Satge 4 Figure 4; Influence of the friction coefficient and hardening model on the springback. Figure 5 shows the evolution of the springback magnitude along the metal sheet at each forming step. The deviations are measured in differents points as illustrated in Figure 3. Relative to the kinematic model, the combined and the isotropic material behaviors lead to a less spingback at the first step. However on the the following second, third and fourth forming steps, the isotropic and the kinematic models lead to less springback compared to the combined model. Further the springback of the metal sheet decreases with the increase of the forming steps.

a- Satge 1

b- Satge 2

c- Satge 3 d- Satge 4 Figure 5; Influence of the hardening model on the springback. Figure 6 and 7 show the influence of the hardening model on the developed stresses in the wall of the pleat and specialy around the peaks where there is a permanent contact between the sheet and forming tools (punch and die). In the case of isotropic hardening model, some distorted finite element are observed around the peaks, this distortion is due to the numerical treatment of sheet-tools contact. This phenomena which affect the springback prediction does not appear in the case of kinematic and combined hardening model. As the stresses values are higher using isotropic hardening model, the elongation and deviation of the deformed sheet after springback are less important in comparison with kinematic model. The same result is obtained in the following forming steps.

Figure 6; Stress field before springback (first step).

Figure 7; Stress field after springback (first step). 5.2. Influence of the finite element size The size of the blank sheet elements has a direct influence on the stress field after forming. Especially the number of elements of the blank sheet contacting the radius of the tooling will represent, generally, the effects of the bending that drives the springback. Numerical simulation with 20 finite elements through the sheet thickness has been conducted. The effect of the finite element mesh on the springback at the first step is represented in Figure 8. The springback magnitude depends greatly on the finite element size through the sheet thickness. Taking into account the required precision of the stamping process (0.05mm), choosing an adequate finite element number through the thickness is very important to predict accurately the springback. The effect of the mesh size is also observed in the following forming steps.

Figure 8; displacement (mm) after springback (first step).

6. CONCLUSION Simulations were carried out using three hardening models (isotropic, kinematic and combined isotropic-kinematic) and different friction coefficient. For all cases, Hills 1948 yield function was used. A numerical comparison of predicted springback for all cases was presented. It can be concluded that for an accurate springback simulation of sheet metal forming processes it is important to model the material behavior during reverse loading accurately. The investigations show that, the use of combined hardening model allows to predict more accurately the srpingback. Further, it is shown that a springback prediction is very sensitive to numerical input parameters. It appears therefore that, accounting for a decrease in elastic modulus with plastic deformation and using more advanced constitutive models are required for a more accurate prediction of springback. The springback prediction is more accurate if a combined isotropickinematic hardening is taken into account. REFERENCES [Gau et al., 2001] Gau, J.; Kinzel, G.L.; A new model for springback prediction in which the Bauschinger effect is considered; International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 43, pp. 1813-1832 [Chung et al., 2005] Chung, K.; Lee, M.; Kim, D.; Kim, C.; Wenner, M.L.; Barlat, F.; Springback evaluation of automotive sheets based on isotropic-kinematic hardening laws and non-quadratic anisotropic yield functions Part I: theory and formulation; International Journal of Plasticity, 21, pp. 861-882. [Lematre, 1985] Lematre, J.; Chaboche, J.L.; Mechanics of Solid Materials; Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [Hill, 1948] Hill, R.; A theory of the yielding and plastic flow of anisotropic metals; Proc. R. Soc. Lond., A193, pp. 281-297.

Forming of WC coating structure by electric exploding of contact

Evgeny Grigoryev Kashirskoe sh., 31, Moscow, 115409, Russia EGGrigoryev@mephi.ru

Abstract: Electric exploding of a tungsten carbide cobalt material near-by high-speed steel surface forms on it a hardening coating. The essential structure properties of the formed coatings are determined by parameters of contact exploding electrode at the pulse current amplitude from above 106 A/cm2 and duration less than 10-4 s. The metallographic investigations of coating structures were done by microscope Neophot24. They have shown that the contact electric exploding caused the transfer of tungsten carbide and cobalt on the surface of high-speed steel. The breakdown of tungsten carbide cobalt material took place during electrical exploding. The hardening layers of tungsten carbide and pure nanocrystalline tungsten have been formed upon the surface of high-speed steel as a result of electric exploding. Crystalline grains of tungsten have an almost spherical form and their characteristic size less than 400 nanometers. Micro hardness of the coating layers and high-speed steel structures was measured. Keywords: electric exploding, tungsten carbide

1. INTRODUCTION In the present work WC/W coatings were obtained by electro-thermal explosion directional spraying technology. Tungsten carbide is extreme hard and wear resistant material, but, as a bulk material, WC is also of extraordinary brittleness [Lassner et al., 2000]. As a thin coating on high speed steel (HSS), however, it is used in compound materials combining a number of favorable properties of the base material as well as of the coating. The load of a component may be divided between base material and hard coating; mechanical stress and thermal load should be elastically received and dissipated, respectively, by the base material, whereas sliding quality and wear resistance should be guaranteed by the hard coating. By this method, which takes advantage of contact electrical explosion of a tungsten carbide cobalt material near-by high-speed steel surface, coatings of good homogeneity and surface quality can be obtained [Grigoryev, 2009]. In this way materials of high boiling temperature can be evaporated and coatings of high speed steel are attainable. In addition, in this method oxidation of the metal vapor is eliminated and better adhesion of the layer to the surface is obtained. Our investigations aimed at finding a method for producing coated surfaces needing no further treatment to improve their surface quality. A metallographic analysis

gives the clear picture of distributing of these surface structures and possibility of direct determination of their thickness.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The spraying process of contact exploding WC-Co electrode uses a pulsed high-current. The equivalent circuit of the Electric Exploding of Contact (EEC) System is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1; Schematic of Electric Exploding of Contact (EEC) system 1 Charging unit, 2 Capacitor bank, 3 Trigatron switch, 4 Electrical discharge ignition system, 5 Pulse electrical discharge registration system, 6 Coated surface, 7 WC-Co electrode. Electric Exploding of Contact (EEC) System for forming of coatings consists of charging unit (1); a bank of capacitors (2) and trigatron switch (3) to connect a coated surface (6) and WC-Co electrode (7) suddenly across the charged capacitor bank. The capacitor bank consists of thirty 200 F capacitors that can store up to 6 kV. The discharge high density current is measured by a toroidal Rogowsky coil (5). The spraying process was performed in the atmospheric environment. Essential features of electric contact explosion are caused by differences of electrical resistance between a contact surface and volume and their sharp change during passage of high current pulse. During the spraying process, the exploding WC-Co electrode is molten firstly, and then explodes into fine molten droplets because of the electric explosion. The molten droplets of tungsten carbide are sprayed onto the high speed steel substrate and solidify quickly to form a belay (WC and pure W) compact coating with a metallurgical bonding between the coating and substrate. The following commercial WC 8%Co material of exploding electrode was used as starting material for the spraying process. Figure 2 shows the representative micrograph of typical microstructure of WC 8%Co material before electrical explosion.

Figure 2; The typical microstructure of WC 8%Co material before electrical explosion (1250). Characteristics of the chemical composition of tungsten carbide cobalt material are resulted in Table I. Table I; The chemical composition of commercial WC Co material. Chemical WC Co free carbon total oxygen element mass % ~ 92 8 0.101 0.13 The commercial high-speed steel was used as starting material of a coated substrate. Characteristics of the chemical composition of this steel are resulted in Table II. Table 2; The chemical composition of high speed steel. 2 (AISI/ASTM) 65 (Russia) C 0,820,90 Cr 3,804,40 Chemical element, mass % W V Co 5,501,70 0,50 6,50 2,10 Mo 4,805,30 N

Figure 3 shows the representative micrograph of typical high speed steel structure.

Figure 3; The typical high speed steel structure before electrical explosion (400). The scheme of coating layers and thermal modified substrate (HSS) after electrical explosion is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4; The scheme of coating layers and thermal modified substrate after electrical explosion: 1 Unmodified HSS, 2 Modified HSS, 3 WC layer, 4 Nanostructure pure W. The metallographic investigations of coating structures were done by microscope Neophot-24. Micro hardness of coating layers was measured on micro hardness meter M-400G3 (Germany) using the Knup (HK) method under 50 g load according to the standard procedure. The samples were prepared by the standard method.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figures 5 and 6 are surface SEM photos of coated specimen by electro-thermal contact explosion. In Figures 5, 6 it can be seen clearly that the coating is extremely dense. The interface between the coating and the substrate without vacancy suggests that the coated materials are anchored strongly on the originally smooth surface of the substrates by a high velocity impact of the powder.

Figure 5; Surface SEM photo of coated specimen by electro-thermal contact explosion (500).

Figure 6; Surface SEM photo of coated specimen by electro-thermal contact explosion (1500). Figure 7 shows the optical microscopic image of cross section of the tungsten carbide / nanostructure pure tungsten coating formed on high speed steel substrate.

Figure 7; Optical microscopic image of the polished surface of the WC/W coating: 1 Unmodified HSS, 2 Modified HSS, 3 WC layer, 4 Nanostructure (mean grain size < 400 nm) pure W. The metallographic investigations of coating structures have shown that the contact electric exploding caused the transfer of tungsten carbide and nanostructure pure tungsten on the surface of high-speed steel. The hardening layers of tungsten carbide and pure nanocrystalline tungsten have been formed upon the surface of high-speed steel as a result of electric exploding. The small amount of cobalt (< 1 %) is revealed only between WC coating layer and substrate surface. The breakdown of tungsten carbide cobalt material took place during electrical exploding. Crystalline grains of tungsten have an almost spherical form and their characteristic size less than 400 nanometers. The layer of tungsten carbide has a high hardness (HV ~ 1800). Localization of heating and subsequent high-speed cooling in the small volume of highspeed steel results in formation of different structures. A metallographic analysis gives

the clear picture of distributing of these structures and possibility of its direct determination. It is established, that heat energy of electric explosion is located in a high speed steel contact zone of the width ~ 20 microns. The analysis (Tesla BS - 340, XNL 2001 A Spectrometer) of distribution of the maintenance of basic elements W, Co, Fe, Cr, Mo, V at scanning from a surface deep into a material has shown, that on a surface are absent Co, Fe and others elements. The micro hardness of the coating and substrate was determined across its whole thickness. The measured micro hardness (HV) shows substantial variance of data, see Table III. Table III; The micro hardness of the coating and high speed steel substrate. Layer number HV 1 2 3 4

700750 800850 10001800 400600

4. CONCLUSIONS The coating of WC and nanostructure pure W was produced by the electrothermal contact explosion technique. A specially designed exploding WC-Co electrode allowed electric energies to be located in thin surface zone (the width ~ 20 microns) of a high speed steel substrate. Molten particles ejected from the exploding WC-Co electrode formed deposits through deformation and solidification during impingement on a high speed steel substrate. The thickness of the coating obtained by electric explosion was about 17 m (WC layer ~ 7 m, nanostructure pure W ~ 10 m). The WC and nanostructure pure W coating exhibited small change in chemical composition due to decarburization. Refractory WC-Co composite material was sprayed and deposited to form a WC/W coating on high speed steel without the use of additives or sintering agents to suppress chemical decomposition and enhance bonding of coating with substrate.

REFERENCES [Lassner et al., 2000] Erik Lassner; Wolf-Dieter Schubert; "Tungsten-Properties, Chemistry, Technology of the Element, Alloys, and Chemical Compounds"; Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, pp. 110; London 2000; ISBN 0306450534 / 0-306-45053-4 [Grigoryev, 2009] E.G. Grigoryev; Coating of strengthening coverings by electric explosion of contact; In: Proceedings of the 7th International Scientific - Practical Conference "Research, Development and Application of High Technologies in Industry"; Vol. 2; pp. 96-97; St. Petersburg 2009; ISBN 978-5-7422-2228-0

APPLASTING - LOW PRESSURE GAS FORMING TECHNOLOGY FOR BORON STEEL TUBES
Leire Vadillo1, Iaki Prez1, Izuru Hori2, Jose Ignacio Zarazua 1, ngela Mangas 1, Juan San Jos1, M Angeles Gutirrez1, Uwe Paar3 1 Metal Forming Department of Tecnalia Technological Corporation, Derio / Spain 2 R&D Group, Honda Engineering Europe, Ltd., Swindon / United Kingdom 3 Planning and Innovation Hot Stamping, Volkswagen AG, Kassel / Germany lvadillo@labein.es

Abstract: The Applasting process consists of changing the shape of a tubular specimen at high temperature by means of an external effort. This external pressure provided by a press or other mechanical or hydraulical installation is compensated by the inner gas pressure inserted in the tubular specimen. The main technological advantage of the Applasting process is the possibility of obtaining small radius in the final parts and therefore more complex geometries by means of a very low forming pressure, well away from the high pressure rates used in processes such as hydroforming or in other tube hot blowing projects [1,2]. Tecnalia has developed the Applasting process with the support of Honda, who has a deep knowledge in the technology (thanks to the already industrialised serial production of aluminum subframes by hot tubes blowing) and Volkswagen. The main results of the study will be explained in the paper. The 3D simulation in Ls-Dyna software has been validated. Prototype parts were manufactured by Applasting out of a Usibor1500P boron steel tube of 63,5 mm diameter and 1,75 mm thickness provided by the company Arcelor-Mittal. The minimal radius obtained in the part was 3,5 mm at only 2 MPa internal pressure. The quenching method for hardenable boron steel tubes will be discussed in the paper. The Usibor1500P tubes after heating, applasting and quenching process have a hardness that reaches 1530 MPa, therefore its use for reducing part thickness and therefore automotive CO2 emissions make this technology be very promising. Keywords: Tube, boron, forming, steel, quenching

1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays there is a high demand of car weight reduc-tion related to the need of CO2 emissions decrease. Many automotive manufacturers are aimed at the use of new steel brands which can compensate the lower sheet thickness with a high mechanical response. This is the case of the hot stamped parts, already industrialized and with an increasing number of OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and Tier1 suppliers

aimed at the production of UHSS (Ul-tra High Strength Steel) parts by using this method. This technology has been mainly aimed at producing steel sheet parts in the bodyin-white of the car, such as Tunnels, B-Pillars, A-Pillars, etc. In this paper this solution will be applied to tubular specimens. Tubular shapes have additional advantages such as rigidity provided by the closed section geometry. In the case of the A-Pillar, a tubular geometry makes it possible to have a part with smaller cross section, which reduces the visibility field avoidance provided by this structural part made of sheet. Welding different sheet metal parts in order to obtain a closed geometry leads to a high production cost that can be decreased by using an initial tubular blank and thus reducing the number of parts, the number of tools and the logis-tic costs added to this. The Applasting process consists of changing the shape of a tubular specimen at high temperature by means of an external effort. This external pressure provided by a press or other mechanical or hydraulic installation is compen-sated by the inner gas pressure existing in the tubular specimen.

2. 2D SIMULATION MODEL In order to get a better understanding of the tube defor-mation process, a simulation work was done with LS-Dyna software. The objective of the simulation was to determine which one the best pressure curve for obtaining the final geometry with the minimum radius was. Also it was taken into account that no tube thickness modification is desired. The tube material was boron steel Usibor1500P deliv-ered by the company ArcelorMittal. It is a hardenable steel with an Aluminum-Silicon coating used to avoid oxidation during heating at high temperatures. The Usi-bor1500P is the most popular steel used for sheet hot stamping technology. A simple case that modifies an initial tubular circular shape to a rectangular one was selected. The tube had initially 1.75 mm thickness and an external diameter of 63.5 mm and it was modified to a rectangular shape of 30 mm x 70 mm in order to maintain the perimeter of the tube. For making this modification an upper die moves at 30 mm/sec towards the lower die where the tube is placed. As the electrovalve (for inserting the gas into the tube at a specific pressure) available for the experiments operates at 2,8 bar/sec the following pressure curve was proposed: P = Po + 0.28 t (1)

where optimal Po (initial pressure value) was determined by means of the simulation task. A simple model of the process without thermal calcula-tion, half a slice of the geometry due to the symmetry of the process, was considered.

Figure 1. Tube 2D simulation model The following conclusions were drawn from the simulation work: under the restriction of the air supply valve, the initial value of the pressure is more important than its in-creasing path during the process; using maximum increasing speed of the pressure is a good choice to get the minimum corner radius; the following pressure curve was tested to check that optimal results were obtained: P = 6.3749 + 0.28t (2)

Figure 2. Minimum radius for the selected curve For this pressure curve 1.87 mm radius was obtained with a 1.658 mm minimum thickness. The corresponding final tube heights and minimal radius before wrinkles related to the internal pressure values were also obtained by means of simulation and shown in the following Figure 3.
H = Tube height for minimal radius before wrinkles Pressure 1 MPa 2 MPa H 3 MPa 4 MPa H (mm) 33.8 33.8 34.1 34.7 Radius (mm) 2.798 2.608 2.520 2.520

Figure 3. 2D Simulation results for height and final radius

3. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS The simulation of the Applasting process was validated by a set of experimental tests that reproduced the simula-tion paths followed. The Applasting process includes several stages that are summarized in the following lines: 1. Tube heating by conduction 2. Gas inner pressure in the tube 3. Forming process 4. Die cooling and therefore tube quenching 5. Tube extraction In Figure 4 the Applasting experimental unit is shown [3]. It consists of: 1. hydraulic production press Loire-Safe 800 Tn. (3000 x 2000 mm table); 2. electrical clamps for the tube and transformer as electri-cal furnace to heat the tube by conduction; 3. pressure plant: a gas tank with an electrovalve used to control the tube inner gas pressure; 4. upper punch and lower die including the cooling chan-nels for quenching the tube material; 6. cooling system including pump; 7. control and monitoring equipment.

Figure 4. Applasting experimental unit An essential part of the experimental unit is the tooling cooling system. Thanks to the high expertise of Tecnalia in the study of the hot stamping technology it was possible to design an adequate cooling system for achieving the desired cooling rate of 27K/sec which is necessary for obtaining a martensitic microstructure on the tube wall. The cooling time is essential for reducing the cycle time of the process and therefore several aspects have influence, such as the following ones: tool material: a high conductive tool material evacuates the generated heat more easily than a lower conductive one;

 tool initial temperature: a lower initial tool temperature implies less time to reach the desired final temperature of the blank [4]; contact pressure between blank and tools: higher pressures lead to faster cooling of the blank. In the case of the Applasting process, the target is to reach the final geometry with a very low inner pressure of the tube, therefore this is a variable that cannot be optimized for it. The pressure of 2 MPa was chosen for the experimental tests.

4. VALIDATION OF THE 2D SIMULATIONS In order to validate the 2D simulation results some ex-perimental tests were performed, producing by Applasting several formed tubes at different final heights and inserting different pressure values as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Experimental tests performed

The objective was to validate the corner radius obtained by means of simulation for each of these cases. During the experimental tests it was observed that a dif-ference between the upper and lower radius in the final tube shape was obtained. This did not happen in the 2D simulation cases that had been run, as shown in the next Figure 5, where upper and lower radius in the tube were equal during the whole forming process.

t=0s

t=0.233s

t=0.583s

t=0.934s

Figure 5. Section shape evolution of the tube: results of simulation with 2D model The 2D model simulations could not be validated. It was necessary to build a 3D model with fixed ends in the tube in order to reproduce by means of simulation the results regarding tube section shape evolution obtained in the experimental Applasting tests.

5. 3D SIMULATION MODEL As the 2D model did not take into account the fact that the end of the tubes were fixed, a new 3D model was built in order to observe the effects of this condition.

Figure 6. Tube 3D simulation model The results of these 3D simulations matched the experimental ones as it is addressed in the following figures.

t=0s

t=0.233s

t=0.583s

t=0.934s

Figure 7. Section shape evolution of the tube: results of simulation with 3D model

Figure 8. Simulation results: final geometry, radius and thickness distribution The results show a very good agreement between the radius values obtained by simulation and the measured ones, except for tests 4 and 6. Regarding the tube thickness, the simulation values are slightly higher than the measured ones.

Figure 9. Experimental tube produced by Applasting

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -45
Perfil Soldadura Matriz Lmites de esquinas

TOP
E1 1 2 3 4 5

E2

Height (mm) Altura

14

FPD
13

FPT
7

E4

12

11

10

E3

BOTTOM

-40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Distancia (mm) Distance

Figure 10. Experimental results: final geometry of tube Table 2. Radius comparison

Table 3. Thickness comparison

6. PROCESS CONTROL The following parameters are controlled during the Applasting process: tube temperature (by means of welded thermocouples to the tube); tube inner pressure; press vertical position; die temperature. During the tests the following conclusions were extracted: it was possible to register a cooling rate of 23.7 C/sec; the die temperature reached 120C, which decreased the cooling rate of the tube. This could be solved by a constant die cooling.

7. PARTS FINAL CHARACTERISTICS Different cooling systems were tested during the project, obtaining a maximal hardness of 1530 MPa on the formed tube.

Figure 11. Applasting die with cooling hoses connections

8. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper the fundamentals of the Applasting process for producing hardened formed UHSS tubes were addressed. The 3D simulation with the software LS-Dyna was validated by comparison of final radius and thicknesses with the tubes formed during the experimental Applasting tests performed at Tecnalia facilities. For a target rectangular geometry of 30mm x 70 mm it was possible to obtain an external radius of 3,5 mm using an internal tube pressure of only 2 MPa. The hardness obtained using cooling water channels in the die for quenching the boron alloyed steel tube reached the value of 1530 MPa.

The Applasting technology is a promising method for producing body-in-white components, obtaining tubular hardened parts that allow the desired thickness reduction in order to decrease car weight. Further studies will be devoted to produce an industrial part. Target parts for this technology are, among others, A-Pillars, bumpers, rails and rear axles.

9. ACKNOWLEDMENTS The authors of the paper wish to thank Arcelor-Mittal for the delivery of the Usibor1500P tubes that were used for the experimental tests of this project.

REFERENCES [1] R. Neugebauer et.al., Gas forming with integrated heat treatment for high performance steel- a solution for press hardened tubes and pro-files, CHS2 Congress 2009, Lulea, Sweden [2] Metallic member forming method, Patent JP 2003-154415, Aisin Takaoka [3] J.I. Zarazua, L. Vadillo, M.A. Gutierrez , V. Uthaisangsuk , Steel tubes forming: Hot Metal Gas Forming Labein, IFU Congress 2008, Stuttgart, Germany [4] I. Aranguren, M. Santos, S. Varela, B. Gonzlez, B. Fernndez, Evaluation and optimization of simulation software codes for the de-sign of a tooling for a hot stamped industrial part, CHS2 Congress 2009, Lulea, Sweden

Impulse magnetic cutting of hollow profiles

Paul Maier-Komor, Hartmut Hoffmann, Martin Ostermair Walther-Meiner-Strae, 85747 Garching, Germany, paul.maier-komor@utg.de

Abstract: Semi-finished parts with a hollow profile are commonly used in plant and container construction or automotive engineering. Mandatory cutting operations within the process chain are normally done using laser or metal-cutting manufacturing. These processes are cost intensive due to expensive machines, tools, laser gas, indispensable lubrication and a long part production time. The application of pulse magnetic fields as an alternate concept for cutting these parts earns diverse advantages. Research done at our institute shows, that it is possible to cut semi-finished parts by using magnetic impulse cutting (IMC). It is possible to realize complex cutting geometries with homogeneous cutting surface free of cracks and without a burr. In addition to the analyzed cutting geometries and surfaces the needed loading energy and its influencing factors have been quantified. Keywords: blanking, magnetic pulse, high speed

1. INTRODUCTION Blanking is one of the most used manufacturing methods. Almost every work piece made of sheet metal needs at least one cutting operation. Hollow profiles are difficult to cut by means of shear cutting, especially if there is a difficult cutting geometry. Complex and expensive tools are needed for this application. Hence a laser or machining normally is applied for cutting such parts. An example of use for this application is cutting the ends of parts, which were made by hydro forming. Magnetic impulse cutting (IMC) has - compared to lasers or complex tools - several advantages for cutting hollow profiles [3]: - There is no heat insertion during the cutting process into the material and thus no change of the material structure occurs. - Tools with low complexity are used. - Only one side of the material has contact to a hard tool. - No additives as oil or gas are needed for the process. - The needed pulse generator may be applied universal for cutting, forming and joining.

2. PROCEDURAL PRINCIPLE Cutting - using pulse magnetic fields - works with the same active principle as electromagnetic forming (see Figure 1). It operates on basis of active energy. The loading energy of the pulse generator is discharged with a single pulse into a coil, which generates an electromagnetic field. This primary current is sinusoidal damped (see Figure 4) and the first half-wave appears in about 50 s depending on the pulse generator and the coil. It induces a secondary current in the work piece, which is opposed to the primary current of the coil. The electromagnetic fields of these two currents repel each other and provide the required force to form and finally cut the work piece [2, 3].
Coil Primary current Magnetic field Work piece Secondary current

Figure 1: Active principle of electromagnetic cutting (expansion)

2.1. Magnetic field characteristics There are three different kinds of magnetic fields which can be used for IMC. First the tube expansion has to be mentioned. In this case the coil is cylindrical and placed inside the work piece to expand it (see Figure 2 left). The second magnetic field characteristic is the tube contraction with a cylindrical coil, which is situated around the work piece to reduce the diameter (see Figure 2 middle). The third kind of magnetic field is used for sheet metal forming in which case a planar spiral coil is applied. In these studies the expansion and compression are examined [2, 3] in order to cut hollow profiles.

Half finished product Effective direction magnetic field

Active element Coil

Figure 2: Magnetic field characteristics for IMC

2.2. Principle of IMC In order to cut with electromagnetic fields additional tools aside the coil are needed. As shown in Figure 3, two active elements are used for the cutting process, which are placed directly at the work piece. The cutting ring is the geometric defined cutting edge to cut the material. The supporting ring is used to lower the needed loading power for cutting the material, to reduce the cutting noise and to achieve best cutting quality. Similarly a cutting cylinder and a supporting cylinder are used for compression [3, 4, 5].
Cutting ring Supporting ring

++++++
Cutting cylinder Supporting cylinder

++ ++ ++

Half finished product Effective direction magnetic field

Active element Coil

Figure 3: Principle of IMC expansion (left) and compression (right) By discharging the capacitors of the pulse generator the magnetic field (see Figure 3) forms the material in regions without active elements with fast forming speed. Thus the material is touched only by an active element on one side, which is profitable for a high grade surface of the work piece. The forming speed is significant faster than standard high speed cutting with a 100 to 300 m/s compared to max. 10 m/s [3, 4, 5].

3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

3.1. Pulse generator For the experimental tests an ELMAG pulse generator with 12 capacitors with 120 F each and a maximal loading energy of 60 kJ was used. The ELMAG works with a rated voltage of 10 kV. In Figure 4 the discharging current with a loading energy of 4 kJ is shown. The electric pulse is sinusoidal damped and the frequency depends particularly on the capacity and inductivity of the machine and the inductivity of the coil. The pulse generator (expansion coil and four capacitors in use) has a discharging time of 50 s for the first peak (shown in Figure 4). This first peak is responsible for the induced secondary current and thus for the power of the magnetic field. The degree of efficiency of the electric pulse depends on the discharging frequency and the electrical conductance of the formed or cut material [2, 3].

60 45

Current [kA]

30 15 0 -15 -30 0 50 100 Time [s] 150 200

Figure 4: Discharge pulse with 4 kJ loading energy 3.2. Test component The testing geometry is a tube with a diameter of 94 mm. The sheet thickness is 1.4 mm (see Figure 5). The materials of the test components are an aluminium alloy (AlMg3.5Mn), which is commonly used for hydro forming, another aluminium alloy (AlMgSi1) with a much higher conductivity than AlMg3.5Mn and a magnesium alloy AZ31. The technical data of the three alloys are shown in Table 1. AlMg3.5Mn AlMgSi1 AZ31 Aluminium Aluminium Magnesium 18.3 30.8 11.7 Conductivity [m/mm2] 2 Tensile strength [N/mm ] 264 275 120 Diameter [mm] 94 94 Thickness [mm] 1.4 1.4 Table 1: Experimental material and geometry 94 1.4

4. RESULTS On the left of Figure 5 the tube formed using an expansion coil is shown. The formed area of the part was placed between the cutting ring and the supporting ring. In this case the cutting energy was adjusted too low for cutting the material in order to show the forming process. On the right side of the Figure the cut part with its waste is shown. The whole cutting process takes about 0.1 ms depending on the pulse generator, the material and the coil. The main fact that limits the number of cuts per minute, is the charging time of the capacitors which averages some seconds depending on the capacitor and the needed energy. With this experimental setup the charging time is about 5 s.

Test component

Formed material

Cut material Waste Cutting surface

Cut part

Figure 5: Test Component (left), formed material (middle), cut material (right) [5] 4.1. Cutting processes Shear cutting is subdivided in several different processes, which are defined in DIN 8588 (see Figure 6 left) [1]. On the basis of this classification it is possible to arrange IMC in the same way (see Figure 6, middle). The presented cutting processes are realized cutting geometries with IMC. Therefore the manufacturing of a wide range of different geometries is possible. In this context the trimming of work piece ends (for example parts made by hydro forming), the abscission of endless profiles, the separation of multiple parts or punching and coping of profiles, may be named. In Figure 6 on the right side an example for coping is shown.
Shear cutting Trimming Abscission Cropping Coping Nibbling Slitting Recutting Punching Blanking IMC

Coping with IMC

Figure 6: Cutting processes defined in DIN 8588, cutting processes realized with IMC, example for coping (right)

4.2. Needed cutting energy For different cutting geometries and materials more or less cutting energy is needed in order to realize a complete separation of the material. The cutting energy for the three materials and the cutting processes are displayed in Figure 7 and 8. This comparison is made for the case of expansion and trimming and a cutting edge radius of 20 m. The energy is given in J/mm based on the sheet thickness. Setting the attention on the material obviously the cutting energy is mainly dependent on the materials tensile strength and conductivity. AlMg3.5Mn has the highest tensile strength of the examined three materials and the lowest conductivity. In this case it is not surprising that AlMg3.5Mn needs the highest specific cutting energy with

6.5 J/mm2, which relates to 9.2 kJ of loading energy. Aluminium AlSi1 has a slightly higher tensile strength but a 50 % higher conductivity and needs about 1 J/mm2. That is 5 % less energy than AlMg3.5Mn. Thus the tensile strength has a superior impact on the needed cutting energy using IMC. The magnesium alloy needs 60 % cutting energy compared to AlMg3.5Mn. It has about half the tensile strength and conductivity, which again shows to the high influence of the tensile strength on the cutting energy.
Expansion - trimming - cutting radius 20 m

Cutting Energy / Cutting surface [J/mm]

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 AlMg3.5Mn AlSi1 AZ31

Figure 7: Cutting energy for different materials The different cutting processes need different cutting energies, which are displayed in Figure 8. The open cutting lines (trimming, coping) need almost equivalent energy despite different cutting line lengths (290 mm for trimming and 580 mm for the larger coping). The small heightening of the needed energy results from the larger dimensions of the geometry, because it reaches into areas where the magnetic field is weaker. The closed cutting lines (punching) have a demand of energy which is directly dependent of its enclosed area, which is available for the magnetic pressure. Thus the largest hole with 30 mm x 30 mm needs the lowest energy. The smallest tested hole with 20 mm x 20 mm already needs 35 % more energy. Thus small holes are very energy intensive to cut with IMC.
Expansion - trimming - cutting radius 20 m

Cutting Energy / Cutting surface [J/mm]

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Trimming Coping - 6 mm 3 mm Coping - 20 mm 10 mm Punching - 30 mm 30 mm Punching - 30 mm Punching - 20 mm 20 mm

Figure 8: Cutting energy for different cutting geometries

4.3. Cutting surface The properties of a cutting surface, which is produced by IMC, may be separated as it is described in the VDI Norm 2906 (see Figure 9 - left) [6] for the shear cutting process. Mainly there are five regions mentioned in the Norm: the rollover, the cleanly sheared edge, the fracture zone, the angle of the fracture zone and the burr.
Shear cutting (schematic) Rollover Cleanly sheared edge Fracture zone Fracture angle Burr Fracture angle IMC expansion Rollover

Fracture zone

No burr

Figure 9: Schematic cutting surface made by shear cutting (left), cutting surface of AlMg3,5Mn made by IMC expansion (right) An IMC (expansion) cutting surface has the same characteristics, but normally the cleanly sheared edge is missing and the burr is avoided. An example of a cutting surface cut with IMC is shown in Figure 9. Displayed is an aluminium tube (ALMg3,5Mn) with a diameter of 94 mm and a thickness of 1,4 mm. The part was measured with a tactile profile measurement tool (Mahr GmbH). The surface has the three parts of the cutting surface, which are representative for IMC: a large rollover, which is followed by a homogeneous fracture zone free of cracks. At the end of the cutting surface there is no burr. The homogeneous fracture zone and the avoided burr are results of the fast forming speed. They are characteristic for the high cutting quality evaluated by IMC. If the compression is used for cutting, the rollover is at the outside of the tube, which causes a high surface quality. In comparison to the expansion, radial compressive stresses appear in the tube, during the reduction of its diameter. Due to this the cutting surface cut by compression has a fracture angle near to 90. The other characteristics are aside from the mirror symmetry the same, it the same material and sheet thickness are used.
IMC expansion Outside of tube Rollover IMC compression Inside of tube Rollover

Fracture zone

Fracture zone

Fracture angle

No burr

Fracture angle

No burr

Figure 10: Cutting surface of an AlMg3,5Mn tube cut by IMC expansion and compression

5. CONCLUSION IMC has several advantages for cutting profiles. There is no need for additives as gas or oil, which has positive effects on the environment and the expenses. The avoidance of a heat insertion into the material provides an ideal material structure. Besides this the high quality cutting surface enables the user to process the parts without cost intensive secondary steps, for removing a burr, for example. Compression may be used for achieving almost rectangular cutting surfaces with a rollover on the outside. The tensile strength has a superior impact on the needed cutting energy compared to the conductivity. The studied and realized cutting processes provide a wide variety of cutting geometries, which opens numerous applications for IMC.

REFERENCES [1] [2] DIN 8588: Fertigungsverfahren Zerteilen Ein-ordnung, Unterteilung, Begriffe. Ref. Nr. DIN 8588:2003-09; Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, Germany, 2003. Hahn, R.: Werkzeuge zum impulsmagnetischen Warmfgen von Profilen aus Aluminium- und Magnesiumlegierungen. Dissertation, Technische Universitt Berlin Germany, 2004. T. Kautz, : Impulsmagnetisches Beschneiden von dnnwandigen Hohlprofilen. Shaker-Verlag Aachen, Germany, 2008. P. Maier-Komor, H. Hoffmann.: Nachbearbeitungsfreies Schnei-den geschlossener Hohlprofile mit dem Impuls-magnetverfahren. Impulsmagnetisches Kolloquium Dortmund, Germany, 2009. P. Maier-Komor, H. Hoffmann .: Schneiden von Hohlprofilen mittels Impulsmagnetfeldern. 30. EFB-Kolloquium Blechverarbeitung, Bad Boll, Germany, 2010 VDI 2906: Schnittflchenqualitt beim Schneiden, Beschneiden und Lochen aus Metall. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure; Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin Germany, 1994.

[3] [4]

[5]

[6]

High-Strain-Rate Forming of Aluminum and Steel Sheets for Automotive Applications

Aashish Rohatgi, Elizabeth V. Stephens, Ayoub Soulami, Richard W. Davies and Mark T. Smith Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, P.O. Box 999, Richland, WA 99352, USA aashish.rohatgi@pnl.gov

Abstract: The formability of aluminum alloy AA5182-O and DP600 steel sheets at high-strain-rates was investigated using an electrohydraulic forming (EHF) setup. Test sheets, 1 mm thick and ~152 mm diameter, were subjected to a pressure-pulse (several 100 s duration) generated by a high-energy (up to ~34 kJ) under-water electrical discharge. The real-time strain and strain-rate of the deforming sheets were quantified by the digital image correlation (DIC) technique using a pair of high-speed cameras (~15 s per frame). Strain-rate amplification of upto 6-times was observed when the sheets were deformed into a conical die, with the maximum in-plane strain-rate and strain for aluminum measured as ~1200 /s and ~0.2, respectively. The deformation behavior of Al sheets was modeled using ABAQUS/explicit finite element code. A new pressure profile is suggested that gave better agreement between the predicted and the experimental deformation behavior, relative to the pressure-profile from literature [Golovashchenko et al. 2005]. Keywords: Pulse-pressure forming, ductility, electrohydraulic forming

1. INTRODUCTION The goal of this research is to enable broader deployment of light-weight sheet materials, such as aluminum (Al) alloys, magnesium (Mg) alloys and high-strength and advanced high-strength steels (HSS and AHSS, respectively), in body-in-white and closure panels for automotive applications. Sheet-forming techniques, such as stamping, can be expensive due to the need for matching die-pairs and may suffer from the problem of spring-back in formed parts. On the other hand, high strain-rate forming techniques, such as explosive forming, electromagnetic forming (EMF), electrohydraulic forming (EHF) etc. [Metals Handbook, 1988] are quite attractive techniques since they require only a single-sided die, the matching die being replaced by the impulse force generated by an explosive, electromagnetics or electrical discharge, respectively. These high-strain-rate techniques also produce less spring-back and are believed to enhance the ductility in sheet metals [Smerd et al., 2005; El-Magd et al., 2005]. However, there is a general lack of information on the formability, and the
Notice: This manuscript has been authored by Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest Division, under Contract No. DE-AC05-76RL01830 with the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes.

strain-rates associated with such high-rate forming processes. Over the past several years, significant efforts have been made in modeling the EMF process [Golovashchenko, 1996], [Daehn], [Fenton, 1998], [Panshikar, 2000] and a survey of these modeling efforts can be found in [El-Azab et al. 2003]. Unlike EMF, less attention has been devoted to the experimental and modeling efforts for the EHF process [Golovashchenko et al., 2005]. Therefore, the objectives of this work are to improve our understanding of the EHF process and of the deformation behavior of aluminum and steel sheets formed by EHF. The sheet deformation behavior (i.e. displacement, velocity, strain and strain-rate) as a function of time was experimentally quantified using high-speed imaging. ABAQUS/explicit finite element model was also developed to numerically simulate the sheet deformation behavior. The simulated deformation behavior (Al) using the EHF pressure-pulse profile from literature [Golovashchenko et al., 2005] showed poor correlation with the experimental results. An alternate EHF pressure-pulse profile, qualitatively based on experimental velocitytime curve, is suggested and was found to give better agreement between the predictions and the experimental results. The details of the EHF experiments, results and analysis, and the approach to model the sheet deformation behavior, are described below.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The test materials, experimental apparatus and test procedures are described below. 2.1. Test materials The electrohydraulic forming experiments were performed on 5182-O aluminum (1 mm thick) and dual phase (DP) PNNL 600 steel (1 mm thick) sheet metal EHF Fixture under free-forming boundary conditions and in a conical die. Copper Sheet specimens were cut into Electrodes squares, 28 cm x 28 cm in size, with equally spaced eight-bolt holes cut into them to match the hole pattern on the EHF fixture Bolt (Fig. 1). During the test, ~152 Holes Hold-down mm diameter section of the sheet Ring was exposed to the pressure wave originating from the hemispherical EHF chamber. Figure 1: PNNLs electrohydraulic forming 2.2. Electrohydraulic (EHF) chamber. forming apparatus The EHF chamber was machined out of steel and consisted of a hemi-spherical chamber (~152 mm diameter) with two opposing copper electrodes (see Fig. 1) shorted

Y X

Figure 2: PNNL ~45conical die, shown inverted. by a thin copper wire. The chamber was filled with tap-water and the test sheet clamped over it with a hold-down ring and 8 steel bolts. The EHF electrodes Figure 3: Cameras top-view of an were connected to a capacitor bank and a undeformed speckle patterned sheet program written in LabView software clamped in a free-forming die (opening was used to control the charge-discharge diameter ~152 mm). The z-axis is process. For a given charge voltage V, pointing out of the plane of the paper. the electrical energy input was calculated as CV2 where C is the capacitance (750 F) of the bank. The capacitor discharge results in large electrical currents flowing through the thin copper wire (connecting the electrodes) resulting in its rapid vaporization and, thus, generating a pressure-pulse within the surrounding water. This pressure pulse is responsible for the deformation observed in the metallic sheet. For selected experiments, a conical die (Fig. 2) with an opening at its apex was clamped over the sheet. Thus, the pressure-pulse forced the sheet to form into the conical cavity and the deformation was imaged by the cameras through the opening in the apex of the conical die. 2.3. High-speed camera imaging A speckle pattern was applied to the test sheet by painting its exposed face with white automotive paint and then randomly applying black spots (equivalent of ~3-5 camera pixels) with a marker (Fig. 3). High intensity lamps were used to illuminate the speckle patterned surface and a pair of Photron SA1 high-speed cameras was used to capture the sheet deformation at 67,500 frames per second and at a resolution of 256 x 256 pixels. The camera was allowed to continuously record the images in a rolling buffer and was manually triggered to stop the image capture on the basis of the sound generated during capacitor discharge. Of the total ~1.3 s worth of images stored in the cameras on-board memory, the image sequence corresponding to the sheet deformation was selected for subsequent image analysis.

2.4. Quantification of sheet deformation behavior Digital image correlation (DIC) software from Correlated Solutions, Inc., in conjunction with the image sequence captured by the high-speed cameras, was used to quantify the sheet displacement, velocity, strain and strain-rate, as a function of time in the EHF experiments. DIC is a data analysis method which analyzes a sequence of digital images and uses white-light speckle correlation where any two consecutive speckled images, captured by a video camera, represent the incremental stages during the deformation process. The software determines the displacement of the object in the image sequence and the Lagrangian strain tensor is available at every point on the surface. Knowing the image capture rate, the software displays displacement, velocity, strain, and strain-rate as a function of time. A quick check of the softwares analysis was performed by comparing the final dome heights determined by the DIC software with those measured physically on the deformed sheet; a good agreement was obtained for all the tests. 2.5. Computer modeling and simulation A key unknown in the EHF experiments is the spatial and temporal pressure profile generated by the electrical discharge. In this work, an exponential form of a pressuretime profile, defined by Golovashchenko [Golovashchenko et al. 2005], was used:
P t P0 N P t exp bt
a

Eq. 1

where P0 is the pressure amplitude, the characteristic time, NP = exp[a(1-ln(a/b))], and a, b, and c are defined as a = c[1-c(1-ln(c))], b = a/c, c Angle = 45 = tm/ and tm represents the duration of the pressure increase from 0 to P0. ABAQUS was used to simulate the deformation behavior of the 1 mm thick, L=76.2mm aluminum sheet. Due to the symmetry of the EHF setup, Figure 4: Representation of the model for freean axi-symmetric model was forming and conical die boundary conditions. adopted. The upper and lower dies were modeled as rigid bodies and the distance from the sheet-center to the lower die cavity is 76.2 mm. The upper die radius is 3.175 mm (see Figure 4). The Al sheet was meshed using 1D axi-symmetric shell elements type SAX1 (lateral dimension 0.1 mm). 2D CAX4R elements were also tested for comparison purposes. Encastre boundary conditions were applied to the Al sheet at the clamping area, while symmetry boundary conditions

Free forming die

were applied to the center of the sheet. An assumed pressure distribution along the Al sheet was adopted in the simulation such that the time and spatial variation of pressure can be expressed as follows: x P x, t P t 1 for 0 x 2 L Eq. 2 2L where L is defined in Fig. 4. Literature data on high strain rate tensile deformation behavior of Al [Smerd et al., 2005] showed an absence of strain-rate sensitivity and was, therefore, modeled by the following power law equation with the numerical constants being determined by the best-fit of Smerds results [Smerd et al., 2005].

90 455 0.32

Eq. 3

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Experimental results Figures 5 shows the displacement in the z-direction at sheet center for the Al and DP600 sheets under free forming conditions and at the indicated charging voltages. The curves in Fig. 5 show that the maximum displacement (dome apex) was ~40-50 mm with the dome height increasing with increasing input energy for a given material (Al). Since DP600 steel is much stronger than 5182-O Al, its maximum displacement (40 mm at 9.5 kV) is same or lower than the height for Al tested at lower energies (6.5 and 7.5 kV). The equivalent plastic strains [Dieter 1986] at the dome apex for Al deformed at 6.5 and 7.5 kV were converted to corresponding uniaxial strains, ~ and ~, 60
Displacement(mm)
Dome Apex PNNL TestT15 Al:Freeform 6.5kV Al:Freeform 7.5kV DP:Freeform 9.5kV Al 7.5kV

50 40 30 20 10 0 0 500 Time(s) 1000 1500

Figure 5: The displacement in the z-direction (out of plane) at the dome apex for Al 5182-O and DP 600 sheet metal under free forming conditions.

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 0 500 Time(s) 1000

Al:Freeform 6.5kV Al:Freeform 7.5kV DP:Freeform 9.5kV

Velocity(m/s)

1500

Figure 6: The velocity in the z-direction (out of plane) at the dome apex for Al 5182O and DP600 sheet metal under free forming conditions. respectively, and the area under the uniaxial stress-uniaxial strain curves (to and ) using high-strain rate tensile data for Al [Smerd et al., 2005] was determined. It was found that ~37% more energy is needed for high-rate plastic deformation of Al from and tensile strain and this figure matches well with the 33% increase in electrical energy input corresponding to a voltage increase from 6.5 kV to 7.5 kV. Figure 6 shows the velocity of the sheets, corresponding to the displacement-time curves in Fig. 5. A maximum velocity of ~100 m/s was observed in these tests. Irrespective of the material and the charging voltage, the velocity-time curves show a similar trend: the maximum velocity is reached in ~200 microseconds from start, followed by a decay and subsequently followed by another velocity increase and eventual decay, thus, resulting in a double-peak shape of the velocity-time curve. These double-peaks, as well as other small undulations (e.g. at ~ 100 microseconds), are most likely due to the pressure wave reflections occurring within the EHF chamber. Thus, their position and magnitude are influenced by the boundary conditions i.e. the EHF chamber geometry and the moving sheet. Some perturbations in the velocity are also seen at the end of the test (~500-600 microseconds) and are attributed to sheet oscillations as it decelerates and comes to rest. Figure 7 plots the in-plane strain-rate as a function of in-plane strain (exx) for freeforming and conical die boundary conditions. The data for both the materials shows that when the DP steel and aluminum sheets were deformed in a conical die, a strainrate amplification from ~200 /s to ~600 /s and 1200 /s, respectively, were observed, relative to strain-rates under free-forming conditions at the same voltages. While the reason for such strain-rate amplification in not clear, its hypothesized that the conical shape of the die may help focus the pressure wave towards the sheet center, thus, amplifying the pressure relative to free-forming conditions. In other words, for a given

1400 1200
StrainRate(1/s)

1000 800 600 400 200 0 200 0

Al:FreeForm 7.5kV Al:Conicaldie 7.5kV DP:Freeform 9.5kV DP:Conicaldie 9.5kV

Strain-rate amplification

0.05

0.1 Strain

0.15

0.2

0.25

Figure 7: Comparison of the strain rate in the x-direction at the dome apex for Al 5182-O and DP600 sheet metal under free forming and conical-die forming conditions. charging voltage, the greater strain-rate in the conical die could be an outcome of the fixture geometry induced greater pressure amplitude. Such strain-rate amplification may be useful for corner filling in industrial forming operations as it might be possible to amplify the strain-rate to the regime where extended ductility could be achieved. The strain-rate vs. strain data also shows the entire deformation does not occur at a fixed high strain-rate. In fact, in the present work, almost half of the strain was achieved prior to strain-rate amplification and hence, has important implications for strain-rate sensitive materials. Sheet deformation at higher GolovashchenkoModel 1.2 Fittedpressure voltages to induce failure is the 1 subject of future experiments where 0.8 the dependence of failure strains on 0.6 strain-rate will be quantitatively 0.4 determined to investigate the 0.2 extended ductility of materials that has been reported in the literature 0 [Smerd et al., 2005]. 0 500 100
NormalizedPressure

Time(s) Figure 8: Comparison of the pressure-time profile based on Golovashchenkos model [Golovashchenko et al., 2005] and that inferred from sheet deformation data of

3.2. Computer modeling and simulation results Figure 8 graphically shows the pressure-time profile described by Equation 1 [Golovashchenko et al., 2005] where the authors assumed

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Time(s)

Velocity(m/s)

FreeForm(Sim) Conical 6.5kV

Conical(Sim) FreeForm6.5kv

Figure 9: Comparison of the simulation (sim) and experimental results of the velocity in the z-direction at the dome apex for Al 5182-O under free forming and conical-die forming. that the pressure reached a maximum value of 35 MPa at ~25 s from start and then decreased continuously until the end. Application of this pressure profile led to an overestimation of the strain-rate and displacements as compared to the experimental results. Possible explanations for such discrepancies include difference between the assumed and experimentally achieved peak-pressures, as well as the absence of wavereflection/superimposition effects in the assumed pressure profile. Consequently, a pressure-time curve, qualitatively based on the experimental vertical velocity-time curve (at the dome apex) was used as the input for modeling. This fitted pressure profile, with a maximum pressure of 7 MPa at ~500 microseconds, is also shown in Figure 8. Figures 9 and 10 compare the simulation results (using the fitted pressure profile) and experimental results for the velocity and strain rate, respectively, at the dome apex for each formed sheet. The fitted pressure profile (Fig. 8) was able to reproduce similar velocity levels and velocity-time profile as those observed in the experiments (Figure 9). Figure 10 compares the in-plane strain rates from the simulations (using the fitted pressure profile) and the experiments. While the strain-rate behavior predicted by the simulations follows the same general profile as the experimentally measured curve, further work is needed to achieve better correlation. Future work involves modeling the EHF phenomena, i.e. electrical discharge, plasma expansion, wave reflections with the chamber walls and interactions, etc., so as to determine a realistic pressure profile. Additionally, experiments will be performed to validate the theoretical predictions. Eventually, a combination of theory and experiments will help design an EHF process where a spatial and temporal control of strain-rates and strain in the sheets may be achieved.

1100 900 700

Strainrate(1/s)

500 300 100 100 0 200 FreeForm(Sim) Conical 6.5kV 400 600 800 1000

Time(s)
Conical(Sim) FreeForm 6.5kV

Figure 10: Comparison of the simulation (sim) and experimental results of the strain rate in the x-direction at the dome apex for Al 5182-O under free forming and conical-die forming.

4. CONCLUSIONS High-speed imaging and digital image correlation techniques were used to quantify the displacement, velocity, strain and strain-rates of 1mm 5182-O Al alloy and DP 600 steel sheets, deformed under free-forming and in conical die using the EHF technique. The following conclusions can be drawn: A. A combination of high-speed digital imaging and DIC techniques were successfully used to quantify the sheet deformation behavior under high-strain-rate conditions. B. The forming event was found to last ~500-600 microseconds and a maximum velocity of ~100 m/s was achieved in free-forming Al and DP600 steel sheets. C. The EHF chamber geometry can influence the velocity-time profile through its effect on the pressure-wave reverberations and superimposition. D. Relative to the maximum strain-rate achieved during free-forming at a given voltage, a strain-rate amplification of ~3-fold and ~6-fold was observed in DP 600 steel and 5182-O Al, respectively, when the sheets were deformed at identical charging voltages but in a conical die. This strain-rate amplification is hypothesized to be due to a focusing action of the conical die geometry on the pressure waves. E. Pressure-time profile from the literature was found to be unsuitable to model the sheet deformation behavior in the present work. An alternate pressure-time profile is proposed that gave better agreement between the simulations and experiments.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is operated by Battelle Memorial Institute for the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-AC05-76RL01830. This work was sponsored by Drs. Joseph Carpenter and Carol Schutte in association with the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Vehicle Technologies, as part of the Lighweighting Materials program. The authors are thankful to S.F. Golovashchenko (Ford), J.F. Quinn and J.R. Bradley (General Motors), and A. Desai (Chrysler) for their suggestions. Technical support provided by G.L. Vanarsdale (Science Applications International Corporation) and PNNL staff (M.E. Dahl, K.F. Mattlin, P.A. Boyd and C.A. Bonebrake) is gratefully acknowledged.

6. REFERENCES [Daehn] http://www.matsceng.ohio-state.edu/~daehn/ [Dieter, 1986] Dieter, G. Mechanical Metallurgy. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA, pp. 88-89. [El-Azab et al., 2003] El-Azab, A.; Garnich, M.; Kapoor, A.; "Modeling of the electromagnetic forming of sheet metals: state-of-the-art and future needs"; Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 142, Issue 3, pp. 744-754. [El-Magd et al., 2005] El-Magd, E. and Abouridouane, M.; Characterization, modelling and simulation of deformation and fracture behaviour of the light-weight wrought alloys under high strain rate loading. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 2005. 32: pp. 741 - 758. [Fenton et al., 1998] Fenton, G.K. and Daehn, G.S.; "Modeling of electromagnetically formed sheet metal"; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 75, Issues 1-3, pp. 6-16. [Golovashchenko, 1996] Golovashchenko, S.F.; Electromagnetic impulse joining and shearing of AlCu and AlMg alloy tubes, in: D. Bryant (Ed.), Aluminum and Magnesium for Automotive Applications, TMS, Warrendale, 1996, pp. 209221. [Golovashchenko et al., 2005] Golovashchenko, S.F.; Mamutov, V.S.; "Electrohydraulic Forming of Automotive Panels"; In: Proceedings of TMS 2005. San Francisco, CA, p. 65. [Mamutov, 2001] Mamutov, A.V.; "Finite difference analysis of high-velocity plastic forming of shells"; In: Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 4348. [Metals Handbook 1988] Forming and Forging, Vol.14. 9th ed. ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, pp. 636-653. [Panshikar, 2000] Panshikar, H.M., Computer modeling of electromagnetic forming and impact welding, M.S. Thesis, Ohio State University, 2000. [Smerd et al., 2005] Smerd, R.; Winkler, S.; Salisbury, C.; Worswick, M.; Lloyd, D.; Finn, M.; International Journal of Impact Engineering. Volume 32, Issues 1-4, December 2005, pp. 541-560.

Fracture Forming Lines in Single Point Incremental Forming

M.B. Silva, L.M. Alves, M.L. Alves and P.A.F. Martins IDMEC, Instituto Superior Tcnico, TULisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1049-0001 Lisboa, Portugal beatriz.silva@ist.utl.pt Abstract: The mechanics of deformation and the physics behind failure in Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) are not fully understood. The forming limits of the process are much higher than those commonly found in deep drawing or stretch forming but the explanation for this phenomenon is nowadays splitting the research community between those claiming that fracture is always preceded by necking and those considering that fracture occurs without experimental evidence of previous necking. This paper is designed under the second view and corroborates that Forming Limit Curves (FLCs) that give the loci of necking strains in conventional sheet metal forming processes, are not adequate to characterize the formability limits in SPIF and should be replaced by the fracture forming lines (FFLs). As a step forward in the aforementioned understanding of the forming limits of the process, authors are now proposing a new technique to determine FFLs and exploring the influence of manufacturing routes involving cold-rolling prior to SPIF in the overall formability limits of the process. The work is performed in Aluminium AA 1050-H111 and the benchmark SPIF tests were performed with truncated pyramidal shapes. Keywords: Single Point Incremental Forming, Formability, Experimentation. 1. INTRODUCTION Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) is a new sheet metal forming process with a high potential economic payoff for rapid prototyping applications and for small series production.

Figure 1; Schematic representation and picture of SPIF

The basic components of the process are: (i) the sheet metal blank, (ii) the blank holder, (iii) the backing plate and (iv) the rotating single point forming tool (Figure 1). The blank holder is utilized for clamping and holding the sheet in position, the backing plate supports the sheet and its opening defines the working area of the process and the single point forming tool is utilized to progressively shape the sheet into a component. The tool path is generated by a CNC machining centre and during the forming process there is no backup die supporting the back surface of the sheet. Technical details, potential applications as well as references to some of the most significant published research work on the process are available in the CIRP review paper [Jeswiet et al., 2005]. 2. THEORY OF SINGLE POINT INCREMENTAL FORMING 2.1. State of stress and strain Previous work by the authors [Martins et al., 2008] established an analytical framework, built upon the combined utilization of membrane analysis and ductile damage mechanics that is capable of modelling the fundamentals of SPIF. Table 1 resumes the strains and stresses along the principal directions that are obtained from the framework.
Plane strain conditions (flat and rotational symmetric surfaces) Y 1 0 1 t rtool d d t 0 m Y 2 1 1 3 d 0 2 2 t d t 0 t 3 Y 0 rtool t Equal bi-axial stretching (corners) Y 1 0 d d 0 1 2t rtool 2 m Y t 3 d t 0 t 3 2 Y 0 rtool 2 t

rtool t rtool t

rtool t rtool 2 t

Table I; State of stress and strain in SPIF [Martins et al., 2008]. 2.2. Forming limits and damage The Forming Limit Curves (FLCs) are not appropriate to characterize the formability limits in SPIF, because the limiting strains in the principal strain space significantly exceed the FLC [Filice et al., 2002; Jeswiet et al., 2005]. Because experimental measurements during SPIF of thin metal sheets revealed that plastic deformation takes place by uniform thinning until fracture without previous necking it has been recently proposed [Martins et al., 2008] that the formability limits of the process should be defined by means of Fracture Forming Limit Lines (FFLs) instead of FLCs (Figure 2).

The FFL can be characterized by means of ductile damage mechanics based on void growth models. Assuming the Tresca yield criterion, linear loading paths, and that f m takes the simple form m , the total amount of accumulated damage for plane strain and equal bi-axial stretching SPIF conditions results in the following critical damage values:
f

Dc

1 rtool t plane strain 1 2 rtool t

(1) (2)

Dc

2 rtool t biaxial 2 1 3 rtool 2t

If the critical value of damage Dc at the onset of cracking is assumed to be pathindependent, by solving equations (1) and (2) for 1 it is possible to set-up the following identity:

bi axial plane strain 1 1 bi axial 2

rtool t 3 rtool 2t r 5 tool 2 4 rtool t rtool t t rtool 2t rtool 3 3 4 rtool t t

2 6

(3)

Equation (3) gives the slope of the fracture forming line (FFL) in the principal strainspace ( 1 , 2 ) (Figure 2).
1
q 1 2
local necking fracture

n 1 2

FFL

pure shear

n
simple tension plane strain
1 -1/2 1 -1 1 1

FLC

biaxial stretching

-n/2

Figure 2; Schematic representation of the forming limits of SPIF against those of deep drawing and stretch forming. For typical experimental values of rtool / t in the range 2 to 10 the slope derived from equation (3) will vary between -0.7 and -1.3. This supports the assumption that the

fracture forming limit in SPIF can be approximately expressed as 1 2 q , where t q is the thickness strain at the onset of fracture in plane strain conditions. This result is in close agreement with the typical loci of failure strains in conventional sheet forming processes, where the slope of the FFL is often about -1, [Jeswiet et al., 2005]. 2.3. Maximum drawing angle The maximum drawing angle max that a material can undertake as function of the initial thickness t 0 of the sheet is commonly utilized for assessing the forming limits in SPIF [Jeswiet et al., 2005]. The procedure is an alternative to the utilization of FFLs and is based on the sine law t t0 sin derived from the geometrical analogy with the shear spinnability relation [Kegg, 1961]. However, as far as authors are aware, there is no theoretical background supporting the utilization of the maximum drawing angle as a criterion of failure, nor how it can be related with the previously described FFLs in the principal strain space. Starting from the meridional stress acting in the local shell element for plane strain or bi-axial stretching conditions (refer to Table I) and substituting the actual thickness t by the sine law t t0 sin , one obtains:
k t 0 sin 1 Y rtool
1

(4)

where, k is a constant equal to 1 or 2 for plane strain or equal bi-axial stretching conditions respectively, and 2 is the semi-cone angle, which is the complement of the drawing angle between the inclined wall surface and the initial flat configuration of the sheet (Figure 1). For the typical values of the maximum drawing angles in SPIF sin may be approximated by the value of , and hereby:

r Y 1 tool k t0 2

(5)

One may thus conclude that the theoretical estimates of the maximum drawing angle max , for values of the meridional stress Y , are expected to increase with the initial thickness t0 of the sheet and to decrease with increasing radius of the forming tool rtool . This agrees qualitatively with experimentation and provides background for assessing formability by plotting the maximum drawing angle max as a function of the initial thickness t0 of the sheet. However, equation (5) is not in a form allowing theoretical estimation of the maximum drawing angle max since it requires knowledge of the ratio between the yield stress and the meridional stress, which is generally unknown. Thus, it is necessary to rewrite equation (5) in such a way that users may easily obtain an estimate from data readily available from simple material testing conditions. By substituting t given by the equations included in Table I into equation (5) and rearranging terms, one obtains the

equation below applying for plane strain and as well as equal bi-axial stretching conditions:

r kt Y 1 tool k t 0 2 rtool 2 rtool t k t 2 exp 0

(6)

where t is the thickness of the sheet at fracture and t is the value of the thickness strain at the limit of formability. In principle, t is to be determined as the throughthickness fracture limit strain 3 in plane strain or equal bi-axial stretching test of a sheet metal. In physical terms equation (6) implies that the two experimental procedures utilized for characterizing the formability in SPIF (fracture forming limit in the principal strainspace ( 1 , 2 ) and maximum drawing angle max at the onset of fracture) are merged into a single concept the onset of fracture. Assuming for now that the maximum drawing angle max can be measured at the onset of fracture, the corresponding value of the limiting fracture strain t is then calculated from equation (6) as follows,
t ln
max 2

(7)

By taking into consideration the mode of deformation (plane strain or equal bi-axial stretching) and the incompressibility condition one can utilize the value of the throughthickness fracture strain t provided by equation (7) to determine the coordinates of a point in the principal strain-space (1 , 2 ) that is necessary to plot the fracture forming limit (FFL). 3. EXPERIMENTATION This section starts by a brief description of the experimental techniques that were utilized for obtaining the material stress-strain curves and the forming limits by necking (FLC) and fracture (FFL) and follows by presenting the work plan utilized in the investigation of the failure mechanisms in SPIF. 3.1. Material forming limits The investigation was performed in Aluminium AA1050-H111 sheet blanks with 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mm thickness. The stress-strain curve and the formability limits of the material were obtained by means of tensile tests (using test specimens cut at 0, 45 and 90 degrees with respect to the rolling direction) and bi-axial, circular (100 mm) and elliptical (100/63 mm) hydraulic bulge tests. The technique utilized for obtaining the FLC involved electrochemical etching a grid of circles with 2 mm initial diameter on the surface of the sheets before forming and measuring the major and minor axis of the ellipses that result from the plastic deformation of the circles during the formability tests. The FLC was constructed by

taking the principal strains 1 , 2 at failure from grid-elements placed just outside the neck (that is, adjacent to the region of intense localization) since they represent the condition of the uniformly-thinned sheet just before necking occurs. The resulting experimental FLC is plotted in Figure 3.
2.00
Circular Bulge Test

1.80 1.60 1.40

Elliptical Bulge Test

Tensile Test

FFL experimental FLC 1.0 mm

Major True Strain

1.20 1.00 0.80

1.5 mm
2.0 mm

y = -0.86x + 1.40

0.60

y = -0.92x + 1.30 y = -1.13x + 1.21

0.40 0.20 0.00 -0.60

Kink in the strain path

-0.40

-0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

Figure 3; Principal strain space containing the FLC and the FFLs of Aluminium AA1050-H111 sheets with different thickness. The intersection of the FLC with the major strain axis is found to occur at 1 0.07 in fair agreement with the value of the strain hardening exponent of the stress-strain curve obtained by means of tensile tests,
140 0.041 MPa

Minor True Strain

(8)

The experimental procedure utilized for setting-up the FFLs is more difficult to perform than that of the FLC and requires measuring thickness at fracture in order to obtain the gauge length strains. The procedure involves measuring the length increase parallel to the crack in order to obtain the strain in this direction. The thickness strain is determined by measuring the sheet thickness in a microscope at several places along the crack and the third fracture strain component, in the plane of the sheet with direction perpendicular to the crack, is determined by volume constancy knowing the two other strains. The procedure is time consuming and increasingly difficult to perform as the thickness of the specimens becomes smaller. In the present work gauge length strains were only performed for test specimens with 2 mm of initial thickness and the corresponding experimental FFL is depicted in Figure 3 (refer to the black solid line).

The experimental FFL is approximated by a straight line 1 0.79 2 1.37 falling from left to right in good agreement with the condition of constant through-thickness strain at fracture (given by a slope of -1). The large distance between neck formation (FLC) and collapse by fracture (FFL) indicates that AA1050-H111 is a very ductile material that allows a considerable through-thickness strain between neck initiation and fracture. The construction of the three FFLs, plotted as dashed lines in Figure 3, will be explained in section 4 and derive from a new combined theoretical-experimental procedure for setting up FFLs that are proposed by the authors in order to avoid the aforementioned cumbersome time consuming technique. 3.2. Experimental workplan The experimental workplan was conceived and formulated with supplied and cold rolled sheets in order to investigate the influence of manufacturing routes involving deformation by cold-rolling priors to SPIF in the mechanics of deformation and physics behind failure. The goal was to analyse the influence of rolling in the FFLs that are employed for assessing the formability limits of SPIF in the principal strain space. The investigation was performed with Aluminium AA 1050-H111 sheets with 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mm initial thickness and the work plan made use of a Schmitz two-high rolling mill with a capacity of 1200 kN and a Deckel Maho DMC 63V machining centre equipped with a rig (Figure 1). The experiments were performed with Aluminium AA 1050-H111 supplied sheets with 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 mm initial thickness and Aluminium AA 1050-H111 sheets that were cold rolled by the authors from 2 and 1.5 mm initial thickness to 1 mm final thickness. All the preforms (obtained from the supplied and cold rolled sheets) utilized in SPIF were cut to a square geometry of 250 x 250 mm. The forming tool had a diameter of 10 mm and was able to rotate freely during the tests. The feed rate was set to 1000 mm/min and the tool path was helical with a step size per revolution equal to 0.5 mm. The lubricant applied between the single point forming tool and the sheet was diluted cutting fluid. The workplan is presented in Table II.
Initial Thickness 1.0 mm Supplied sheets 2.0 mm 1.5 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm Rolled sheets 1.01 mm 1.03 mm Final thickness

Table II; The plan of experiments. The experimental methodology for assessing the formability limits in the supplied and cold rolled sheet blanks consisted in measuring the strain values at fracture from laboratory SPIF tests performed in truncated pyramidal shapes characterized by varying drawing angles with depth. The sheet blanks were electrochemically etched with a 2 mm circle grid, allowing the principal strains to be measured. The starting drawing

angle was 60 and followed by a drawing angle which continuously increases with the depth. All the SPIF tests were performed with resort to the utilization of a dummy sheet on top of the supplied or cold-rolled blank sheets in order to avoid surface quality problems due to galling [Skjoedt et al., 2007]. The dummy sheet was made of a DC04 deep drawing steel with 0.63 mm thickness. 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section starts by proposing a fast and easy technique for determining the FFLs in SPIF and follows with the analysis of the influence of manufacturing routes involving deformation by cold-rolling prior to SPIF in the overall formability limits of the material. 4.1 A new technique for setting-up the FFLs The FFLs plotted as black dashed lines in Figure 3 were determined by means of an alternative technique to that previously described for setting-up the experimental FFL plotted as a black solid line. The technique requires measuring the maximum drawing angle max at the onset of fracture for the SPIF truncated pyramidal shapes produced from the supplied sheets with 2, 1.5 and 1 mm thickness. The results are presented in Table III.
Thickness (mm) max ()
t

1.0 71.7 -1.14

1.5 75.1 -1.35

2.0 77.1 -1.49

Table III; Maximum drawing angles max as a function of the initial thickness for SPIF of truncated pyramidal shapes made of the supplied sheets of Aluminium AA1050-H111. The experimental value of the maximum drawing angle max for each pyramidal shape part allowed estimating the values of the through-thickness strains at fracture t that are listed in Table III, by means of equation (7). The application of the incompressibility condition under bi-axial stretching conditions, which is the deformation mode at the corners of the pyramids were fracture was triggered, provides the three limiting fracture points 1 , 2 placed over the strain path corresponding to equal-biaxial stretching in the principal strain-space. In addition to these three points (one per FFL), six extra points (that is, two per FFL) can be added to determine the formability limits for each thickness of the supplied sheets. This is accomplished by means of circle grid analysis performed on the walls (plane strain deformation) and on the transition region between the walls and the corners (biaxial strain) of the pyramidal shape parts with fracture. The validity of this procedure to determine FFLs in the principal strain space is assessed by comparing the experimental FFL (determined by means of tensile and bulge

tests and plotted as a solid back line in Figure 3) against the upper dashed black line corresponding to the supplied sheets with 2 mm thickness. The agreement is very good and allowed us to estimate the experimental FFLs for the supplied sheets with 1.5 and 1 mm thickness to be located very closed to those determined by the new proposed technique and plotted as dashed black lines. 4.1 Influence of cold-rolling in the formability limits of SPIF Figure 5 shows the results from circle grid analysis for the SPIF of truncated pyramidal shapes produced from sheet blanks of approximately 1 mm thickness. The sheet blanks were cold rolled from supplied sheets of Aluminium AA 1050-H111 with 1.5 and 2 mm (refer to Table II). As seen, fracture points (refer to the solid black marks in Figure 5) are located close to the FFL determined for the supplied sheets of 1 mm, meaning that the deformation induced by cold rolling is responsible for lowering the level of the FFLs to the level of a supplied sheet with 1 mm. Moreover, the observation of the SPIF parts confirms that fracture continues not to be preceded by localized necking and that crack propagates under tensile meridional stresses acting under stretching modes of deformation. Under these circumstances, the influence of cold rolling prior to SPIF is solely consubstantiated through a diminishing of the formability limits of SPIF.
2.00
Rolling 2.0 mm -> 1.0 mm

1.80 1.60 1.40

Rolling 1.5 mm -> 1.0 mm FLC FFL 1 mm FFL 1.5 mm

FFL 2 mm

Major True Strain

1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60

0.40 0.20 0.00 -0.60

-0.40

-0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

Figure 5; FLC, FFLs and circle grid measurements for truncated pyramidal parts produced by SPIF of cold rolled sheet blanks of Aluminium AA 1050-H111.

Minor True Strain

5. CONCLUSIONS This paper presents a new technique for determining the FFL in the principal strain space that is faster and cheaper than the conventional procedure involving tensile and bulge tests. The technique is based on a combination between experimental measurements, calculation of through-thickness strains and evaluation of principal strains in the surface of the sheets under plane strain and biaxial stretching conditions and is capable of eliminating the errors that are likely to occur when measuring through thickness strains in sheets with very small thickness as required by the conventional procedure. The paper also shows that the existence of manufacturing routes involving cold-rolling prior to SPIF is responsible for lowering the formability limits of the process but will not influence the physics behind the mechanics of deformation and fracture. REFERENCES [Filice et al., 2002] Filice, L.; Fratini, L.; Micari, F.; "Analysis of Material Formability in Incremental Forming"; In: CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Volume 51, Issue 1, pp. 199-202, 2002. [Jeswiet et al., 2005] Jeswiet, J.; Micari, F.; Hirt, G.; Bramley, A.; Duflou J.; Allwood, J.; "Asymmetric Single Point Incremental Forming of Sheet Metal"; In: CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Volume 54, Issue 2, pp. 88-114, 2005. [Kegg, 1961] Kegg, R.L.; "A new test method for determinaton of spinnability of metals"; In: Trans. ASME, J. Engng Industry, Volume 83, pp. 119-124, 1961. [Martins et al., 2008] Martins, P.A.F.; Bay, N.; Skjoedt, M.; Silva, M.B.; "Theory of single point incremental forming"; In: CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, Volume 57, Issue 1, pp. 247-252, 2008. [Skjoedt et al., 2007] Skjoedt, M.; Silva, M.B., Bay, N., Martins, P.A.F., Lenau T.; "Single point incremental forming using a dummy sheet"; In: 2nd International Conference on New Forming Technology, Bremen, Germany, 2007.

Determination of Forming Limit Diagrams for Single Point Incremental Sheet Metal Forming
K. Kuzman1, M. Tisza2, A. Petek1 and P. Z. Kovcs2 Department of Manufacturing Technologies and Systems, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana 2 Department of Materials Processing Technologies University of Miskolc e-mail: tisza.miklos@uni-miskolc.hu
1

Abstract: Development of new technologies and processes for small batch and prototype production of sheet metal components has very important role in the recent years. The reason is the quick and efficient response to the market demands. For this reasons new manufacturing concepts are developed in order to enable a fast and reliable production of complex components and parts without investing in special forming machines. The need for flexible forming processes has been accelerated during the last 15 years, and by these developments the technology reaches new extensions. Incremental sheet metal forming (ISMF) may be regarded as one of the promising developments for these purposes. Though, the basic process characteristics have been known for many years, but there are still many open questions to be answered. Therefore, a Joint European Research Project was recently started with the cooperation of the University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) and the University of Miskolc (Hungary) to study the effect of important process parameters with particular emphasis on the shape and dimensional accuracy of the products and particularly on the formability limitations. In this paper, some preliminary results concerning the determination of forming limit diagrams for single point incremental sheet metal forming will be described. Keywords: single point incremental forming, forming limit diagram 1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays, there is an increasing demand to necessitate the production of technologically very complex components and parts. Due to the expensive energy sources and raw materials, manufacturing procedures are sought that would enable the production of increasingly complex components at the lowest possible energy consumption and minimum material waste. On the other hand, the demand to reduce fuel consumption for example in transport vehicles forces manufacturers (primarily in the automotive industry) to search for optimum weight to rigidity ratios of applied components. All these demands encourage manufacturers to search for new materials, new concepts and new processes. These efforts have resulted in such forming processes

as incremental sheet metal forming, hydro-forming, hot forming [Tisza, 2009], etc. New technologies and concepts should be implemented in close cooperation with designers and mechanical engineers. This solution leads to much better selection and optimisation of the manufacturing processes and production costs. However, if the processes have to be optimized, the technological limits have to be well defined for various materials and manufacturing concepts applied in the production. One of the most important data in this respect are summarized in the forming limit diagram (FLD) widely applied in conventional sheet metal forming. However, due to the peculiarities of single point incremental sheet metal forming, conventional forming limit diagrams are not adequate for this kind of very special deformation processes. Thus, new concepts and new experimental determination techniques are required to reliably predict the forming limits in single point incremental sheet metal forming processes. There are some methods known from the literature [Jeswiet, 2002] for the determination of incremental Forming Limit Diagrams with various shapes. However, these methods could be very time consuming because of the extensive experimental work and pretending strain measuring on the particular work piece shapes. Therefore, in this research cooperation, a new method has been developed for the determination of FLD in SPIF based on the traditional Marciniak test, whereas different forming technology and corresponding forming tools are used. Such method enables easier strain measuring and requires only one tool path geometry. However, the application of SPIF greatly enhances formability in comparison to the conventional forming as it will be presented in this contribution. 2. DETERMINATION OF THE INCREMENTAL FLD 2.1. Conventional Forming Limit Diagrams The concept of the FLD mainly used nowadays was developed by Keeler [Keeler, 1965]. According to the original Keelers method it was possible to determine the FLC only for the right-hand side of the FLD (2>0). To make it more general, this idea was extended by Goodwin at the end of the 1960s by completing the FLD for the left-hand side with deformations of 2<0 [Goodwin, 1968]. Principally, there are three possibilities to determine Forming Limit Diagrams for conventional forming, i.e.: analytical, experimental and numerical methods. Analytical solution, based on theoretical determination of necking and fracture limit, is not suitable to wide range of new materials. One of the best theoretical models, which best fit to experimental data, was introduced by Cayssials at the 20th IDDRG Congress in Genval [Cayssials, 1998]. Because of its high precision the majority of computer programs use this model for sheet-metal analyses in the digital environment. However, the theoretical models are rather complex and need a thorough knowledge of continuum mechanics and its mathematical treatment. The necessity to reduce the extensive analytical work and the possibility of a fast and accurate determination of the FLC in industrial environment led to a study of

precise and efficient determination of FLDs with experiments. Experimental determinations are nowadays widely used and could be performed with various testing procedures. Recently, the Nakazima and the Marciniak test are more widely used (Figure 1). Both methods use one specific tooling geometry and different test-piece geometries to obtain different strain path during the forming.

Figure 1. Experimental methods to determine conventional Forming Limit Diagrams a) Nakazima test ; b) Marciniak test Applying different specimen geometry, the obtained forming limit diagram with different strain path histories is shown in Figure 2. The experimental determination of the forming limit curves is the most reliable and simultaneously, this corresponds most of all to the press shop conditions. Unfortunately, the extensive laboratory work is still indispensable. Therefore, solutions are sought to decrease the number of necessary experiments. + 1

FLD0
1= -22 1= -2 2 = 0 1= 22 1 = 2
l0 l2 l2

- 2 Figure 2. Conventional Forming Limit Diagram

+ 2

Simultaneously, besides the time consuming experimental determination, computer-aided numerical methods were also developed, which was stimulated by an immense increase of computer capabilities in the last decades. The analyses of the forming limit curves with numerical simulation lead to solving the problem how to

obtain the necking and rupture point. Various numerical approaches apply different fracture criteria like the Cockroft-Latham, Oh-Kobayashi, Brozzo, etc. ductile fracture criteria. They are analysed in detail by Krllics and his co-workers [Krllics, 2004]. 2.2. Determination of Forming Limit Diagrams for Single Point Incremental Sheet Forming Conventional Forming Limit Diagrams usually have the well-known V-shape form as shown in Figure 2. However, extensive research has shown that the formability in SPIF reveals a unique characteristic. It is proved by many investigators that in incremental sheet forming much higher strains can be observed than in conventional forming. Recent studies have shown that the forming limit curve (FLC) may be expressed as a straight line with a negative slope in the positive region of minor strain in the Forming Limit Diagram [Filice, 2002]. It is also recognised by many Figure 3. Forming Limit Diagram for contributors that the material conventional and incremental forming behaviour in incremental sheet metal Material: Al 1050, t=1.2 mm forming can be characterised by the maximum draw angle which is defined on Figure 4. As the draw angle () increases the thickness reaches a minimum value when a fracture occur as a consequence. Though, this parameter is a characteristic one for the formability limit under given conditions, but it is not a general property which can be used in all cases. For this reason, a benchmark product has been developed based on the part shown in Figure 4. The base diameter of benchmark cone is 72 mm with a height equal to 40 Figure 4. Parameters of mm [Micari, 2004]. The tests are carried out at experimental specimen for testing varying degrees of draw angle () until the fracture formability [Micari, 2004] occurs. Besides the material properties, there are many other parameters effecting the formability limit during incremental forming, e.g. the material thickness, the tool geometry and the tool sizes, the process parameters like the so-called step down size (z and y respectively as shown in Figure 5.), the tool rotation, and the contact conditions between the tool and the specimen. In Figure 5., these relevant process parameters are
Major strain,
max

illustrated in incremental sheet metal forming. (It should be noted that the angle shown in Figure 5. is the complementary angle of the wall angle , shown in Figure 4.) Jeswiet proposed an experimental methodology to determine the FLC also for the left-hand side of the FLD using several shapes [Jeswiet, 2005]. He used five different shapes with varying angles and convex and concave curves. The Figure 5. Relevant process parameters in shapes were: a dome, a cone, a incremental sheet forming hyperbola, a pyramid and a shape with both compressive and tensile stresses called five-lobe flower shape. They all have their own FLD, and when all placed in one particular FLD, they represent the variety of part surface, angles and strains that may occur in the part design. 2.3. Experimental determination of FLD for incremental sheet forming For the determination of the Forming Limit Diagram for both conventional and incremental forming an aluminium alloy Al3003 with the thickness t=1.23 mm was used as specimens material. Material properties were obtained by uniaxial tensile test. In our experiments, the traditional Marciniak test adapted to the particular conditions of incremental sheet forming was applied [Petek et. al., 2005]. As it is wellknown, for the Marciniak test different work piece geometries are required. Five different workpiece geometries were applied: the first work-piece is a plate with a dimension of 150150 mm; the other four work-pieces were cut from the base plate to various strips. The widths of the strips are 20, 30, 40 and 50 mm. All work-pieces are formed using only pyramid-shaped tool path, which correspond to the truncated pyramid shapes. The base of the pyramid is 84 mm by 84 mm with the corner diameter of 10 mm. To prevent striking against the strip a guiding plate between the forming tool and the work-piece is used. The shape of the guiding plate is similar to the base plate whereas it is made from material having better formability in order to prevent crack of the guiding plate before the crack of the work-piece occurs. Two sets of parameters have to be considered to decide if the design can be made using SPIF, they are the maximum wall angle (max) and the maximum strains. However, at the limit wall angle the maximal strains are achieved. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the limit wall angle for particular work-piece geometries. The experiments were run at the intervals of 5 degrees until the limit wall angles were achieved. Other process parameters for SPIF, which are based on preliminary tests and available literature, were kept unchanged during the test. The determination of incremental FLC consists of two main steps: the first one is the single point incremental forming of the workpiece and the second one is the grid measuring of the workpiece with optical strain measurement system (CCD camera).

During the first step the workpiece surface was observed. In the moment when the origin of the localization or crack on the sheet metal was noticed the process was stopped. Then the grid deformation was measured by the optical strain measurement system and the major (1) and minor principal strains (2) were calculated automatically. In the case of basic workpiece, two different deformation states could be observed on the pyramids surface after the forming. On the flat surfaces the material flows mainly in the direction of the tool movement, therefore plane strain state is originated on the sheet metal (1, 20). In contrast to the flat surface at the curved surfaces, like corners, the sheet metal is deformed also in longitudinal direction, whereas biaxial deformation (1, 2) developed in the sheet metal. In that case the deformations appear only in a positive region of the FLD. In order to determine the whole range of the FLD additional experiments are required. As mentioned above, the negative value of the minor strain (left-hand side of the FLD) has been achieved by the forming of five lobe shape [Jeswiet, 2005], but in our case it could be attained by the forming of various strip shapes. The negative minor strain could be observed only in the vicinity of cut edge as schematically presents Figure 6.

Figure 6. Various formed parts and the corresponding strain states The particular strip width corresponds to defined strain path on the FLD, taking into account the same process parameters. In the case of wider strip the deformation state becomes near plane strain state. The forming limit curve obtained by SPIF for Al3003 is shown with the dashed line in Figure 7. 3. COMPARISON OF THE INCREMENTAL AND CONVENTIONAL FLD In contrast to conventional sheet metal forming methods the plastic deformation zone in SPIF is very small and strictly limited to the contact area between the tool and the workpiece. Therefore, different deformation mechanism and consequentially different forming limits may be expected. The corresponding strain values measured on the SPIF workpieces are significantly larger than the limits obtained by the conventional determination of the FLD as shown in Figure 7. It should be noted that the formability by the SPIF is greatly enhanced in case of plane-strain stretching compared to conventional forming. However, the highest strains achieved without failure could be observed on the flat wall of the pyramid (slope: =71). In that case the strains are approximately 2.7 times higher than the

strains achieved by conventional forming, as can be seen in Figure 7. In addition, experimental results shows that the forming limit curve by SPIF represents two straight lines with negative slope, which lie higher than the conventional forming limit curve.

Figure 7. Forming Limit Diagram for Al 3003 obtained by conventional and SPIF forming Possible reasons for the larger forming limit in SPIF might be the cyclic strain history involving superimposed hydrostatic pressure during plastic loading as discussed in [Hirt et. al., 2003]. The second possible reason could be connected with the forming tool diameter. A small radius concentrates the strain at the area of deformation in the sheet under the forming tool and a large radius tends to distribute the strains over a more extended area. As the tool radius increases, the process becomes more similar to traditional stamping, thereby reducing formability limits. 4. CONCLUSIONS The incremental FLD is being developed to enable the designers and the mechanical engineers in the selection of the most appropriate technologies for required sheet metal design. It was clearly shown in this work that the forming limit curve in incremental forming is quite different from that in conventional forming. From the experimental results it can be seen that the Forming Limit Diagram for incremental sheet meal forming consists of two straight lines with a negative slope both in the positive and in the negative region of the minor strain, respectively. Moreover, it has been shown that in the case of Single Point Incremental Forming processes (SPIF) higher strains could be achieved compared to conventional forming processes

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work was jointly financed by the EUREKA-ProFactory project and the National Eureka projects (EUREKA_HU_ISMFP and TMOP 4.2.1.B-09/1/KONV). These supports are gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES [Cayssials, 1998] Cayssials, F.; A new method for predicting Forming Limit Curves; In: Proceedings of 20th IDDRG Biennial Congress, pp. 443-454; Genval, [Filice, 2002] Filice, L.; Fratini, I.; Micari, F.; Analysis of Material Formability in Incremental Forming;, Annuals of CIRP, Vol.51/1/2002, General Assembly, San Sebastian, 2002. [Goodwin, 1968] Goodwin, G. M.; Application of Strain Analysis to Sheet Metal Forming Problems in the Press Shop; Society of Automotive Engineers, Technical paper, No.: 680093. [Hirt et. al., 2003] Hirt, G.; Bambach, M.; Junk, S.; Modelling of the Incremental CNC Sheet Metal Forming Process; Proceedings of the 10th Int. Conf. on Sheet Metal; 2003. pp. 495-502. [Jeswiet, 2002] Jeswiet, J.; Hagan, E; Szekeres, A.; Forming Parameters for Incremental Forming of Aluminium Sheet Metal; IMECHE Part B.; Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 2002; vol. 216. pp. 1367-1371. [Keeler, 1965] Keeler, S.; Determination of Forming Limits in Automotive Stampings; Society of Automotive Engineers, Technical paper, No.: 650535. [Krllics, 2004] Krllics, G.; Agena, A. S.; Investigation of Ductile Fracture of Nanostructured Al 6082 Material; Periodica Politechnica, Ser. C. Mech. Eng.; vol. 50. No. 2. pp. 89-97. [Micari, 2004] Micari, F.; A Common Shape for Conducting Incremental Forming Tests; 1st Incremental Forming Workshop, University of Saarbrcken, 9. June 2004. Available on CD-ROM. [Petek, A.; Pepelnjak, T.; Kuzman, K.; New method for Determination of FLD in Digital Environment; Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 51. (2005), pp. 330-345. [Tisza, 2001] Tisza, M.; "New Innovative Forming Processes"; In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Materials Science and Materials Processing, pp. 131-138; Balatonkenese, 10-13. October 2009;

Application of Expert System for Formability Analysis of Extrusion Process

R. S. Hingole#1*, V. M. Nandedkar#2** * #1* Research Scholar , Production Engineering Department, SGGIE & Tech., Swami Ramanan Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Paddmashree D. Y. Patil Instiute of Engineering and Technology, Pimpri, Pune - 411018, Maharashtra State, India #2** Professor, Production Engineering Department, SGGIE & Technology, MS, India email- hingolerrahul@gmail.com

Abstract. Today technology is one of the bastions of our modern lifestyle and basic for our prosperity, in which metal forming technology plays a central role. Along side for manufacture a semi-finished product through rolling, wire drawing and extrusion for production of discrete component using sheet metal and solid forming techniques is a major significance. The variety of parts produced in press shop are large and enumerate the sheet metal parts going in diverse industrial products would make an endless list. The development of new sheet metal forming processes, tooling etc. has up till now to a large extent has been based on experience, rules of thumb and trial-error experiments without or with only little use of scientifically based engineering methods. The experience is not enough, and trial-error experiments are very expensive with regard to both money and time. In present research work highlights the area of sheet metal forming particular in formability of extrusion process. Intelligent technologies have received much attention in a wide range of material forming application in order to make a forming system with a large flexibility without the need of skillful expert, to achieve product accuracy and product quality. A number of works on its application have been made in the field of metal forming. Convergence of technologies in the internet and the field of expert system have offered new ways of sharing and distributing knowledge. However, there has been a general lack of research in field of web based expert system for metal forming. This research work address the issues associated with design, development and use of web based expert system for various types of sheet metal forming operations like extrusion. Initially, the related literature has been presented. This research paper is followed by the presentation of client server methodology, test result and discussion and conclusion. Key words: metal forming, expert system, formability analysis, extrusion

1. INTRODUCTION Metal forming is an important process since primitives days of human being. It is the process where in the size and shapes are obtained through the plastic deformation of the material. The stresses induced during the process are greater than the yield strength but less than the fracture strength of the material. Metal forming by extrusion has predominant role in manufacturing sector. Many non- ferrous materials like aluminium, copper, lead, zinc etc. have major market share in end products due to there lower density and non-corrosive nature and are suitable for extrusion process. Extrusion process where by the work piece placed in a chamber with an opening and is forced to escape through the opening, usually being pushed out by a mandrel. Metal forming process whereby the work piece is placed in a chamber with an opening and is forced to escape through the opening, usually being pushed out by a mandrel. In the process of extrusion ref Figure 1(a), a billet is placed into a chamber with a shaped opening (called a die) on one end and a ram on the other. As the ram is forced into the chamber, the work piece is forced out through the die. The extradite, ref Figure 1(b) a long product (i.e., a rod), emerges through the die duplicating its cross sectional shape. The flow lines indicate that a dead metal zone forms in the corner on the exit side of the chamber where the separated ring of a triangular cross section remains stagnant.

Figure 1 (a); Extrusion and

Figure 1 (b); An assortment of extradites

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Sheet metal extrusion is a process in which the extrusion punch penetrates one surface of the sheet metal material to cause it to extrude and flow toward the outlet of the die. In fact, this process is a combined process in which both extrusion and penetration occur at the same time. The process can be seen in production processes, such as in the forming of a protruding part on a strip material, in the pre-forming of a staged hole in a forming step with a progressive die, and in the forming of the extruded part in a combined fine-

blanking and extrusion process. According to recent development of computer technology, the application of computers in manufacturing has been growing rapidly in the area of CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing), CAE (Computer Aided Engineering), CAPP (Computer Aided Process Planning), and numerical simulations of manufacturing processes using numerical techniques. In the area of process planning of forming processes, a number of developments have been reported after pioneering work by Niebel and Barker in the late 1960s. In the 1970s, Akgerman and Altan have developed a CAD system for hot forging, Biswas and Knight extending their work in the same area [1, 2]. The system developed is, in general, composed of several modules to assist the users in generating forging design rules that are incorporated into the programs and formulated on the basis of grouping relations and process limitations relevant to each operation. In addition, due to the development of knowledge treatment technique, knowledge based manufacturing systems have become popular, based on qualitative and ambiguous human experiences. In these systems, expert system, neural network or fuzzy theory, and artificial intelligence are used with the help of the operator's skill. It is widely known that the expert system has emerged as one of the most active and fruitful areas for research in the application of human knowledge for problems which do not lend themselves to solution by conventional methods because of a lack of quantitative data regarding the input output relations [3, 4]. Expert systems can therefore provide a user-friendly, flexible, intelligent solution to the kind of problem involving complex logic which occurs in engineering, automatic generation of sequence design for multistage cold forging being a good example. In the Cold extrusion of steel is economically attractive due to savings in material, dimensional accuracy, good surface finish, and improved mechanical properties. Hence, cold extrusion is a promising area to explore the process sequence for reducing the manufacturing costs [5]. The shape of a part is usually the major factor that determines the process sequence used for extrusion. Other factors influencing sequence design are composition and condition of the steel, required dimensional accuracy, quantity and cost. Although most cold extrusion of steel is confined to relatively small parts (slugs weigh less than 10 kg), much larger parts have been successfully cold extruded. The practical limits of part size for press operations are governed by availability of machinery and tool materials, plasticity of the work material and economical production quantities. Bodies for large caliber ordinance shells have been produced successfully by both hot and cold extrusion processes. It is still desirable, however, to increase the productivity of shell manufacturing facilities through improvements in process sequence. The selection of optimum process sequence is an art, and so far it has been mainly achieved by using extensive experience and expensive trial-and-error [6, 7]. Several computer-aided approaches to process sequence design have been studied [8, 9]. The methodology for the forming sequence design of axisymmetric parts based on expert systems has been proposed and CAD systems which can assist the design in the production of a shell body have been developed [10, 11]. The finite element method, which is one of the most powerful tools for the analysis of metal

forming processes, has been used for process sequence design and the fundamental methodology for systematic design based on the finite element method has been proposed. The process sequence design in cold extrusion to produce a large shell body is investigated by the rigid-plastic finite element method. The main objective is to reduce the number of operations from the currently established sequence (expert's method) for forming a satisfactory final product [12, 13]. The critical literature survey for extrusion process is implemented for development of expert system. Web based expert systems are not available in sheet metal forming area particularly in extrusion process. The main objective of this research work is to provide web based expert system for investigation of forming parameters in extrusion process. 3. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EXTRUSION PROCESS 3.1 Introduction Experimental design is a critically important tool in the engineering world for improving the performance of the manufacturing process. It also has extensive application in the development of new processes. The application of the experimental design technique early in the process design results in 1) Improved process yields 2) Reduced variability and closer conformance to nominal or target requirements 3) Reduced development time. 4) Reduced overall costs. The three basic principles of experimental design are replication, randomization and blocking. Replication means the repetition of the basic experiments. Randomization means the allocation of the experimental material and the order in which the individual runs or trials of the experiment are to be performed are randomly determined. Blocking is a design technique used to improve the precisions with which comparison among the factors of interest are made. Often it is used to reduce or eliminate the variability transmitted from nuisance factors i.e. the factors that may influence the experimental response. 3.2 Guidelines for designing the experiments 1) Recognition of and the statement of the problem 2) Choice of factors levels and range. 3) Selection of the response variable. 4) Choice of the experimental design 5) Performing the experiment 6) Statistical analysis of the data 7) Conclusions and recommendations.

3.3 Design of experiments Based on the literature survey and the preliminary investigations, the following three parameters i.e. reduction ratio, die cone angle and % concentration in lubricants were chosen as input parameter which affect the extrusion load, F, and surface roughness, hCLA. A well-designed factorial experiment consisting of 23 = 8 experiments for three input variables at two levels were conducted.. The ranges of values of each factor set at two levels are shown in Table (I). Variables Designation r C Description Percentage reduction, % Die semi-cone angle, degrees Concentration of lubrication, % Values of different levels Low (-1) 20 30 10 High (+1) 50 60 30

Table I ; Input parameters and coding The dies used were having initial diameter as 20 and 12.5 mm whereas final diameter as 25 mm, giving two levels of percentage reduction as 20% and 50%. The die semi-cone angle was als0o having two levels, 300 and 600 whereas solid lubricants used were of 5% and 15% concentration by weight. The solid lubricants used were (1) MoS2 powder, (2) MoS2 based grease, (3) graphite based grease, (4) AP3 grease and (5) lithium grease, mixed with industrial oil SAE 20 as base oil in 5% and 15% concentration by weight. The responses measured were extrusion force and surface roughness. The design of experiment is based on basically 23 factorial regressions with extreme values of each independent input parameter making the total number of experiments as 8. The regression coefficient is adopted for further analysis through Anova and for development of equations of extrusion force and surface roughness based on the independent variables. But the use of solid lubricant reduces the hCLA value to a minimum in the case of dies lubricated with MoS2 powder mixed with base oil SAE-20. This is also seen that MoS2 grease and lithium grease considerably reduces the value of surface roughness. Therefore it is better to use MoS2 powder mixed with base oil for the best surface finish of the extruded parts.

4. FORMABILITY ANALYSIS OF EXTRUSION PROCESS In case of extrusion process, the experiments are conducted on lead by varying diffrent parameters such as reduction ratio, die cone angle and % concentration in lubricants. The main objectives are to investigate extrusion force and surface roughness. Experiments were conducted by varying different parameters such as reduction ratio, die cone angle and % concentration in lubricants. Objective functions are extrusion force and surface roughness. The material used was lead. A mathematically extrusion force and surface roughness are model function of reduction ratio, die cone angle and % concentration in lubricants is developed. The experimental analysis and results for Lead material is as follows Expt. Run F KN log F hCLA log hCLA 1 29.00 1.462398 0.78 -0.10791 2 25.75 1.410777 0.64 -0.19382 3 22.00 1.342423 0.44 -0.35655 4 26.50 1.423246 0.33 -0.48149 5 48.00 1.681241 0.25 -0.60206 6 37.75 1.576917 0.27 -0.56864 7 52.00 1.716003 0.18 -0.74473 8 45.00 1.653213 0.23 -0.63827 Table II ; Experimental conditions and observations for Lead Environment.: MoS2 Powder mixed with base oil SAE-20 The result of this experiments are matching with result obtained by the web based expert system for extrusion process as shown in Figure 2, 3. These are the result of one medium only. By using this web based expert system different types medium can be used for validating the experimental result. Web based Expert system Run 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 F KN 29.00 25.75 22.00 26.50 48.00 37.75 52.00 45.00 log F 1.462398 1.410777 1.342423 1.423246 1.681241 1.576917 1.716003 1.653213 hCLA 0.78 0.64 0.44 0.33 0.25 0.27 0.18 0.23 log hCLA -0.10791 -0.19382 -0.35655 -0.48149 -0.60206 -0.56864 -0.74473 -0.63827

Table III ; Results of Web based expert system for Lead Environment.: MoS2 Powder mixed with base oil SAE-20

The Table II shows the experimental result obtained by using the lead material. The Table III, shows the result of the web based expert system. These reslts are giving the accuracy which has been obtained by using the web based expert system implimented for the extrusion process. The design and development web based expert system for forward extrusion process is shown in Figure 2 in which the input specifications for the process are given. The client has to give the input parameters for this extrusion process. The request goes to sever side and forming analysis execution process takes palce in the server. It sends the required formablity analysis to client side. The client will get maximum billet length, compressive stress, extrusion force, input power and friction power loss. In this way there is successful development of web based expert sytem for finding the formability parameters in the extrusion process.

Figure 2; Web page for input parameters for extrusion process for lead

Figure 3; Web page for output formability analysis of extrusion process for lead

5. CONCLUSIONS In this research work a web based expert system has been developed and implemented for metal forming processes in an innovative way. The web based expert system is successfully demonstrated for appropriate analysis of extrusion. In the procedure of developing web based expert system, the following conclusions are obtained. 1. The expert system investigates the forming parameters like extrusion force and suface roughness in extrusion process. The web based expert system has following feature 1] Business moves with the speed of internet 2] Implement new applications and upgrades more quickly. 3] Affordable access to technology 4] Improved total IT cost/performance 5] This system clears views on IT staff recruitments and retention. Acknowledgment: Prof. Raju Panchal has helped in experimental work.

REFERENCES [1] R. Maus and J. Keyes, Handbook of Expert Systems in Manufacturing, McGrawHill, New York, 1991. [2] M. M. Nelson and W. T. Illingworth, A Practical Guide to Neural Nets, AddisonWesley, Reading, MA, 1990. [3] Hong-Seok Kim, Yong-Taek Im, Expert system for multi-stage cold-forging process design with a re-designing algorithm, International Journal of Materials Processing Technology 54 (1995) 271-285. [4] S. Kobayashi. S. I. Oh and T. Altan, Metal Forming and the Finite Element Method, Oxford University Press (1989). [5] A. N. Bruchanov and A. V. Rebelski, Closed Die Forging and Warm Forging, Technik, Berlin (1955) (Translation from Russian). [6] V. Gopinathan, Optimum blank profile determination for rectangular deep drawing, Indian Journal of Technology, 15, 330-333 (1977). [7] U. Stahlberg, J.-O. Soderberg and Wallero, Overlap at the back and front ends in slab ingot rolling, International Journal of Mech. Sci. 23, 243-252 (1981). [8] P. Noack, Computer-aided determination of operation sequence and costs in cold forging of rotation symmetric work pieces, SME Technical Paper (MF73-141) (1973). [9] M. Rebholz, Interactive Programming System for Developing Production Layout for Cold Bulk Forming, Report No. 60, Metal Forming Institute, University of Stuttgart (1981). [10] M. I. Gokler. T. A. Dean and W. A. Knight, Computer-aided sequence design for upset forging machines, Proc. 22nd Int. Mach. Tool Des. Conf. Manchester, 457-466. Macmillan, London (1982). 938 Joong-Yeon Lira and Shiro Kobayashi [11] A. A. Badawy, D. J. Kulmann, P. S. Raghupathi and T. Altan, Computer-aided design of multistage forging operations for round parts, International Journal of Mechanical Working Tech. 11, 259-274 (1985). [12] K. Lange and Du, Formal approach to designing forming sequences for cold forging, Proc. NAMRC 17 (1989). [13] G. D. Lahoti, T. L. Subramanian and T. Altan, Development of a mathematical model and computer programs capable of optimizing the drawing process for actual artillery shell and cartridge cases, Final Report DAAA25-74-00557, Frankfort Arsenal, Philadelphia, PA 19137, May (1975).

The forming limit curve as a measure of formability Is an increase of testing necessary for robustness simulations?
J. Gerlach, L. Kessler, A. Khler ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, Research and Development Application Technology Kaiser-Wilhelm-Strae 100, 47166 Duisburg, Germany Joerg.gerlach@thyssenkrupp.com

Abstract: The concept of forming limit curves (FLC) is widely used in industrial practice. The onset of necking data should be delivered for typical material properties by the material suppliers. Providing experimentally determined forming limit curves for the variety of scattering in the mechanical properties is impossible. Therefore a forecast of the expected limit strains without expensive cost and time-consuming experiments is necessary. In the paper the quality of a regression analysis for determining forming limit curves based on tensile test results is presented and discussed. It is shown that the practical forecast is successful for the traditional visual definition of necking as well as for the new definition of forming limits according to ISO12004. The applied data base consists of 150 experimental FLCs. The quality of the regression FLCs is demonstrated by applying them to different forming parts. Keywords: Failure, forming process, forming limit curve, regression

1.

INTRODUCTION

With the development of new steel grades and the requirement of a better material utilization, the forecast of failure in forming processes becomes even more important. In industrial practice forming processes are designed using numerical simulation tools. Although nowadays there are many theoretical models of failure prediction the FLC is the most widely criterion. Especially in press shops the comparison of measured strains and their plot in a Forming Limit Diagram is applied to define a safety margin and gives an approximation of the expected robustness of the forming process.

2. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE NECKING STRAINS In general, forming limits in plasticity are path dependent, which means that pure knowledge of the strain state cannot be used for a failure forecast. The simplest way for a strain path dependency is a linear strain path with constant ratios of strains in the sheet

plane. These limit strains are converted to a forming limit curve. Although there are several experimental procedures [Hasek, 1978] to determine failure with respect to linear strain paths two main experimental setups are widely used in practice. These are the so called Marciniak and the Nakajima test which differ in the loading conditions. For academic reasons the strategy of Marciniak can offer some advantages as there is no superposition of bending effects. Owing to the fact that normal forming processes change sheet metal blanks into various curved parts, failure values based on Nakajima results including bending effects are often used. An increasing width of the sheet samples allows a transition from a negative to a positive ratio of minor and major strains and thus leads to the determination of failure at different linear strain paths. In general, forming limits are not defined using splits; already an onset of (visual) necking indicates unsafe processes. Therefore the forming limits should correspond to the beginning of the necking phenomena. Different strategies for the detection of the onset of necking are used in practice: - Visual method: The last state before onset of visual necking is selected to determine limit strains. This means it is necessary to repeat the experiment at a punch stroke where no necking occurs (If there is a visual recording of the experiment, search for the last time state without necking and determine the limit strains at this time state). - Definition of the forming limits using strain distribution at split samples. Here mathematical algorithms allow the extrapolation of measured spatial strain distribution to the desired onset of necking [ISO/FDIS12004, 2008]. Note that the different definitions of onset of necking can result in different numerical values for limit strains. To sum up it can be stated that a variety of practicable experimental methods exist (extremely time and cost intensive with respect to tensile testing) for determination of limit strains following linear strain paths. To reduce the efforts these methods are applied to typical material properties of certain steel grades (If we assume a normal distribution of the mechanical properties the typical material should be inside a tolerance band of +/- one times the standard deviation). If one considers the huge number of the steel families /ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, 2009/ with up to 6 members of each family and takes into consideration the different alloying concepts for several surface treatments, it becomes apparent that these demands for material characteristics can no longer be guaranteed purely by experiments. Therefore, theoretical methods have to be developed to determine material failure.

3. DEFINITION OF THE COMPLETE FORMING LIMIT CURVE To fit the experimental true strains 1, 2 which define the onset of necking ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG uses a combination of two specific mathematical functions, one linear and one exponential function, with additional constraints. The

unknown parameters a0, b0, b1, b2 and transition point 0 are determined by the minimum of least squares.

=a +a , < = b + b exp( b ), > a = 1, ( ) = c Q a , b , b ,b , | = ( 1 1

1 0 1 2 2 0 1 0 1 ' 2 2 2 0 1 1 0 n 0 0 1 2 0 2 j =1

(1)

calculated ) Min.
2 !

In a second step the variance between the measured and calculated values is determined and the whole curve is transformed to lower values with k times for the standard deviation. The factor k exhibits a quantity for safety and is set to 1.96 in our practical work, figure 1. The resulting graph is defined as the forming limit curve (FLC) of the specific steel grade representing the onset of necking. Some additional aspects of the transformation are discussed more in detail in /Gerlach et al., 2007/.

0 2
Figure1: FLC Definition using a best fit and an additional transformation .

4. APPROXIMATE PREDICTION OF FORMING LIMITS The experimental procedure of the determination of FLCs is time consuming end relative expensive. Especially for press shop applications it is necessary to have a forecast of the forming limits because FLCs will not be available for every coil. In practice only tensile test results can be a reasonable basis which will be used for quality assurance and approval. Depending on different steel grades the quality standards can

include the yield strength (YS), tensile strength (TS), total elongation (TE), as well as rand n-values. An estimation of the expected FLCs is also helpful to assess the robustness of forming processes by means of numerical simulations.

4.1 Basic idea and used data base The idea for a practical prediction of FLCs is described in figure 2. By means of a linear regression using mechanical properties and thickness, three characteristic necking points are approximated. With the help of these points the forming limit curve can easily be calculated as a combination of a linear and an exponential function according to the previously described definition of the FLC. Because of the importance of the so-called plane strain range in press shop applications the forecast of FLC should cover especially this area.
0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 1(0) 0,1 0,0 0,4 0,2 0 0,2 1(0.2) 1(0)

Approximation of three necking points:

1(0) = f (YS, TS, n, r, TE, , thickness) 1(0) = f (YS, TS, n, r, TE, , thickness) 1(0.2) = f (YS, TS, n, r, TE, , thickness) 2

0,4

Figure 2: Method of a FLC forecast using three characteristic points During our research work we found some surprising but very helpful results. Already the assumption of a linear function of the necking strains for all 3 points based on the mechanical properties was practically sufficient. Another favorable fact was that not all mechanical properties are significant in the regression analysis but only the tensile strength, total elongation and sheet thickness. These values are always available and also given in material specific standards for each steel family. This advantage of the FLC forecast for press shop applications is associated with the disadvantage that the total elongation is no input value in numerical FE codes. Because of the fact that the minimum total elongation however always defined in the material standards an estimation of the FLC can also be reached. The final formula for the three characteristic points is very simple. Each point can be calculated using a linear function of sheet thickness, tensile strength and total elongation

with the coefficients Kt, KTS, KTE, and K which are determined in a linear regression analysis. The necking points are based on the best fit of equation (1) without applying a transformation.

(0) = K t + K TS + K TE + K ( ) = K t + K TS + K TE + K
1 t TS TE 1 0 t TS TE

(2)

(0.2) = K t
1 t

+ K TS TS + K TE TE + K

The applied data base consists of 150 experimental determined FLCs for the whole product range of ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG. Here we find mild steels as well as high strength steels with a tensile strength of about 1200 MPa in a thickness range from 0.6 to 3.0 mm, figure 3.
Property space of the FLC data base
60 40 Total Elongation (%) 20 200 800 2 1400 4 0
10 0 200 70 60 Deep-drawing steels 50 Deep-drawing steels: (DD, DC, DX) Conventional high-strength steels: HSZ: High-strength stretch forming steels BHZ: Bake hardening steels HX: High-strength IF steels WHZ: Work hardening steels MHZ: Microalloyed steels Advanced high-strength steels: FB-W: Ferrite-bainite-phase steels Retained-austenite steels RA-K: CP-W,CP-K: Complex-phase steels ,DP-K: Dual-phase steels DP-W

Total elongation A (%)

HX HSZ FB-W RA-K

40 30

20

BHZ WHZ PAS, MHZ MHZ-W

300 400 500 600

DP
700

CP
800 900 1000

Tensile Strength (MPa)

-K /-W : Colled / Hot rolled 1100 1200 1300 1400

Thickness (mm)

Tensile strength Rm (MPa)

Figure 3: Mechanical properties for different steel grades used in the FLC data base

4.2. Forecast of the FLC using the visual definition of necking and the ISO12004 definition In table 1 the coefficients of the regression analysis for the FLC forecast based on the visual definition of necking as well as on the new ISO12004 proposal are given. It should be noted that for the FLC regression according to ISO12004 up to now 116 of the 150 experiments using the Nakajima test setup were evaluated. It can be seen that the coefficients of determination are in a range of 90% for both definitions for the onset of necking. The standard deviation of the forecast of the characteristic points differ only little. In tendency it can be pointed out that the accuracy of the approximation is slightly higher in the left side of the FLC. However the mean standard deviation of about 0.02 in

the regression is in the same range as the standard deviation in the approximation process of the linear and the exponential function using the individual measured necking strains.
1(0) visual ISO 12004 Kt [1/mm] KTS [1/MPa] KTE [1/%] K standard deviation coefficient of determination
0,0771 -0,000192 0,00428 0,219 0,022 0,940 0,0577 -0,000127 0,00582 0,121 0,017 0,959

1(0) visual ISO 12004

0,0719 -0,000148 0,00422 0,154 0,022 0,923 0,0518 -0,000111 0,00502 0,098 0,017 0,948

1(0.2) visual ISO 12004

0,0640 -0,000152 0,00301 0,295 0,027 0,849 0,0448 -0,000119 0,00360 0,254 0,022 0,887

Table 1: Regression coefficients for the forecast of the three characteristic points A typical plot of the prediction of the FLC using different methods of necking definition is given in figure 4. For the definition of the FLC on the basis of the regression analysis an analogous transformation with the mean standard deviation was applied (see chapter 3). Beside the quality of each regression it is observable that the FLC according to the ISO12004 is characterised by a lower level of major strain in general. Another interesting aspect is that the regression based on the visual necking definition provides a consistently conservative prediction for the family of complex phase steels.
Grade DP-K34/60 Thickness mm 1,50 YS MPa 392 TS MPa 641 UE % 19,1 TE % 26,5 r 0,82 n 0,203

0,8

Major true strain

0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2

Major true strain

Experimment Regression

0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2

Experimment Regression

0,1 FLC Definition: visual 0,0 -0,5 -0,4 -0,3 -0,2 -0,1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

0,1 FLC Definition: ISO12004 0,0 -0,5 -0,4 -0,3 -0,2 -0,1 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

Minor true strain

Minor true strain

Figure 4: Experimental and predicted FLCs for a dual phase steel grade

5. VALIDATION OF THE DIFFERENT FLC FORECASTS In press shop applications tools will be released when the measured strain distribution is below a certain safety margin. A common margin is 10 % engineering strain. This is based on experience and represents a compromise between the utilization of materials and the desire for robust forming processes. It is obvious that the transition to a new definition for the onset of necking the practical experience of the safety area must be reexamined. This should be demonstrated with an example. In figure 5 the measured strain distribution of two areas of a reinforcing part are shown. No visible necking was observed. To assess the practical robustness of the expected forming process the strain distribution of the non-cracked part will be compared with the FLC. However in the press shop only the tensile test results of the coil are available and therefore the FLC has to be approximated with the help of the regression formula and the mechanical properties. In the example given the safety requirement did not exist.

Minor technical strain [%]

Major technical strain [%]

Major technical strain [%]

Minor technical strain [%]

Figure 5: Strain distribution in two areas compared to the approximated FLC (visual) and the related 10% safety margin

In figure 6 it is shown that the practical safety margin of 10% is in the same order of magnitude as the difference of the FLCs due to their specific definitions. The FLCs are calculated using the regression formula as well as the mean standard deviation for transformation. It is therefore imperative to adapt practical experience in press shops when applying the new definition of the onset of necking to compare the strain distribution.

60%

60%

visual visual ISO 12004

visual

50% 50%

ISO ISO12004 12004

Major technical strain [%]

40% 40%

30% 30%

20% 20%

10% 10%

0% 0%

-30%

-30%

-20%

-20%

-10%

-10%

0%

0%

10%

10%

20%

20%

30%

30%

Minor technical strain [%]

Figure 6: Visualisation of the FLC forecast depending on definition of necking

6. VARIABLE FLCs IN ROBUSTNESS SIMULATIONS

Using a regression formula it is possible to consider different formability limits in principle. Even if the elongation is not an input variable for the simulation an estimation of the change in the strain limits can be achieved using minimum values specified in the standards for certain steel grades. Nevertheless, the question arises if it is really necessary to consider the change of the FLC in robustness simulations. This will be illustrated briefly below by an example. A mild steel grade should be used for a door outer. Typical mean expected values used for the FLC calculation are a tensile strength of 295 MPa and a total elongation of 44%. In figure 7 the outer panel and the FLCs on the basis of mean values and the worst as well as best case are given for a sheet thickness of 0.8 mm. Note, there is nearly no difference in the forecast of the forming limits according to a visual or the ISO definition using the mean values of the mechanical properties, figure 7 left. The worst and best case FLCs regarding the ISO 12004 definition were calculated using the defined limits in the material standard of 270 < TS < 350 MPa and 38% < TE < assumed 51%, figure 7 right. These limits of the expected FLCs have a difference of about 0.04 from the FLC calculated with mean values. With reference to a real material scatter can be noted that the range of uncertainty in general is even smaller if the measured mechanical properties will not fulfil the entire range of the standard /Gerlach et al., 2010/.

0,7 0,6 visual ISO 12004

0,8 0,7

worst case mean values best case

Major true strain

0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0

Major true strain

0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0

-0,4

-0,2

0,0

0,2

0,4

-0,4

-0,2

0,0

0,2

0,4

Minor true strain

Minor true strain

Figure 7: FLC forecast using the regression formula for an outer panel application of mild steel In our numerical experience, not robust processes are characterized by extremely high volatility in the strain distribution. In addition to the variations in the material properties the friction often plays a crucial role especially using thin sheets with low strength. If the formability assessed by means of the distance to the FLC, the influence of a possible shift of the FLC itself often is small in contrast to the forced strain distribution. Therefore it does not seem absolutely necessary to cover the phenomenon of variable FLCs in robustness simulations. This aspect is visualised using the strain distributions according to the best/worst material parameter combinations and the lowest/highest friction coefficients compared with a constant FLC, figure 8.

Figure 8: Strain distribution depending on scatter of mechanical properties and friction for the panel application

7. CONCLUSIONS For practical applications it is possible to calculate the FLC from the mechanical properties with sufficient accuracy. For both definitions of failure according the traditional visual onset of necking and the new definition included in the ISO12004 proposal the sheet thickness, tensile strength and total elongation are the significant values. The forecast of the FLCs differs however when using various definitions for onset of necking especially for thicker sheets. This has an impact on the classical definition and interpretation of the safety margin in press shop applications. Applying the regression formula, it is also possible to consider a variation of the forming limits in robustness simulations. However an absolute necessity for the consideration of the variability of the FLCs could not previously be detected.

REFERENCES

[Hasek, 1978] Hasek, V; "Untersuchung und theoretische Beschreibung wichtiger Einflussgren auf das Grenzformnderungsschaubild, Teil 1"; In: Blech Rohre Profile 25, pp. 213-220, 1978 [ISO/FDIS12004, 2008] Metallic materials Sheet and strip Determination of forming limit curves Part 2: Determination of forming limit curves in the laboratory, ISO/FDIS 12004-2, 2008 [ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, 2009] "Product overview"; ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG [Gerlach et al., 2007] Gerlach, J.; Kessler, L.; Paul, U. Rsen, H. Possibilities and Influencing Parameters for the Early Detection of Sheet Metal Failure in Press Shop Operations"; In: Proceedings of NUMIFORM 07, pp. 99-104; American Institute of Physics, 978-0-7354-0415-1/07 [Gerlach et al., 2010] Beier, Th.; Gerlach, J.; Kessler, L.; Linnepe, M.; "The Impact of Advanced Material Simulation Parameters in Press Shop Operations Using Mild Steel Grades "; In: SAE 2010 World Congress, paper number 2010-01-0992; Detroit 2010

New Time Dependent Method for Determination of Forming Limit Curves Applied to SZBS800
M. Merklein*, A. Kuppert*, S. Mtze**, A. Geffert** * Chair of Manufacturing Technology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany ** Salzgitter Mannesmann Forschung GmbH, Salzgitter, Germany a.kuppert@lft.uni-erlangen.de, s.muetze@sz.szmf.de

Abstract: In body design the FE analysis is an important step in optimizing forming processes. Therefore the identification of material parameters is a main issue in sheet metal forming. Parallel to the constitutive model a failure criterion to ensure the feasibility of a specific designed form is most of the time needed. Among different possibilities the forming limit diagram is the most used criterion due to its easy implementation in commercial FE programs. The focus of this paper is to present a novel evaluation strategy to determine the forming limit curve for high strength steels in comparison with the standard method. The advantage of the use of this new method will be presented for the material SZBS800 from the Salzgitter Flachstahl GmbH by means of implementing the evaluated FLC in a forming analysis of an automotive structure part. Keywords: material characterization, forming limit diagram, time depending evaluation method 1. INTRODUCTION In sheet metal part design with short process cycles Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a commonly used tool for target-oriented development. Numerical simulation methods reduce costs and time during the process instead of material intensive trial and error. These FE simulations are based on material models for describing the deformation behavior. Input data for such models are results of material characterization tests, e.g. yield locus and true stress true strain curve. The development of new materials of higher strength is responsible for new designs of light weight construction. The weight and stiffness of a sheet metal part is primarily depending on the strength of a steel in combination with its sheet thickness. The use of high and ultra high strength steels together with process design based on results of FEA gives the possibility for light weight constructions with respect to economic use of resources. To evaluate the results of the simulation and make a feasibility validation a predicted failure criterion is mandatory. The Forming Limit Curve (FLC) is the only standardized failure criterion which is used in FEA. The FLC describes the maximum strain to failure as a function of the strain state. The today known Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) was established by

[Goodwin, 1968] and [Keeler, 1964]. The forming limit of a sheet metal is defined in [ISO 12004-2] as the critical formability by means of onset of necking. Within the last years different researchers were working in the field of determination of FLCs and the development of methods for determination of onset of necking [Marciniak et al., 1967] [Nakajima et al., 1968] [Geiger et al., 2003]. Due to the aim of cost reduction the process window is moved more and more towards its borders. For this qualified data of Forming Limit Curve is needed to have a reliable process planning. The following paper is focused on the improvement of determination of FLC using a newly developed time dependent analysis method applied to SZBS800 and showing its benefit. 2. STATE OF THE ART The experimental procedure and the evaluation method for determination of forming limit diagrams is standardized within the international standard ISO 12004-2. To cover with one experimental setup most of occurring strain states in a sheet metal forming process the specimen geometry can be altered. A narrow ligament leads to uniaxial stretching (21=-2), whereas a round sample with fully clamped flange leads to biaxial stretching (1=2). Within the ISO two different possibilities are mentioned to deform the sample. One possibility is a hemispherical Nakajima punch with a diameter of 100 mm, the other a flat Marciniak punch. The maximum sheet thickness for tests with Nakajima punch is limited to 3 to 4 mm in order to avoid bending with increased divergence between outer and inner fiber. The friction in the deformation area of the sample has to be reduced to a minimum. Due to the reduced normal force in the center of a flat Marciniak punch the influence of the friction is decreased. To reduce the friction in Nakajima test complex tribological system has to be used. A higher friction between punch and sample leads to an inhomogeneous plastification with excentric placed necking and cracking areas and thus to invalid results of the experiments. For determination of major and minor strain values of the tested sample the cross section method, explained in the ISO 12004-2, is recommended. For this evaluation method the strain values must be determined along a section upright to the necking area at the sample surface. With the application of optical strain measurement systems the evaluation gets easier, faster and more precise. The use of an optical strain measurement system with a frame rate of at least 10 Hz is recommended in the ISO. The strain field within a tenth of a second is used for evaluation because the crack with occurring reflections may interfere the strain measurement. With this data the before mentioned section is analyzed and subdivided in necked and non necked area. Fitting an inverse polynomial function in the non necked area leads to the FLC-values after the cross section method. Another advantage of an optical strain measurement system is the provided temporal information of the strain field development, which supports further evaluation methods.

Another possibility to evaluate the Nakajima test for determination of forming limit diagrams is the time continuous evaluation method [Eberle et al., 2008]. The mentioned methodology analyzes the change of strain rate with the onset of necking. After onset of necking the strain rate in the necking area increases while the strain rate in the outer areas decreases. To determine the major and minor strain values for the forming limit curve the change of the strain field in a defined area around the necking is investigated from homogeneous plasticfication over necking till cracking. With the use of a histogrammatic classification of the strain rate the divergence between measurement values inside and outside the necking area is analyzed and used to determine the time step of onset of necking. Indications for the onset of necking are the following: If between two stages the classes of strain rates rises, the number of facets of the highest class rises or the count of facets in a higher class is bigger than in the lower class. But the criteria of generating strain rate classes and determining the last stage before necking are empiric developed rules. To improve this issue a new time depending evaluation should be developed. The evaluation methods have to be improved and developed to determine qualified forming limit diagrams of e.g. SZBS800, which may fail without showing an explicit necking zone before cracking. To overcome this inadequacy a new time dependent evaluation method was developed. 3. NEW TIME DEPENDENT METHOD For determining major and minor strain values for the forming limit curve of a Nakajima test with the new time dependent evaluation method it is mandatory to use a optical strain measurement system. The requirements are a high local resolution to detect the necking zone, having enough data points inside the necking area. Furthermore it is necessary to capture the deformation with a sufficient frame rate to be able to define the exact time step of onset of necking. The recommended minimum frame rate is in accordance to the requirements for the cross section method included in the ISO 120042 10 Hz. The used optical strain measurement for the results in this paper is the ARAMIS system from GOM (Braunschweig, Germany). The new time dependent evaluation is based on the change of strain rate for the data points inside the necking area. The determination of onset of necking is based on a trend analysis. In the last stage before crack the center of the necking area is identified by selecting the facet with the highest major strain value. Analyzing the data of this single point would lead to sufficient results, but in order to stabilize the potential scattering of strain values it is helpful to increase the evaluation area and use in each case the arithmetic middle of the major and minor strain values. But the evaluation area should be small enough to be able to detect the increase of strain rate in the inner necking area. For a reliable use of the new time dependent method an evaluation radius of 2 mm is recommended, because the used data points mainly belong to the necking area. The selection of the evaluation area is exemplarily shown in Figure 1 with the

circle in the middle of the necking area. These selected points are used for evaluation from the beginning of the undeformed measurement field till crack. To detect the change, respectively the increase of strain rate the time derivate of strain rate is calculated and plotted in the diagram (Figure 1). For the analysis and determination of the time step which represents the onset of necking, it is important to avoid any influence by the user. It has to be achieved that the method is insensitive to lightly scattering measurement data and the definition of the stage of onset of necking is an automatic, non subjective approach. The used method was successful used for determination of onset of yielding [Merklein et al., 2008]. For the new time dependent method the input data are similar with a linear curve progression at the beginning and a defined divergence close to necking which should be automatically detected.

Figure 1; Determination of onset of necking using the new developed time dependent analysis method This mathematical approach is used to analyze the curve progression of the time derivate of the strain rate respectively acceleration of major strain values. The mentioned method is a linear regression analysis of the strain acceleration curve. The quality of the linear regression is described by the coefficient of determination represented by the continuous line in Figure 1. With the start of the test the acceleration of the strain has a constant characteristic and with the ongoing homogeneous plastification the coefficient of determination increases. At the onset of necking the time derivate of strain rate reaches its maximum value. This increase is responsible, that the quality of a linear regression from the beginning of the test decreases, which is visualized by a decreasing coefficient of determination. So the time step characterized by the maximum of the coefficient of determination represents the onset of necking.

This new time dependent evaluation was first presented in [Merklein et al., 2010] and applied to different steel grades and one aluminum alloy. In the following the benefit of this method will be shown with the micro-alloyed high strength steel SZBS800. 4. METHOD EVALUATION ON A REAL PART GEOMETRY In the prototyping stage of a deep drawing part, the forming limit diagram is an important tool to recurrently optimize the process. The forming limit curve shows at a forming limit diagram the forming capacity of the material. In contrast to the forming limit curve, the scatter plot describes the real deformations and elongations of the drawing part. Therefore, a correct forming limit curve is elementary necessary to describe accurately and to evaluate the forming process and the material behavior at different strains.
lower distance to FLC larger distance to FLC
Copyright by BMW

real B-pillar of a actual car (prototype) material: SZBS800 thickness: 1.6 mm ISO 12004-2 cross section method major strain 1 [-]

minor strain 2 [-]

Figure 2; FLD of a real part geometry as a prototype, B-pillar of a car, use of the conventional cross section method It has been shown, that a forming limit curve, calculated by the cross section method is not suitable to describe all high strength steels for example the SZBS800 of the Salzgitter Flachstahl GmbH. The SZBS800 is a bainitic steel grade (Salzgitter

Bainitischer Stahl 800), which is thermo-mechanically rolled and micro-alloyed. The material features are a high tensile strength of 800 MPa with sufficient elongation for forming applications. Due to its chemical composition, it also offers good weldability. Typical applications with respect to the high tensile strength, offering the possibility to minimize the components weight, include longitudinal beams and cross members in trucks and trailers, body parts and chassis-components e.g. control arm and trailing arm in passenger cars.
lower distance to FLC larger distance to FLC
Copyright by BMW

real B-pillar of a actual car (prototype) material: SZBS800 thickness: 1.6 mm Erlangen time dependent method major strain 1 [-]

minor strain 2 [-]

Figure 3; FLD of a real part geometry as a prototype, B-pillar of a car, use of the new time dependent method from Erlangen Performing a FE simulation of a real part geometry (B-pillar of an actual car), the forming capacity of the SZBS800 is not described correctly. The FE simulation indicates cracks or strong thinning. The prediction is in contrast to the real drawn part, showing no cracks or extensive thinning. Also the forming analysis of the undamaged B-pillar of SZBS800 predicted cracks and thinning if the forming limit curve is calculated using the cross section method. In Figure 2 it could be seen that the scatter plot is much higher than the given FLC. This means, that cracking within forming of the part would be expected, e.g. the part must have large amounts of thinning at the critical areas. Taking into account that most customers require a minimum distance of 10% between the scatter plot to the FLC the material would be evaluated as not qualified for the investigated component.

In contrast, using a FLC calculated by the new time dependent method, a result is obtained as shown in Figure 3. In Figure 3, the scatter plot at its maxima lightly touches the safety curve, which represents a resistant forming process. The given forming limit diagram indicates a very good qualification of the new time dependent calculating method, developed by the Chair of Manufacturing Technology, to describe the forming behavior of the modern high strength steel SZBS800 from the Salzgitter AG. The results of these special investigations are promising, but the real forming process which is used is not applicable to demonstrate the full forming capacity of the material. It only shows, that the method gives a realistic result for this special forming process, but it is not proven whether the method displays the full forming capacity of the material itself or not. The limiting factor is the used forming tool, because it is not possible to form this B-pillar at different forming depths. In comparison to the fully drawn-out part it is not possible to increase the drawing depth or reach higher strain values. Thus investigations are made with a model geometry tool to demonstrate the full forming capacity of the material and also the real possibilities of the new calculating method. 5. METHOD EVALUATION ON A MODEL GEOMETRY Regarding the high strength steel SZBS800 it is shown, that the new developed time dependent method to calculate a forming limit curve is much more accurate than the conventional cross section method. Therefore it is very interesting to bring the different levels of the forming limit curves, calculated by the new time dependent method and the conventional cross section method, in relationship with the gain of drawing depth. All the investigations shown were made with a 1000ton hydraulical try-out-press from Dieffenbacher which is housed at the Salzgitter Mannesmann Forschung GmbH (SZMF), the R&D Department of the Salzgitter Group. The substantial investigations were made with model geometry (Figure 4). The geometry is a stylized part of the lower part of a B-pillar. The geometry is very demanding in all respects, with the radii very small and a tool designed to crack materials under specific conditions in order to make a comparison between different steel grades. The tool gives the possibility to display accurate defined load limit of the material under real load cases. The deep drawn parts were analyzed with an optical measurement system, ARGUS from GOM mbH. To clearly show the effects the investigations were made as described in the following section. The advantage of the used model part is the possibility to increase the drawing depths to approach the forming limit of the material step by step. Figure 5 shows the forming limit diagram for an analyzed part at a drawing depth of 23.0 mm. The conventional forming limit curve as calculated with the cross section method results in the maximum reachable drawing ratio. But the real part shows no cracks and no thinning (Figure 4). This means, the used FLC describes not the real material behavior of the used SZBS800.

Deep drawing tool, model geometry; part of a B-pillar

Drawing depth = 23.0 mm

Safe

Critical part of the model geometry Drawing depth = 27.0 mm thinning/crack

Figure 4; Tool for the model geometry, stylized part of a B-pillar, different drawing depths
Erlangen time dependent method ISO 12004-2 cross section method

major strain 1 [-]

FLD of SZBS800 thickness: 1.65 mm, drawing depth = 23.0 mm model geometry: part of B-pillar

minor strain 2 [-]

Figure 5; FLD of a model geometry drawing depth 23.0 mm, comparison of the conventional cross section method and the new time dependent method from Erlangen

In order to reach the forming limit of this material the drawing depth is more increased. The use of the new time dependent method exhibits more safety, in other words, if one uses the new method for the construction of parts, one can create difficult parts and obtain accurate results by calculating with the true deformation capacity of the material. For example, by using the time dependent method for dimensioning a deep drawn part, one can reach a safety drawing depth of 25.5 mm which is 11% more than the conventional (Figure 6). In this case, at the drawing depth of 25.5 mm no thinning is visible on the real drawn part suggesting, that the forming process is very safe and robust. And in order of this the drawing depth is more increased at the next forming part. At the drawing depth of 27.0 mm first thinning are visible (Figure 4). So that drawing depth represent the real forming limit of the material under these real, multiaxial conditions.
Erlangen time dependent method ISO 12004-2 cross section method

major strain 1 [-]

FLD of SZBS800 thickness: 1.65 mm, drawing depth = 25.5 mm model geometry: part of B-pillar

minor strain 2 [-]

Figure 6; FLD of a model geometry drawing depth 25.5 mm, comparison of the conventional cross section method and the new time dependent method from Erlangen All the investigations indicate the high quality of the new developed time dependent method for calculating a forming limit curve for modern high strength steels like the SZBS800 of the Salzgitter AG. The strongly demand of the customers from the automotive industry are fulfilled with this method to calculate accurate material properties. Prospective one is able to design forming parts based at the real forming capacity of actual steel grades.

6. CONCLUSION In this paper a new time dependent method for determination of the FLD is presented. Its applicability is exemplarily shown for SZBS800. The demand of the new method was explained with a FE Simulation of a B-pillar and strain measurements on a model geometry. The new method with its numerically based determination of the onset of necking offers the possibility to generate objective and reproducible FLDs without any influence of the user. This method helps to develop parts concerning aspects of light weight construction and to use the material to full capacity economic sense. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author gratefully thanks the German Research Foundation (DFG) for founding this research project with the title Identification and modeling of material behavior for the FE-analysis in sheet metal forming processes (PAK250). And special thanks goes to Dipl.-Ing. Christian Schmidt, who worked with us on the development of this method in the framework of his diploma thesis. REFERENCES [Keeler, 1964] Keeler, S.P., Plastic instability and fracture in sheet stretched over rigid punches. ASM Trans. 56, 25-48. [Goodwin, 1968] Goodwin, G.M., Application of strain analysis to sheet metal forming in the press shop. SAE paper No. 680093. [ISO 12004-2] International Standard ISO 12004-2 Metallic materials guidelines for the determination of forming-limit diagrams [Marciniak et al., 1967] Marciniak, Z., Kuczynski, K., Limit strains in the process of strech-forming sheet metal. In: Int. Journal of Mech. Science 9, 609-620. [Nakajima et al., 1968] Nakajima, K., Kikuma, T., Asaku, K., Study on the formability of steel sheet. In: Yawata Technical Report 264. [Geiger et al., 2003] Geiger, M., Merklein, M., Determination of forming limit diagrams a new analysis method for characterization of materials formability, In: Annals of the CIRP 51/1:213-216. [Eberle et al., 2008] Eberle, B., Volk, W., Hora, P., Automatic approach in the evaluation of the experimental FLD with a full 2D approach based on a time depending method, In: Numisheet, Part A, 279-284. [Merklein et al., 2008] Merklein M., Huntter W., Geiger M., Characterization of Yielding Behavior of Sheet Metal under Biaxial Stress Condition at Elevated Temperatures, In: Annals of CIRP 57/1:269-274. [Merklein et al., 2010] Merklein M., Kuppert A., Geiger M., Time dependent determination of forming limit diagrams, In: Annals of CIRP 59/1, in print.

Forming limit curve based on shear under tension failure criterion

M.P. Sklad and J. D. Verhaeghe Corresponding author: M.P. Sklad Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4L7, Canada e-mail: sklad@mcmaster.ca FMTI Systems, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

Abstract: The concept of deriving FLC from the stress state on the failure plane is presented. The quantity referred to as stress flux, defined as an algebraic sum of normal and shear stress acting on a plane inclined at 22.5 degrees to the plane carrying maximum normal stress, allows one to generate a FLC consistent with those obtained using other methods. In this work the strain measurement performed on a single geometry sample provided data sufficient to generate a FLC consistent with a curve obtained using multiple geometries of the samples. Keywords: FLC, FLSD, stress flux.

1. INTRODUCTION The assessment of forming severity in sheet metal forming applications for traditional ductile materials is based on the evaluation of principal strains measured on the surface of the formed part, against the forming limit curve, FLC, plotted on the forming limit diagram, FLD. The concept of an experimentally determined FLC was introduced by Lankford (Lankford et al., 1947) and, independently, by Keeler and Backhofen (Keeler and Backhofen, 1964). Over the last several decades the experimental FLC has gained wide acceptance in industry as a tool for evaluating forming severity in sheet metal forming processes, based on the technique outlined by Dinda (Dinda et al., 1981). The experimental procedures of determining the FLC have been legitimatized by ISO and ASTM standards, (ISO 12004-2:2008, ASTM 2218). Another application of the FLC is in sheet forming process simulation. The conventional FLC pertains to a proportional deformation expressed in terms of the principal strains. The use of principal directions of deformation appears to be natural for determining the FLC as the curve itself is expressed in terms of the principal strains-major and minor. In the case of experimental analysis, using principal strains is the legacy of the work of Keeler and Backhofen (Keeler and Backhofen, 1964) and Goodwin (Goodwin, 1968) who used circle grid analysis, CGA, a technique which

ascertains only the apparent principal strain components. The CGA technique cannot detect nor can it measure non-proportional strains and strains in a process in which the principal directions of deformation rotate with respect to the material. This deficiency of CGA is inherited by the FLC and, therefore, the direct application of a FLC in numerical forming process simulation may be flawed as, in general, the deformation evolution may not follow a proportional path. This deficiency of the FLC is eliminated by the concept referred to as the forming limit stress diagram, FLSD, which expresses the deformation state using the major-minor stress space instead of the major-minor strain. The FLSD employs the constitutive relationship of the material to translate the FLC into the stress forming limit curve, SFLC, (Arrieux et al., 1982, Zhao et al., 1996, and Stoughton, 2000). The forming severity is evaluated assuming that the stress state causing the material failure is the same regardless of whether or not the material arrives at that stress state under a proportional or a non-proportional loading path. Though, for most materials, the FLSD does not provide an informative depiction of forming severity due to the fact that on a FLSD graph the difference between safe and critical stresses often becomes visually indistinguishable when the magnitude of strains approaches the failure level. These shortcomings of the FLSD are rectified by remapping the critical stresses determined for non-proportional deformation from FLSD back into a matching hypothetical proportional strain domain of the FLD, where the safe and critical strains are clearly distinguishable, and by evaluating these hypothetical strains against the conventional FLC. This technique has been applied by Sklad and Yungblud (Sklad and Yungblud, 1992) in the simulation of a multistage sheet forming process. In actual industrial applications the experimental determination of FLC is time consuming and costly. The standards cited for determining the FLC specify the testing procedure for two widely used test configurations: Nakazima dome (Nakazima et al., 1968) and Marciniak cup with carrier blank (Marciniak and Kuczyski, 1967). Providing a reliable FLC for a specific grade of material requires the preparation of a large number of samples and may take several weeks of testing, as reported by Huang (Huang et al., 2008). On the other hand, if the FLC could be determined quickly and inexpensively, the stamping industry would benefit from a FLC made available for each individual coil as a measure assuring consistency of material formability in production. Here we present a concept of stress domain based forming limit criterion, which, by employing deformation expressed in non-principal directions simplify the experimental determination of the FLC and can be directly implemented in the simulation of forming processes.

2. FLC BASED ON NON-PRINCIPAL STRESS FAILURE CRITERION The basic mechanism of plastic deformation in crystalline materials is shear along planes inclined at an angle to the principal directions. The shearing motion of the material is caused by the shear stresses which reach maximum at planes inclined at the angle of 45 degrees to the principal directions. Under the condition of proportional deformation, employed by the FLD, the principal directions and the ratios between principal strains remain constant in the tests determining the FLC. As the principal directions of deformation are stationary so are the directions of the maximum shear stress. Plastic deformation results in a relocation of the material along the shear planes causing rotation of the material with respect to the fixed directions along which the material carries the maximum shear stress as illustrated in figure 1. In a macro-scale the effect of plastic deformation is the change of the material element shape which is captured by the principal plastic strains as those measured using the CGA grid. However, at the atomic level there is no actual equivalent to the principal strains. The dimensions of the unit cell in a crystalline material are constant and the only mechanism for plastic deformation is the rotation of unit cells and a shift of individual atoms along the shear planes, which, by designation are not principal planes.

Figure 1; Rotation of the material with respect to the maximum shear stress planes The FLC pertains to a process in which the failure of ductile material takes the form of a permanent separation of material particles due to the tension acting in a direction normal to the failure plane. In this paper we examine the determination of an FLC based on a failure criterion expressed in terms of critical stresses consisting of a combination of normal stresses - causing separation, and shear stresses - causing plastic deformation. This concept is consistent with the fundamental mechanism of plastic deformation involving the shearing motion of atoms in crystalline materials. The traditional approach to experimental determination of the FLC and, derived from the FLC, stress domain based SFLC, employs principal directions of deformation. With reference to the principal directions of deformation each specific loading path requires a different geometry of the test sample. Any combination of principal stresses can be resolved into normal and shear stress components acting along non-principal orthogonal planes, with Mohrs circle graphically depicting the transformation. In this paper we

examine the hypothesis that the FLC and the FLSC can be determined based on critical shear and normal stresses acting on a failure plane. In theory any specific combination of normal and shear stresses can be obtained by an infinity of different combinations of principal stresses. This holds true in reverse, i.e. different combinations of principal stresses can be transformed to the same single combination of normal and shear stresses. In spite of this, the actual failure in ductile materials is restricted to three distinct orientations of the failure plane with respect to the direction of maximum stretch. The first is a plane perpendicular to the direction of maximum stretch. This orientation of the failure plane implies fracture under pure normal stress, which primarily pertains to failure in brittle materials as it does not include shear stresses which cause plastic deformation. The second orientation of the failure plane is shown in figure 2 for the case of the failure in the sheet plane. In figure 2 the failure plane is inclined at a 45 degree angle to the direction of maximum stretch and carries a maximum shear stress, max , in addition to the normal stress, n . The third

Figure 2; Failure along a plane inclined at a 45 degree angle to the direction of maximum stretch. orientation of the failure plane is inclined at 22.5 degrees to the maximum normal stress plane. Figure 3 illustrates two examples of uniaxial tension samples exhibiting this type of failure in the sheet plane. The samples in figure 3 are made of different materials which are characterized by different magnitudes of Lakfords coefficient of anisotropy, r = 1.61 and r = 1.04. It is noticeable that the 22.5 degree orientation of the failure planes is the same on both samples and does not conform to the zero extension direction of 35.3 degrees as described by Hill for, r =1.0 (Hill, 1950).

Figure 3; Failure along a plane inclined at a 22.5 degree angle to the maximum normal stress plane.

The failure of the material along planes inclined at 45 or 22.5 degrees to the maximum normal stress plane can take place in the sheet plane as shown in figures 2 and 3 or through the sheet thickness. Figure 4 illustrates a Nakazima test sample with concurrent failures passing through the sheet thickness along planes inclined at 45 and 22.5 degree angles to the maximum normal stress plane.

Figure 4; Concurrent failure along planes inclined at 22.5 and 45 degrees passing through sheet thickness. The experimental evidence presented in figures 2, 3 and 4 indicates the significance in setting the failure criterion based on shear under tension stress state of the planes inclined at 45 and 22.5 degrees to the maximum normal stress plane. Figure 5 provides Mohrs circle depiction of these shear under tension cases for the plane stress condition, 3 = 0.

Figure 5; Mohrs circle depiction of stresses acting on planes inclined at 22.5 and 45 degree angles to the maximum normal stress plane.
In this work we have chosen the stress state acting on a plane inclined at 22.5 degrees to the maximum stress plane as an indicator of deformation severity. The chosen plane carries a maximum value of a quantity defined as:

R22.5 = n +

(1)

which combines the normal stress, n , and the shear stress, , and which we refer to as the stress flux. We assume that the failure of the sheet material occurs when the stress flux, R22.5 , reaches a critical magnitude. The rationale for this assumption is that if given principal stresses, 1 and 2 cause failure of the material along the plane carrying the stress flux, R22.5 , any other combination of principal stress which resolves into the same stress flux will also cause failure. Equation (1) can be applied to define the stress flux on the plane inclined at 45 degrees as, R45 . At the present we do not use stress flux, R45 . For loading involving, 2 0 , as shown in figure 5a, stress fluxes,

R22.5 and R45 , are different by a constant multiplier, while for loading involving, 2 < 0 , as shown in figure 5b, the contribution of normal stress to, R45 , diminishes but is retained by the stress flux , R22.5 .

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Materials, procedure and samples The failure criterion based on stress flux, R22.5 , has been applied to generate the FLC for two grades of steel, Corus steel DX54D+Z (designation according to EN 10327) and DP 780. The mechanical properties of the steels are listed in table I.
Table I. Mechanical properties Steel Thickness Dir. [mm] [deg] 0 DX54D+Z 0.815 45 90 DP 780 1.2 -

Rp [MPa] 163 172 169 519

Rm [MPa] 297 304 293 851

A80 [%] 46.0 43.8 47.4 NA

r 2.171 1.849 2.575 1.0

n 0.226 0.215 0.220 0.1

The procedure of determining the FLC involved finding the critical stress flux using Nakazima dome samples which failed along a known deformation path. The FMTI grid analyzer, GA100, was used to measure deformation in terms of principal strains and stresses. The measured grid elements were in the proximity of the fracture plane and several readings were taken to determine an average magnitude of critical principal strains. The grid analyzer program provided a calculation of principal stresses from principal strains based on the constitutive law employing yield locus with Hills normal anisotropy (Hill, 1950) and the stress-strain curve for the material data listed in table I. The principal stresses were transformed to the maximum stress flux plane and the

critical value of the stress flux, R22.5 was determined using equation (1). Based on the value of critical stress flux, R22.5 , the FLC was calculated by finding, for each loading path defined on the FLSD by the ratio, = 2 / 1 , two principal stresses, 1 , 2 , which yield the critical stress flux and subsequently, corresponding with the principal stresses, proportional principal strains, 1 , 2 . Figure 6 shows four Corus steel DX54D+Z samples targeting the plane strain used in this and a previous study by Sklad (Sklad et al., 2008). The material of the samples was subject to previous operation of pre-strain under uniaxial tension expressed in terms of effective strain, , varying between 0.0 and 0.3 as indicated in the figure. The DP 780 Nakazima dome sample, targeting balance biaxial tension, is shown in figure 4.

Figure 6; Fractured DX54D+Z steel plane strain Nakazima dome test samples pre-strained using uniaxial tension

3.2 Results Figure 7 shows the FLD with four series of points constituting the FLCs as calculated for DX54D+Z steel using stress flux, R22.5 , determined separately from each of the prestrained samples in figure 6. The darkened points on each series indicate the test points, obtained using the grid analyzer, on which the stress flux calculation is based. For comparison the graph also includes the experimentally measured FLC determined using Corus RD&T procedure AUT-STN-002 which conforms to the previous ISO 12004 standard.

Figure 7; FLCs obtained for Corus steel DX54D+Z

The FLD with FLC calculated for DP 780 using a stress flux determined from the Nakazima dome sample targeting balanced biaxial tension is shown in figure 8.

Figure 8; FLCs obtained for steel DP 780

For comparison the graph also includes digitized experimental data obtained for DP 780 steel using several different techniques reported by Huang (Huang, 2008).

3.3 Discussion For the two materials tested, the FLCs calculated based on the stress flux, R22.5 , fall between FLCs determined using other traditional methods. The accuracy of the strain measurements and the selection of the test point to be used to determine the stress flux may have significant effect on the final result which has not been addressed in this study. Another issue is the validity of the assumed constant magnitude of the critical stress flux. Use of different loading paths for the same material would provide data regarding this aspect. Also the anisotropy of the material may have an effect on the response of the material to the stress state in terms of principal strains and may subsequently affect the shape of the FLC. These are just a few issues which need to be explored in the future.

4. CONCLUSIONS 1. The concept of deriving the FLC from the stress state at the failure plane is presented. 2. For ductile materials the failure plane carries shear stress associated with plastic deformation and normal stress associated with material separation fracture. 3. The quantity referred to as stress flux defined as an algebraic sum of normal and shear stress acting on a plane inclined at the 22.5 degree angle to the plane carrying maximum normal stress (major stress) allows one to generate a FLC consistent with a FLC obtained using other methods. 4. In this work the strain measurement performed on a single geometry sample provided data sufficient to generate a FLC consistent with a curve obtained using multiple geometries of the samples. 5. Further research should address the effect of anisotropy and examine whether or not the critical stress flux can be treated as a material constant. 6. The stress flux based failure criterion can be directly implemented in forming process simulation.

REFERENCES

[Arrieux, 1982] R. Arrieux, R., Bedrin, M. Boivin, M.; " Determination of an intrinsic forming limit stress diagram for isotropic sheets"; In: Proc 12th IDDRG 1982 Congress, Sta, Margherital Ligue, pp. 61-71. [ASTM 2218/02] Test Method for Determining Forming Limit Curves, 2008. [Dinda et al., 1981] Dinda S., James K., Keeler S., Stine P., How to Use Circle Grid Analysis for Die Tryout, A S M International, 1981, ISBN-13: 9780871701190. [Goodwin, 1968] Goodwin, G.M., Application of Strain Analysis to Sheet Metal Problems in the Press Shop, SAE Paper 680093, 1968. [Hill, 1950] Hill, R., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford University Press, 1967, pp. 323-324. [Huang, 2008] Huang G., Sriram S., Yan B.; Digital Image Correlation Technique and its Application in Forming Limit Curve Determination, , Best in Class Stamping - Proceedings of the IDDRG 2008 Int. Conference, Olofstrom, Sweden, pp. 153-162. [ISO Standard 12004-2:2008] Determination of forming-limit curves - Part 2: Determination of forming-limit curves in the laboratory, 2008. [Sklad and Yungblud, 1992] Sklad, M.P, Yungblud, B.A.; "Analysis of Multioperation Forming Processes", in Numerical Methods in Industrial Forming Processes, Numiform 92 edited by J.L. Chenot, R.D. Woods and O.C. Zienkiewicz, pp.543!549, Valbone 1992. [Sklad, 2008] M.P. Sklad, E.H. Atzema, F.J. Schouten, M. de Bruine and A. Emrich Experimental Study of forming limits in multistage deformation processes, Best in Class Stamping - Proceedings of the IDDRG 2008 Int. Conference, pp. 721732, Olofstrom, 2008. [Stoughton, 2000] Stoughton, T.B.; " A general forming limit criterion for sheet metal forming"; Int. J. Mech. Sci. , 42-1, 1-27.

Assessment of Test Methods for Mechanical Properties of Steel Sheets

J. W. Lee*, H. W. Lee* * POSCO, 699 Gumho-dong Gwangyang-si Jeonnam Korea 545-090 leejaewook@posco.com

Abstract: Mechanical property such as forming limit curve (FLC) is basic parameters to determine the formability of steel sheets in sheet metal forming. Thus it is very important to obtain the accurate data, which are strongly related to how test method is welldefined. There are some types of standard of FLC test and each standard has its own test condition. Recently, the ISO 12004 Metallic materials Sheet and strip Determination of forming-limit curves was proposed to determine the FLC. This standard gives measuring guidelines for limit strains after a crack is formed. This paper gives the influence of different conditions of two standards such as ASTM and ISO with several grades of steel sheets. And for evaluating FLC, the ISO standard is compared with the conventional circle grid analyzer(CGA) using different grades of steel sheets. The measuring system for ISO standard is AutoGrid. Keywords:, Forming Limit Curve(FLC), Auto Grid Compact System, ASTM E2218-02, ISO-12004.

1. INTRODUCTION The Forming Limit Curve (FLC) that is assessment of suitability between materials and molds can be standards of decieding the best materials or modifing the mold conditions. That is a good criterion of evaluating the formability of materials for Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) too. Therefore, it is important to obtain the accurate FLC for each material. Especially, some car makers want to apply a lower grade materials for their cost reduction. It makes available forming margin of materials reduce. So we need more definite standard of the method of FLC assessment. Recently, new standard of FLC assessment is suggested and ISO-12004 includes details of its method. The existing methods of FLC assessment have somewhat ambiguous standards, so there are some deviations for each measuring apparatus though same material is tested. ISO-12004, on the other hand, offers mathematical algorithm for calculation of limit elogation using a distribution of elongation at appointed position after rupture, so it can be excluded the possiblility of occuring errors for measuring apparatus or experimenter. But there is different results between existing ASTM E221802 standard and new ISO-12004. So we will show those distinctions through experiments and investigate the cause of this phenomenon.

2. MATERIALS The materials tested in this study were several kinds of steel that are mild, High Strength Steel (HSS) and Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS). To analysis distinctions between two standards, we use same material and draw FLC with each mathod. In table 1 are the seven tested sheet materials listed with mechanical properties. Material Thickness Y.S. T.S. U-El. T-El. Surface mm Mpa Mpa % % Coating EDDQ 0.7 161 288 25 49 GI 340BH 0.7 233 358 21 38 CR 390E 1.0 241 414 21 34 CR 340Y 1.2 379 476 17 29 GI 590DP 1.0 411 693 13 23 CR 590TR 1.6 394 617 17 28 GA 780DP 1.2 492 783 13 22 CR Table 1; Mechanical properties of tested materials in rolling direction.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES To confirm the difference between two standars, we use the Nakajima-test for ASTM standard and Auto Grid Compact System for ISO standard in Figure 1.

Figure 1; Auto Grid Compact System for ISO standard FLCs.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. ASTM Standard Figures 2-8 show FLCs of seven tested specimens using ASTM standard. In figure, means good (or safe) and means marginal (or fail). The FLC can be obtained by drawing a smooth curve between safe and fail points. If there is the region that mixed safe-fail points, we set the FLC next marginal point above. In addition, when safe and fail points have large gap, we set it near by fail points. In that case, it can happen some measurement errors, because each experimenter has different criteria for judgement. According to Figure 9, the higher strength material has, the lower FLC0 has generally. This just shows that it can get the answer by theoretical approach. The tested materials, however, have different shape of FLC each other, in other words it seems hard to get a exact result by taking a theoretical approach. So to get the more precise FLC result which is basic criteria to judge the formability of the material, it requires experimental data than theoretical approach. Especially, the EDDQ has nearly same values regardless of minor strain during stretching unlike the other materials. It is not a general feature of FLC and this result indicates that formability is poor in stretching zone.

Figure 2. GI-EDDQ (0.7t)

Figure 3. CR-340BH (0.7t)

Figure 4. CR-390E (1.0t)

Figure 5. GI-340Y (1.2t)

Figure 6. CR-590DP (1.0t)

Figure 7. GA-590TR (1.6t)

Figure 8. CR-780DP (1.2t)

Figure 9. FLC of various steel sheet

4.2. ISO Standard Figures 10-16 show FLCs of seven tested specimens using ISO-12004 standard. The limit strain where is necking elongation at rupture is gathered and FLC determined by connecting maximum major elongation which is marked as . The limit strain determined by ISO and ASTM standard has different meaning respectively. In other words, the limit strain in ASTM standard means the strain after rupture, because it is located around the crack. On the other hand, the limit strain in ISO standard recommends using a fitted data from surrounding incipient necking, except the points nearby rupture. The obtained FLC from ISO standard is forming limit at the time of necking occured, so it generally has lower values than ASTM standard. There are few or no experimental error from ISO standard because of its mathematical theory against the ASTM standard. Some cases have been reported that ISO standard for FLC has good agreement, regardless of measuring equipment or experimenter. The FLCs of tested materials are presented in Figure 17. The higher strength material has, the lower FLC0 measured generally as well as ASTM standard. The shape of FLCs, however, shows almost similar to one another aganst ASTM standard of it.

Figure 10. GI-EDDQ (0.7t)

Figure 11. CR-340BH (0.7t)

Figure 12. CR-390E (1.0t)

Figure 13. GI-340Y (1.2t)

Figure 14. CR-590DP (1.0t)

Figure 15. GA-590TR (1.6t)

Figure 16. CR-780DP (1.2t)

Figure 17. FLC of various steel sheet

5. CONCLUSION The Figures 18-34 shows FLC of tested seven steel sheet by ASTM E2218-02 and ISO-12004 standard procedures and blue line means the result of ISO standard and black line means the result of ASTM stsndard. A black dotted line means 10% offset of ASTM result, which is safety margin considered. It shows that the result of ISO standard is positioned between the result of ASTM standard and 10% offset ASTM. This characteristic result comes from a difference of measuring criteria between two standards. For deriving FLC, in other word, the ASTM standard proposed a measuring area to limit strain at nearby rupture but ISO standard does at incipient necking. That is why ISO standard always presents lower forming limit than ASTM standard. Meanwhile, the ISO standard FLC is located above 10% offset ASTM standard FLC consider safety margin for not only forming conditions but also necking, therefore it means the maximum strain before necking occurs. Such an analysis is mentioned some research papers recently, but it is still not clear how far is the safety margin. The ISO standard FLCs are posotioned below the 10% offset ASTM standard FLC in the region during drawing which cases are 390E(CR), 590TR(GA) and EDDQ(GI). These results mean that if we use the ISO standard, it will be rated low formability for drawing region in FLC than the ASTM standard relatively. Therefore, we need to understand that meaning by additional evaluation. There are two problems awaiting solution to applicate the ISO standard FLC. First, it needs to set up a criteria about the limite strain definitely. Although many discussions about define the meaning of limit strain are in progress after ISO standard FLC drafted, ASTM standard FLC which recommends measuring limit strain nearby rupture is in general use. In other word, 10% offset ASTM standard FLC which has safety margin is still in use widely. It is obvious to intensify the confussion, if we adopt the ISO standard FLC without any investigation about relationship between two standards. Therefore it has to establish a criteria about how the limit strain is defined, and achieve consensus on it. Second, it needs to verify the ISO standard FLC by forming evaluation of real part. Currently, many studies about the FLC standard are in progress, but there is hardly any studies on ISO stnadard FLC has lower forming limit than ASTM by real part evaluations or numerical simulations. Especially, the ISO standard FLC has lower forming limit for some steel sheets at drawing region is hard to explain the cause of the phenomenon, so it needs to confirm how different they are, by strain measuring for real parts.

Figure 10. GI-EDDQ (0.7t)

Figure 11. CR-340BH (0.7t)

Figure 12. CR-390E (1.0t)

Figure 13. GI-340Y (1.2t)

Figure 14. CR-590DP (1.0t)

Figure 15. GA-590TR (1.6t)

Figure 16. CR-780DP (1.2t)

6. REFERENCES 1. S. P. Keeler, Determination of Forming Limits in Automotive Stampings, SAE Technical Paper 650535, 0965. 2. G. M. Goodwin, Application of Strain Analysis to Sheet Metal Forming Problems in the Press Shop, SAE Technical Paper 680093, 1968. 3. O. Cazacu and F. Barlat, Generalization of Druckers Yield Criterion to Orthotropy, Mathematics and Mechanics of Solids, vol. 6, pp. 613-630, 2001. 4. ASTM E2218-02, Standard Test Method for Determining Forming Limit Curves, ASTM International, 2008. 5. ISO 12004-2, Metallic materials Sheet and strip Determination of forming-limit curves Part 1: Measurement and application of forming limit diagrams in the press shop, ISO, 2008. 6. ISO 12004-2, Metallic materials Sheet and strip Determination of forming-limit curves Part 2: Determination of forming-limit curves in the laboratory, ISO, 2008. 7. K. Nakazima, T. Kikuma and K. Hasuka, Yamata Technical Report, vol. 264, pp. 141-154, 1968. 8. Strain Analysis System AutoGrid : Operators Manual, ViALUX, Germany, 2007. 9. H. Thoors, M. Sigvant, J. Hertzman, J. Tulonen, L. Troive, I. Grenbjork, L. Martikainen and J. Danckert, FLD Assessment using the Proposed New Standard, IDDRG 2008 International Converence, pp. 25-35, 2008. 10. G. Huang, S. Sriram and B. Yan, Digital Image Correlation Technique and its Application in Forming Limit Curve Determination, IDDRG 2008 International Converence, pp. 153-162, 2008. 11. M. Sigvant, K. Mattiasson and M. Larsson, The Definition of Incipient Necking and Its Impact on Experimentally or Theoretically Determined Forming Limit Curves, IDDRG 2008 International Converence, pp. 207-218, 2008.

The influence of curvature on FLCs of mild steel, (A)HSS and aluminium

E.H. Atzema1, E. Fictorie2, A.H. van den Boogaard2 & J.M.M. Droog1 1 Corus RD&T, PO Box 10000, NL-1970 CA IJmuiden 2 University of Twente, PO Box 217, NL-7500 AE Enschede eisso.atzema@corusgroup.com

Abstract: In literature the influence of curvature on formability has been reported. This paper shows results for four materials when an FLC is measured with increasing curvature. It shows the FLC increases for sharper curvature most notably with 20 [mm] tool diameter. The increase is negligible on the left hand side, moderate on the right hand side and large on the plane strain axis. It is thought that contact pressure plays a role here and preliminary simulations indicate that this is quite possible. Keywords: FLC, AHSS, Aluminium, curvature

1. INTRODUCTION The authors observed that the commonly used FLC is too often conservative in highly curved areas. The formed product shows no sign of failure in these conditions, even though the strains exceed the FLC, something also reported by others [Till et al, 2008]. The influence of curvature on the FLC has been reported less, notwithstanding the efforts on stretch bendability, see for instance [Geoffroy et al, 2007] and much earlier [Charpentier 1974]. These papers report some indicative FLC points, but a full FLC has never been measured. Since curvature seems to have more impact on AHSS, and these steels are increasing in importance, it becomes paramount for the steel industry to characterize and understand the effect in order to optimize the use of these materials. This paper reports the influence of curvature on the entire FLC for steels DC06, H340LAD+Z and HCT600X+Z as well as AA 5051 aluminium. The FLC was established by measuring the strains from samples subjected to the Nakazima test. The ISO standard 12004-2 recommends a 100 mm hemispherical punch to deform test samples of different widths. In this work the influence of curvature was investigated by using Nakazima experiments with punch diameters of 20, 50 and 75 [mm], referred to in this paper as FLC20, etc. A support of a PUR disk with Teflon sheets and Vaseline spray was inserted between the punch and the sample to obtain sample failure on the top of the sample as recommended in the ISO standard. The sample dimensions as well as the PUR disk were scaled with the punch diameter. The first tests made it clear that the downscaled support-system for the FLC20 setup failed through perforation caused by high contact pressure. A slightly adapted support-system did sustain the applied forces. The obtained FLC20, FLC50 and FLC75

were compared to the standard FLC100. The DC06 showed only slightly higher values in FLC for the 20 [mm] punch. The aluminium sheet and H340LAD+Z both showed a slight improvement with the 50 [mm] punch and a major improvement with the 20 [mm] punch. Finally, the FLC20 for the HCT600X+Z showed considerably higher values than FLC100 and even the FLC50 was perceptibly higher. The strongest effect was seen in the plane-strain region and only moderate effects were seen in uni-axial and bi-axial regions. A first attempt at FE modeling was made to obtain the most influential factors, but this remains qualitative. Further research will be required to reveal the effect of different thicknesses and refine the model to return a quantitative prediction of the effect. Results for DC06 and AA5051 have been reported earlier in [Fictorie et al, 2010]

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

2.1. Necking limit Although an FLC on fracture can be constructed, the necking FLC is most widely used, since necking is not usually acceptable. The FLC is defined as the strain combinations for which localized necking starts i.e. for which the sheet becomes plastically unstable. After localized necking, the part will eventually fracture. The necking analysis of a tensile test is generally based on the Considre criterion: d/d=. This stems from the consideration that if the force that can be exerted on a tensile test sample drops, a part of it will neck and the rest will unload. The force drops after a maximum is reached or mathematically: dF=0. Necking in an FLC is different in that a diffuse neck (neck over the width) cannot develop since the width of the sheet is not free to contract such as it is in a tensile test. In fact, the FLC represents localised necking, i.e. a neck over the thickness, of the material. But a similar analysis on maximum force can be still done. In this analysis one assumes constant strains over the thickness to come from a force maximum to a strain based necking criterion. In realising this, we know that an FLC applies only to flat sheets, or approximately to slightly curved ones. The recommendation of the last working group on FLCs to use at least 100 [mm] diameter punch for a Nakazima test must be viewed from this perspective. Pure bending does not involve a normal force and therefore even when the strain on the outer (more deformed) fibre is above the FLC this still does not cause necking (i.e. instability). In pure bending the inner fibres are compressing, for the inner fibres to stretch a normal force needs to be added to the bending moment. In a situation of combined stretching and bending [Vallellano et al, 2008] assumes overall sheet necking will occur once the inner fibres are strained beyond the FLC, similar to [Tharrett et al 2003]. This has become known as the concave side rule. In a similar manner to the FLC one can obtain the limit strains in bending. Usually no necking occurs but cracks show up at the surface. These can be plotted in an FLD like diagram as well, see [Schleich et al, 2009].

If stretch is added to bending, necking is more likely to occur. But it is not a priori clear that a linear transition from FLC to bending strain limit exists as for instance proposed by [Schleich et al, 2009]. In fact a rigorous analysis on the maximum normal force under simultaneous bending is needed; something akin to what [Kruijf et al, 2009] did for simple stretch-bending. Since this needs material modelling and some kinematic assumptions it was decided to leave this sort of analysis to a later stage and first establish the order of magnitude of the effect by experiments. 2.2. Standard FLC setup Corus routinely performs FLC determination by Nakazima testing. Up until a few years ago, a 75 [mm] diameter hemispherical punch was used, but nowadays a hemispherical punch of 100 [mm] diameter is used. For the 100 [mm] punch a die inner diameter of 106 [mm] with a die radius 8.6 [mm] is used. Circular blanks are cut from the material in a diameter of 200 [mm] and from these the sides are subsequently cut-out to produce a dogbone shape. A stack of these in different width can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1; Stack of dogbone FLC samples for 100[mm] hemispherical punch.

Figure 2; Schematic evaluation strain data.

The lubrication system from the sheet downwards to the punch consists of a PUR pad, then Vaseline spray, a Teflon foil, more Vaseline spray and another Teflon foil. The PUR pad is Erlan of 80 [mm], 4 [mm] thick and the Teflon foil is Eriflon 0.05 [mm] thick 100 [mm]. The punch speed during this test is 40 mm/min. The evaluation of data was done according to ISO 12004-2 with an in-house code in MS-Excel. A schematic explanation is given in Figure 2 of how we arrive at an FLC value from a measured strain distribution. At both sides of the two largest values a fit range is fixed (see ISO 12004-2). The thickness strain is calculated by volume invariance. Then an inverse parabola is fitted through the major strain distribution as well as the thickness strain distribution. An inverse parabola on the minor strain (which can be zero) is not robust. From these fits, the minor strain is recalculated from volume invariance. The FLC value is then sampled on the parabola in the mid point between the two largest values. For each FLC sample, five strain sections are evaluated.

2.3. Test setup In addition to the above mentioned sizes, a 50 [mm] and 20 [mm] diameter hemispherical punch was available. These tools were used to extend the FLC determination by Nakazima method to four different punch sizes. Corus employs a partially and fully serrated blankholder in the FLC100 and FLC75 to provide sufficient clamping. These serrated tools are specific for FLC and were not available for the 50 [mm] and 20 [mm] punches. Consequently, the dies and blankholders had to be adapted by machining serrations onto one surface of the toolset. Initially the dies were serrated, see Figure 4, starting next to the die radius and in a pattern concentric with the die opening. For the FLC50 this proved problematic and alternatively the blankholder was serrated straight and on a larger area, Figure 3. The tooling is therefore not scaled exactly but rather made to work properly. In section 3.1 it is shown this has no influence on the results. 2.4. Lubrication system Between the punch and the test sample there are usually some additional layers of materials and lubricants, which is generally referred to as the lubrication system although this term is in fact misleading. Although the Teflon and Vaseline spray will indeed lubricate very well on the punch side, the PUR pad actually works because it sticks to the sheet and drives the material away from the top through friction as demonstrated by [Vegter et al, 2008]. In scaling the test, the PUR was also scaled in diameter and thickness from 80 [mm] and 4 [mm] thickness respectively. However, the FLC20 tests failed because the rubber was destroyed in the test, and we had to resort to 2 [mm] thick 16 [mm] diameter PUR. Underneath the PUR two Vaseline sprayed Teflon foils were always used. These were scaled in diameter but not in thickness as they were already very thin.

Figure 3; Partially serrated BH FLC50.

Figure 4; Partially serrated die FLC20.

2.5. Sample geometry The sample geometry was again scaled as well as possible, but the specific cut-outs available for the FLC100 and FLC75 were simply not available for FLC50 and FLC20. Therefore from the range of available punches, one was chosen that represented the best compromise between narrowing needed to force the failure in the forming zone and a large enough area with parallel sides to ensure uniform strain distribution over the

width. Moreover the FLC20 samples became so small that it was impractical to blank them round and then apply the cut-out. These therefore remained rectangular.

Figure 5; Sample geometry BH FLC20.

Figure 6; Sample geometry BH FLC50.

2.6. Materials tested Four materials were tested and the choice was based on the amount of information already available of these materials in view of future modelling. The mechanical properties can be seen in Table I. Table I; Mechanical properties of tested materials. Material DC06 AA5051 H340LAD+Z HCT600X+Z Rm [MPa] 301 189 449 635 Rp [MPa] 141 90 372 391 t [mm] 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.4 A80 [%] 44.7 20.4 27.6 21.1 n [-] 0.24 0.24 0.14 0.15 r [-] 2.1 0.7 1.0 1.0

3. RESULTS The DC06 will be presented in somewhat greater detail to illustrate the method. The other materials, due to lack of space, will be presented concisely. 3.1. DC06 DC06 is a forming grade steel and can therefore reach high strain values before failure. This led to problems with the use of the partially serrated die in the initial FLC50 experiment, where samples were stretched very high. The serrated area appeared to be too small and therefore initially the solution was to use of a fully serrated die, after which the failure was obtained in the top. As stated in section 2.3, these problems were permanently solved by a new partially serrated blankholder. In Figure 7 the measured necking points are presented for the FLC50 experiments with a serrated die or with serrated blankholder. It can be seen that the results are reasonably reproducible. All results are in true strain.

0.70 0.60 0.50 major strain [-]

major strain [-]

1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 -0.10

FLC Line Maximum FLC Line Minimum FLC Line mean W10 mean W15 mean W20 mean W23 mean W25 mean W27 mean W33 mean W40 mean W55 mean W55+ W10 W15 W20 W23 W25 W27 W33 W40 W55 W55+

0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

FLC Points FLC Points New BH FLC Line FLC Line Maximum FLC Line Minimum

-0.40

-0.20

0.20 minor strain [-]

0.40

0.60
-0.50 -0.30

0.10 minor strain [-]

0.30

0.50

0.70

Figure 7; FLC50 points for DC06, Figure 8; FLC20 points for DC06 all including FLC points of samples tested sections on all samples. with the serrated blank holder. In Figure 8 the measured necking points are presented for the FLC20 experiments. The experimental scatter is higher in this case, which should be kept in mind when comparing the results with the results for the other punch diameters.
0.80 0.70 0.60

1 major strain [-]

0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00

FLC20 FLC50 FLC75 FLC100 l fl 20 0.20 2 minor strain [-] 0.40 0.60

-0.40

-0.20

0.00

Figure 9; FLC comparison for DC06. By comparing all FLCs (Figure 9), it can be seen that the curves of the FLC100, FLC75 and FLC50 are very close to each other. The FLC20 curve is also quite close to the other curves, but there is a slight difference. Incidentally, the points shown span the FLC curve and are not measured points. The dotted lines represent the 2 variation to give an indication of the test noise. A rigorous analysis of the confidence interval was not made at this stage, so a statistical significance cannot be concluded.
0.80 0.70 0.60

1 major strain [-]

0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

FLC20 FLC50 FLC75 FLC100

0.20 0.40 0.60

-0.40

-0.20

2 minor strain [-]

Figure 10; FLC comparison for DC06 after mid-plane.

After correcting the measured strains towards the mid-plane of the sheet (Figure 10), the FLC20 curve is at the same level as the other formability curves in the compressive region. In the right hand side of the FLC, there is an increase of formability obtained continuing until the biaxial point, of about 20% relative, i.e. a factor of 1.2. For the other materials only this final figure, showing mid-plane strains, will be presented. 3.2. AA5051
0.70 0.60 0.50

1 major strain [-]

0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

FLC20 FLC50 FLC75 FLC100

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

-0.30

-0.20

-0.10

2 minor strain [-]

Figure 11; FLC comparison for AA5051 after mid-plane correction. The aluminium AA5051 again shows a major increase in formability for the FLC20 over the others (Figure 11). But now some improvement in formability for the FLC50 is also apparent. The improvement is less towards the extremes most notably the left hand side of the FLC. In the plane strain region, an increase of a factor of 2.0 is seen for FLC20 relative to the FLC100. The formability increase obtained from the FLC50 experiment is only in the plane strain and compression region. The biaxial samples of the FLC50 were not truly equi-biaxial: minor strain was only 0.30, so for 1 > 0.30 it is not realistic to compare the results, since there the FLC curve is an extrapolated fit. 3.3. H340LAD+Z
0.70 0.60 0.50

1 major strain [-]

0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

FLC20 FLC50 FLC75 FLC100

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

-0.30

-0.20

-0.10

2 minor strain [-]

Figure 12; FLC comparison for H340LAD+Z after mid-plane correction.

Like for DC06 for this material FLC50, FLC75 and FLC100 are all similar. But again the FLC20 is markedly higher. And again on the plane strain axis the effect is largest, this time slightly less than a factor 2.0. It can also be seen that the FLC75 was a bit messy and in general the curves differ a bit in shape for FLC50, FLC75 and FLC100. 3.4. HCT600X+Z As with the AA5051 a slight, maybe insignificant, increase can be seen for FLC50 with respect to FLC75 and FL100, which are virtually indistinguishable. The FLC20 once again shows a major increase. And also on this occasion the extreme left area of the FLC shows no improvement and the biaxial point only a moderate improvement. The major effect is seen around the plane strain axis, which now is a factor of around 2.3.
0.70 0.60 0.50 1 major strain [-] 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00

FLC20 FLC50 FLC75 FLC100 0.10 2 minor strain [-] 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

-0.30

-0.20

-0.10

Figure 13; FLC comparison for HCT600X+Z after mid-plane correction.

4. DISCUSSION A small, but still significant, difference in FLC was seen when going to 20 [mm] tooling for DC06. For AA5051 and H340LAD+Z the difference was larger and the difference was very large for HCT600X+Z. For the latter three materials the increasing trend was already seen in FLC50 as well. However, since the materials for this study were chosen based on available characterisation in view of future modelling a compromise was made: not all materials had the same thickness. So now the effect of grade and thickness are confounded. It does seem clear however there is a real effect and it increases either with thickness or grade, since the HCT600X+Z was the thickest as well as the strongest. Since FLC20 for all materials has a much larger difference with FLC50 than FLC50 with FLC 100 the effect seems strongly non-proportional with thickness to curvature ratio. This indicates the relatively small thickness difference could have large effects. In spite of all efforts taken to reduce the error in the strain measurements, it cannot be excluded that some awkward effects occurred and affected the strain measurements. Although the grid was scaled with the punch size, the neck still has the same characteristic length, so is represented by more points which may influence the FLC calculation according to ISO 12004-2 and schematically depicted in Figure 2.

The strains are measured on the outside of the sheet. With mid-plane correction, the FLC20 curves decrease more than the FLC50 and FLC100 curves because of the small punch diameter. However, the decrease is far less than the improvement of the formability for all materials. Therefore the error which is made by measuring on the outside of the sheet is not seen to be the main effect for the formability improvement. By looking at the concave side strains this produces the same shift yet again as from Figure 9 to Figure 10 for thickness of 0.7 [mm] (and twice this for 1.4 [mm]) this still is obviously not enough to explain the effect. The increased formability may also be influenced by the lubrication-system, which draws the material away from the top. Since the scaled lubrication-system for the FLC20 failed by perforation, the thickness of the used lubrication-system now is twice the scaled thickness. This may influence the strain distribution more than hypothesized beforehand. On the other hand the failure of the lubrication-system is a strong indication that contact pressures are relatively higher in smaller tooling.

5. MODELLING A very crude first attempt was made at modelling the effect of curvature. It was hypothesised that the contact pressure plays a role, either by shifting equivalent stress thereby stabilising the necking or by suppressing damage. To quantify the influence of contact stress on plasticity and damage a model with through-thickness stress is needed as well as a damage model. This was deemed too complicated for a first attempt and a simple PAM-Stamp model was made from which a qualitative prediction was sought. From the stresses calculated in the simulation the equivalent stress was obtained. Then the contact stress was added and equivalent stress recalculated. Now obviously this does not represent a true stress state since the stress is no longer on the yield locus. But it does give an indication in which direction the stress would change if through thickness pressure was modelled in the sheet. In the simulation the stress gradient over thickness was very similar for both FLC20 W23 and FLC100 W120 and roughly inverse to FLC100 W120 after correction (Figure 14 right), i.e. inner fibre has lowest equivalent stress. The difference in gradient over thickness between smaller FLC tooling (Figure 14 left) and FLC100 (Figure 14 right) is thus entirely due to effect of contact stress. Note the different vertical scale.
DW

DW

sD sD sD

sD sD sD

Figure 14; Equivalent stress with contact stress added FLC20 W23, FLC100 W120.

This provides a first indication that contact stress will play a role. The next step is to make a full model with the PUR pad modelled and including through-thickness stress in the sheet subjected to test.

6. CONCLUSIONS With smaller tooling an FLC could be reliably measured. For some materials, an increase in FLC is seen for 50 [mm] tooling and in all cases an effect is seen on 20 [mm] tooling. The effect is largest for HCT600X+Z which is the strongest but also the thickest, it cannot be concluded which of these is the major influence. The FLC goes up most markedly in the plane strain area. On both ends, left as well as right hand side, the increase is slight to insignificant

REFERENCES [Till et al., 2008] E.T. Till, E. Berger, P. Larour, On An Exceptional Forming Behaviour Aspect Of AHSS Sheets, IDDRG 2008, 16/18 June 2008, Olofstrm, Sweden [Geoffroy et al., 2007] J-L. Geoffroy, J. Goncalves, X. Lemoine, Adequately Use FLCs For Simulation, IDDRG 2007, 21/23 May 2007, Gyr, Hungary [Charpentier 1974] P.L. Charpentier, Influence Of Punch Stretching Curvature On The Stretching Limits Of Sheet Steel, Metallurgical Transactions A. Physical Metallurgy 6A, p.1665-1669, 1974 [Fictorie et al., 2010] E. Fictorie, A.H. van den Boogaard, E.H. Atzema, Influence of curvature on the forming limit curve, ESAform 2010, 7/9 April 2010, Brescia, Italy. [Vallellano et al., 2008] C. Vallellano, D. Morales and F.J. Garcia-Lomas: On the study of the effect of bending in the formability of metal sheets, 1/5 September 2008, Numisheet 2008 Interlaken Switzerland p.85-90, 2008. [Tharrett et al., 2003] M.R. Tharrett and T.B. Stoughton: Stretch-bend forming limits of 1008 AK steel, SAE paper 2003-01-1157, 2003. [Schleich et al., 2009] R. Schleich, C. Held, M. Sindel, M. Liewald, Investigation On The Effect Of Curvature And Sheet Thickness On Forming Limit Prediction For Aluminium Sheet Metal Alloys, ESAform 2009, Enschede, the Netherlands [Kruijf et al., 2009] N.E. de Kruijf, R.H.J. Peerlings, M.G.D. Geers, An Analysis Of Sheet Necking Under Combined Stretching And Bending, ESAform 2009, 27/29 April 2009, Enschede, the Netherlands, [Vegter et al., 2008] H. Vegter, C.H.L.J. ten Horn, M. Abspoel, Modelling of the forming limit curve by MK-Analysis and FE-Simulations, Numisheet 2008, 1/5 September 2008, Interlaken, Switzerland, pp187-192

Modelling and Simulation of Formability Tests

I. Czinege, K. Kardos, Sz. Szalai Szchenyi Istvn University, Egyetem tr 1., H-9026, Gyr, Hungary e-mail: czinege@sze.hu, kardos@sze.hu, szalaisz@sze.hu web page: http://uni.sze.hu

Abstract: The paper is dealing with the numerical simulation of the Nakajima test and the experimental validation of simulation. The input parameters of the simulations were mechanical and formability properties of the sheet metal. The forming tool, the specimen geometry and the forming environment were the same as the standard Nakajima test. With the suitable settings of the simulation parameters the harmony of the calculated and measured results has been reached. Keywords: Nakajima test, formability, computer simulation, sheet metal forming

1. INTRODUCTION Optimum design of sheet metal forming processes requires updated material properties, results of formability tests and appropriate simulation methods. Several papers can be found in the literature about the simulation of complex components and experimental control of results, but detailed numerical simulation of Nakajima test is relatively few [Uthaisangsuk et al. 2008]. As the preliminary analyses show because of the complex shape of the specimen the simulations could not give the best fit to experimental results. This is why real measurements of starting material properties and test conditions are very important to support the accuracy of the simulation results and its reliability. This gave reason for the more detailed analysis of the topic.

2. TEST AND METHODS We defined the material properties with a tensile test and evaluated all of the important parameters: strength and forming properties flow stress curve anisotropy parameters The formability test was carried out on standard Nakajima test specimens (30, 60, 90, 125, 150, 175, 200 mm) [Vacher et al.; IS0 12004]. The examined sheet metal was AlMg4.5 of 1,2 mm thickness because this sheet is often applied in the vehicle industry as car body panel material.

2.1. The tensile test The tensile test specimen and the blanks of Nakajima test were cut on Flow IFB2 water jet cutting machine. The benefit of the water jet cutting is that we can made complicated blank outline so we can shorten the preparation time. Specimens were tested in angles of 0, 45 and 90 to rolling direction to obtain anisotropy parameters. The tests were carried out by INSTRON 5582 tensile test machine, longitudinal and transverse strains were measured by AVE video-extensometer. The evaluation was made by Bluehill 2 software. The material properties can be seen in Table I. We used 6 specimens for the measurements, the average of the results were used in the simulations.

Table I; Results of the tensile test 2.2. The forming test Nakayima tests were made on hydraulic sheet metal testing equipment, the evaluation was carried out by GOM ARAMIS software. Randomly distributed pattern of painted drops were used as reference marks for optical measurements. We measured that height where the disk first cracked. These values will be the base of the comparison with the results of the simulations.

Figure 1; Nakajima hydraulic test machine

3. COMPUTER SIMULATION Active tool elements are enough for the simulations set up. We created the CAD model of tools and blanks in Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 4 software, because this way we can easily modify the parts. Then we created IGES files for the simulation.

Figure 2; Active tools Simulations were made with AutoForm plus R1.1 software, using the following simplifying parameters [AutoForm Users Guide]: We used only the tool surfaces Binder force pressure Hydraulic machine force, speed Lubrication frictional factor Settings of the simulation, parameters: Definition of the tools form Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire 4 Definition of the blank from CAD software Definition of the material from the tensile test Definition of the lubrication by the real machine set up: =0,01 (fine) Definition of the tool movements - gravity o closing1, closing2, drawing

Figure 3; Tools set up

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION After the simulations we received the following pictures.

Figure 4; Nakajima specimens 30, 125 - running to the cracks

Figure 5; Nakajima specimens 30, 125 - running to the red colour We can analyse the simulation results in different ways. The appearance of the red colour means rip danger, it means, that on these places the blank so much thins, that tears. One other viewpoint of analysis is when the disk tears visibly in the software. It is necessary to know about the software that it does not show the real sheet thickness, the software uses a middle plane mesh and counts the thickness values, then displays with colours. We made a table with the results of height measurements obtained from experiments or from simulation (Table II.):

Table II; The change of height values

Diagram I; The measured and simulated height values From the diagram it can be seen that the dots follow each other regularly, their trend lines are quasi parallel. There is only some mm (~10%) difference between the simulation and the real rip height until the appearance of the red colour. AutoForm was developed for the vehicle industry where it is not possible to allow the incidence of the rip danger on the parts. The appearance of the red colour forecasts unambiguous rip already. The software tries to keep the mesh together after the appearance of the red colour, because there is a strong contact between dots. Probably this is the reason why the software counts inaccurately after the appearance of the red colour. From that it follows that the simulations can be continued only until the appearance of the red colour. The reason of deviation in height might be: 1) At real specimens the determination of the height, measured from the common base, is not appropriate. Therefore, certain deviations from the simulated height might occur. Proposed solution: Designing grip devices, which enable accurate measurement from a base that can easily compared with the base used in simulation process. 2) At real specimens, the test runs until a crack appears on the surface of the sheet metal. At this point the ram movement is switched off, and the height is measured. However, at the simulation the test does not stop when the first red element of the net appears, but it keeps running until a point, which depends on the accuracy of the net, and on the international gaps. Therefore, the height measurement takes place in a different point in time. Proposed solution: The inaccuracy can be eliminated by decreasing the rigidity of the mesh, and by increasing the density of international gaps.

4. CONCLUSIONS The aim of our study was to compare the results of the numerical simulations with the outcomes of a commonly used measuring technique. The comparison with the Nakajima test presented rather approving results. The results of the simulation and the Nakajima test showed good correlation in height; their trend lines were nearly parallel. In addition, an appropriate measuring arrangement is needed, which enables the measurement in identical positions at the simulations and at the real specimens as well. Eliminating these differences, the correspondence between the calculated and tested results can be notably improved.

REFERENCES [Uthaisangsuk et al. 2008] V. Uthaisangsuk, U. Prahl, S. Mnstermann, W. Bleck: Experimental and numerical failure criterion for formability prediction in sheet metal forming. Computational Materials Science 43 (2008) 4350 [Vacher et al.] P. Vacher, A. Haddad: International Standard IS0 12004 ,,Metallic materials - guidelines for the determination of forming-limit diagrams" [AutoForm] AutoForm Users Guide, http://www.autoform.com

Comparison of forming and fracture limits of cold rolled high-strength austenitic stainless steels
A.S. Korhonen*, T. Manninen**and J. Larkiola*** * Aalto University School of Science and Technology Department of Materials Science and Engineering, P.O. Box 16200, 00076 Aalto , Finland ** Outokumpu Stainless Oy, Terstie, FI-95490 Tornio, Finland ***VTT, P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT, Finland asko@tkk.fi

Abstract. Forming and fracture limits of two metastable AISI 301LN high-strength austenitic stainless steels were studied. One of the alloys was cold rolled for additional strengthening. Hydraulic bulge testing was employed in the stretch forming experiments. Marciniak-type in-plane tests and tensile tests were carried out to study the limit strains in the deep drawing region. Laser-marked grids were used to measure the surface strains. In stretch forming both alloys failed by fracture, showing no signs of local necking. In the deep drawing region both failed by local necking and the fracture direction was inclined to the rolling direction. The forming limit could be predicted by Hills criterion for the non-cold rolled alloy. For the cold rolled alloy the forming limits in the deep drawing region were much lower, indicating a rather flat forming limit curve. Keywords: high-strength cold rolled austenitic stainless steels, forming limits, fracture.

1. INTRODUCTION Austenitic stainless steels are an interesting group of materials. Their increased usage is generally associated with the increasing standard of living and general well-being. In addition to their corrosion resistance and pleasing appearance they offer good strength and ductility from cryogenic to elevated temperatures, and their applications range from household items to architectural applications and containers in chemical and process industries. Their strength may be increased substantially by cold working. Values over 2000 MPa may be reached by cold working. The work-hardening increases with decreasing stability and Ni-content. Especially the low-carbon metastable AISI 301LN grade has become a subject of interest in many applications. Due to its lower carbon content, it has better ductility than AISI 301 and it has a higher strength and lower nickel content than AISI 304. It also contains 0.1 to 0.15 % added N as compared to standard AISI 304L. Microstructure evolution of nano/submicron grained AISI 301LN has been studied recently by Rajasekhara et al. (2010). Nano-scale austenite grains were observed in the

martensitic matrix after annealing at 600 oC. Talonen and Hnninen (2007) studied the formation of shear bands and strain-induced martensite in one AISI 304 and two AISI 301LN steels. They concluded that the compositional, temperature and strain rate dependencies of the strain-induced -martensite formation can be explained mostly by the variations in the stacking fault energy. Tavares et al. (2008) studied the effects of low-temperature heat treatment on the martensite formation in cold rolled AISI 301LN steel. They found that the subsequent heat treatment at 350 oC after cold rolling increased the hardening due to the additional martensite formation and the strain aging effect. Eskandari et al. (2009) studied the applicability of AISI 301 alloy in lightweight vehicle structures. They obtained a final grain size of 70 nm after final subzero cold rolling and subsequent annealing. Characterization of the strain-induced martensite in AISI 301 steel was also studied recently by Hauild et al. (2010). Deep-drawing simulation of a metastable austenitic AISI 304 steel was studied by Galle and Pilvin (2010), who used a two-phase phase transformation model. Since, however, there seems to be very few studies dealing with the formability of the metastable AISI 301LN alloy, despite the fact that its microstructure has been studied actively by many authors, it was decided in this work to study the formability and forming and fracture limits of two such alloys.

2. THE NECKING CRITERIA AND EVALUATION OF LIMIT STRAINS In a series of papers, Hill (1957a, b) developed criteria for the uniqueness and stability of plastic flow in rigid-plastic solids. Under all-around dead loading, Hills criterion seems to coincide with the earlier criterion of Swift, which required a simultaneous load maximum in both principal stress directions [Korhonen, 1978]. For localized necking, Hill (1952, 2001) had earlier derived another criterion. Since the governing equations in the stretch forming region become elliptic, Hills criterion cannot predict the localized necks on the right-hand side of the FLD [see e.g. Korhonen, 1980]. Hills criteria for both diffuse and localized necking can be written in the form of a simple equation, which is an extension of the well-known Considres construction for the three-dimensional stress space
d / d = /Z ,
_ _ _

(1)

where the critical subtangent Z for diffuse and localized necking, respectively, can be obtained, according to Hill, from the equations 1/Zd =

1 f / 1 2 2 f / 2 2
_

1 f / 1 2 f / 2 df / d _ 1/Zl = f / 1 f / 2 df / d ,

(2) (3)

where f is the yield function. As can be seen, both necking criteria depend on the form of the yield condition. For the well-known Hollomon (1945) and Voce (1948) stress-strain relations

= K n
= B (B A)exp(-m )
_ _ _

(4) (5)

one obtains the following effective limit strains * after substituting them into Eq. (1)

* = Zn * = (1/m) ln [(B A)(Zm +1)/B]

_

(6) (7)

However, since the Hollomon equation does not generally describe well the strain-strain curve of austenitic stainless steels, the Voce equation is commonly used instead of the Hollomon equation, which has mostly been used for the traditional low-carbon Al-killed steels. Interestingly, the Voce equation has been noted to have some physical background in the dislocation theory, since integrating the Kocks-Mecking equation for dislocation density evolution and introducing the result into the shear flow stress equation leads to a Voce type of law [Barlat, 2007].

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS The alloys A and B studied in this work were low-nickel metastable high-strength austenitic alloys corresponding to the EN 1.4318 (AISI 301LN) standard. Alloy B was cold rolled for additional strengthening. The samples were cut from coils representing two different thicknesses. The thicknesses were 1.1 mm (alloy A) and 0.6 mm (alloy B). The chemical composition of alloys A and B and their mechanical properties are shown in Table I and II, respectively. The tensile tests were carried transverse to the rolling direction.

Alloy A C 0.024 Alloy B C 0.026

Si 0.45 Si 0.47

Mn 1.26

Cr 17.48

Ni 6.61

Mo 0.09

Cu 0.14

N2 0.145

Mn Cr Ni Mo Cu N2 1.16 17.41 6.50 0.07 0.16 0.148 Table I; Chemical composition of the alloys in mass-%.

Alloy A Rp0.2 354 Alloy B Rp0.2 566

Rm 731

Ag 49.2

A80 52.3

HV10 133

Rm Ag A80 HV10 994 32.3 34.9 271 Table II; Mechanical properties of the alloys. Strength values in MPa.

4. RESULTS

Fig. 1 shows examples of hydraulically bulged cups using a circular 100 mm die. As can be seen there was less wrinkling outside the clamping ring in the thicker sheet of alloy A. Also the fracture was considerably longer in the harder alloy B. No localized necks could be observed in either alloy. The fracture took place at the cup dome and the fracture direction was the rolling direction (horizontal direction in Fig. 1). The bulging pressure was quite high, reaching over 30 MPa. For elliptical dies it exceeded the capacity of pump and the samples could not be broken. An additional sheet of both alloys were tested without a laser-printed grid to study the possible effect of the grid on the failure. Exactly the same type of failure was observed for both alloys without laser-printed grid. All tested specimens failed in the rolling direction and the failure originated at the cup dome. Marciniak-type deep drawing tests using the apparatus described earlier by Korhonen and Manninen (2007) were carried out with alloy B. Blanks of varying widths were cut and two 0.2 mm AISI 304 sheets were used under the tested blank to support it and ensure straining and final failure at the punch bottom. An example of the failure in the Marciniak test is shown in Fig. 2. Typical strain localization and shear fracture in a direction inclined to the rolling direction could be observed in the Marciniak tests. Tensile tests were carried out on both laser-marked and unmarked specimens. The stress-strain relation was determined from the unmarked specimens. The following values were determined from the experiments for the coefficients in the Voce equation in

the case of alloy A in the strain range from 0.3 to 0.43: A = - 380 MPa, B = 1838 MPa and m = 3.62. The correlation coefficient exceeded 99 %.

Figure 1; Bulged cups of alloy A (above) and alloy B (below).

Figure 2; An example of the failure in the Marciniak test specimen of alloy B. The laser-marked tensile test specimen of both alloys A and B were tested to determine the limit strains. Examples of the tensile test specimens of alloys A and B are compared in Figs. 3 a) and b). It is seen that both alloys failed by typical localized necking in a direction inclined to rolling direction, although the limit strains in cold rolled alloy B were considerably smaller than in alloy A. All specimens, including the bulged cups, Marciniak test specimens and tensile test specimens were photographed using a SMC PENTAX-D FA 1:2.8 100 mm macro lens and a digital camera. The limit strain measurements were then made from the enlarged digital photographs on a computer screen. The measured limit strains for both alloys A and the calculated diffuse and local necking limit curves are shown in Fig. 4. It is seen from Fig. 4 that Hills theory predicts well the localized necking limit for alloy A. Isotropic von Mises theory and Voces equation were employed in calculating the necking limit strains. The assumption of isotropy is not considered to cause a major error since the r-values of austenitic stainless steels are usually close to 1. It is also seen from Fig. 4 that the major limit strain values of cold rolled alloy B do not differ much from each other. The possible forming limit curve therefore seems to be rather flat.

Figure 3a; An example of the tensile test specimen of alloy A.

Figure 3b; An example of the tensile test specimen of alloy B.

Figure 4; Measured limit strains for alloys A and B and calculated diffuse and local necking limits for alloy A.

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Two metastable low-carbon stainless steel alloys were tested to study their formability. The alloys corresponded to the standard AISI 310LN or EN 1.4318. One of the alloys was cold rolled for additional strengthening. In stretch forming both alloys failed by fracture without showing any signs of local necking. Typical shear lips and shearing in a direction inclined about 45o to the through thickness direction could be observed in the hydraulically bulged and stretch formed samples. These observations are consistent with those reported earlier by the authors for various AISI 304 alloys [Korhonen and Manninen, 2007]. In the deep drawing region both the Marciniak and tensile test samples showed typical localized necking behavior, which is consistent with the theoretical predictions of Hill (1952, 2001). The localized necking limit of alloy A could be predicted using Hills criterion and Voces stress-strain model. It appeared that the forming limit strains in equibiaxial stretching were quite near to the Swift-Hill diffuse necking limit for both alloys. The forming limits of cold rolled alloy B in the deep

drawing region were, however, much lower than those of alloy A, indicating that the forming limit curve of alloy B is quite flat.

REFERENCES [Barlat, 2007] Barlat F., Constitutive Descriptions For Metal Forming Simulations; In: NUMIFORM '07, Materials Processing and Design: Modeling, Simulation and Applications (Eds. J. M. A. Cesar de Sa and A. D. Santos), AIP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 908, American Institute of Physics, pp. 3-23. [Galle and Pilvin, 2010] Galle, S.; Pilvin, P.; Deep drawing simulation of a metastable austenitic stainless steel using a two-phase model; J. Mater. Process. Tech., doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.01.008 [Hauild et al., 2010] Hauild, P; Davydov, V.; Drahokoupil, J.; Landa, M.; Pilvin, P.; Characterization of strain-induced martensitic transformation in a metastable austenitic stainless steel, Materials and Design, 31, pp. 1821-1827.
[Hill, 1952] Hill, R., On the discontinuous plastic states, with a special reference to localized necking in thin sheets; Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 1, pp. 19-30.

[Hill, 1957a] Hill, R., On the problem of uniqueness in the theory of rigid-plastic solid III; Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 5, pp. 153-161.
[Hill, 1957b] Hill, R., Stability of rigid-plastic solid; Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 6, pp. 1-8.

[Hill, 2001] Hill R., On the mechanics of localized necking in anisotropic sheet metals; Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 49, pp. 2055-2070. [Hollomon, 1945] Hollomon, J. H., Tensile Deformation; Trans. AIME, 162, pp. 268-290. [Korhonen, 1978] Korhonen, A. S., On the Theories of Sheet Metal Necking and Forming Limits; Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, 100, pp. 303-309. [Korhonen, 1980] Korhonen, A. S., Localization of plastic flow and ductile fracture in metals; Acta Polytechnica Scandinavica, Ch 144, pp. 1-33. [Korhonen and Manninen, 2007] Korhonen A. S. and Manninen T., Forming and fracture limits of austenitic stainless steel sheets; Materials Science and Engineering A, 488, pp. 157-166.

[Rajasekhara et al., 2010] Rajasekhara, S.; Karjalainen, L.P.; Kyrlinen, A.; Ferreira, P. J.; Microstructure evolution in nano/submicron grained AISI 301LN stainless steel; Materials Science and Engineering A, 527, pp. 1986-1996. [Talonen and Hnninen, 2007] Talonen, J.; Hnninen, H.; Formation of shear bands and strain-induced martensite during plastic deformation of metastable austenitic stainless steels; Acta Materialia, 55, pp. 6108-6118. [Tavares et al., 2008] Tavares; S.S.M., Neto, J.M.; da Silva, M.R.; Vasconcelos, I.F.; de Abreu, H.F.G.; Magnetic properties and martensite quantification in an AISI 301LN
stainless steel deformed by cold rolling; Materials Characterization 59, pp. 901-904. [Voce, 1948] Voce, E., The relationship Between Stress and Strain for Homogeneous Deformation; J. Inst. Metals, 5, pp. 537-562.

Failure criteria usage when modelling trimming processes

Swerea KIMAB AB, Box 55970, 102 16 Stockholm, Sweden niclas.stenberg@swerea.se

Niclas Stenberg

Abstract:

The properties of an advanced failure criterion are determined with

simple tests. The criterion is then used to simulate both the punching and cutting operations. In these two processes the stress states are quite dierent which make them ideal to test the capabilities of the criterion. It is shown that the Wilkins, also called RcDc, failure criterion can describe both processes and capture their dierences. made for cold forming.
Keywords:

The simulations are compared to actual

tests. The investigated sheet material SSAB Domex 700MC is a high strength steel Simulation, Failure Criteria, Model, FE-analysis, Material behaviour

1 Introduction
Simulations of available trimming and punching processes can be made from several dierent viewpoints. A more global perspective is useful when studying global eects like atness whereas a more detailed approach is required when, for example, wear and residual stresses derived from the process are to be captured. When studying a process in detail an extended knowledge of the material behaviours of both tool and sheet materials is required. The least investigated material property is the criterion where local failure in the material starts to occur. There are some papers dealing with failure in the material when punching or cutting, but the used criteria are not valid outside a narrow operational window. Problems will arise when studying slightly dierent processes, like punching and cutting, with the same failure criterion parameters. Most FE-codes include the basic ductile failure criterion where local failure occurs when a specic degree of plastic strain is reached. This criterion is easy to use, but the value that is valid in one operation will not stay valid when the stress state changes. For example, a value of the failure criterion that is appropriate when modelling the axisymmetric punching operation is not valid on the plane strain cutting operation. Figure 1 shows the results from these two operations modelled with the same ductile failure criterion. in experiments. The shear zone is well captured in the punching simulation whereas being much longer in the cutting simulation than found

Figure 1: The use of the same value in the ductile failure criterion when modelling both the punching of a circular hole (to the left) and the cutting of a straight edge (to the right) is not advised. The shear zone of the punched hole is well captured whereas for the cut edge the shear zone is not representative.

With a more advanced failure criterion several dierent processes can be modelled without changing the values of the criterion. process can be described with condence. Even small variations in one single

1.1

Failure criteria previously used for punching simulations

For simulations of the punching operation several dierent failure criteria have been used over the years. ure criterion. Taupin et. al [Taupin et al., 1996] were among the rst to in detail model punching. They used DEFORM with the build-in McClintock failThe Rice and Tracey criterion was used by [Brokken et al., 1998, Goijaerts et al., 2001]. Goijaert later modied the criterion to form the Goijaert's criterion which have been used by [Goijaerts et al., 2001, Bacha et al., 2005]. The Cockroft-Latham criterion is also one of the popular criteria available in DEFORM and have been used by [Hatanaka et al., 2003, Fang et al., 2002]. The Oyane criterion [Oyane et al., 1980] were used in[Behrens et al., 2006, Behrens et al., 2007] for their punching simulations. These criteria all can be written as an integral function, p Eq 1 of the stress triaxiality, , and plastic strain increment, d :

D=

f () dp Dc ,
failure occurs.

(1)

When the integral reaches a critical damage value, The stress triaxiality is dened by:

(2)

where

is the hydrostatic pressure and

is the von Mises stress.

The criteria above works relatively well. Failure does not only accumulate with the plastic strain increment but also incorporate weighting of the hydrostatic pressure in a natural way. ce. However, as shown by [Wierzbicki et al., 2005], in a shear dominated process under dierent hydrostatic pressures these criteria does not suf-

1.2

The Wilkins failure criterion

In this paper the Wilkins criterion [Wilkins et al., 1980], also called the RcDccriterion, is used. The Wilkins criterion is used because it has been shown to capture many, for the cutting simulations, needed material features, [Wierzbicki et al., 2005]. Also, it is available in some of the major FE-codes: LS-Dyna & PAM-CRASCH. The Wilkins criterion is also easy to grasp with its rst order damage parameter that increases with a weighted plastic strain increment, see Eq 3. Moreover, it should also be relatively easy to nd the parameters of the failure criterion with simple experiments.

D=
where

w1 w2 dp

(3)

p = w1 = w2 =

equivalent plastic strain hydrostatic-pressure weighting term assymmetric-strain weighting

1 1 + aP term = (2 A) =

A = max
Here and

s2 s2 , , s1 > s2 > s3 s3 s1

P is the hydrostatic pressure; s1 , s2 and s3 are the principal stress deviators a, and are material constants. Failure is assumed to occur when the damage parameter, D , reaches the critical damage value, Dc over a critical distance, rc . In FE simulations rc typically equals the element size. The Wilkins criterion is formulated
in a continuum, like all major criteria, and should not directly work awlessly in a FE environment. But, punching and cutting require a ne mesh in the cutting zone to be trustworthy so an element is the typical boundary for dening

rc .

2 Materials
The SSAB Domex 700MC was used as sheet material. The SSAB Domex 700MC is a high alloy, hot rolled, cold-forming steel. The experiments and simulations are

Figure 2: The test specimen are designed to give as relatively pure stress states as possible. The material behaviours were later extracted by simulations of the tests in FE-code.

performed on sheets with a thickness of 2mm. The material data are extracted from both tensile and shear tests. The tensile and the shear test specimen are shown in Figure 2. FE-simulations of the tests were used to extract the parameters for the Wilkins failure criterion.

2.1

Parameters for the Wilkins Failure criterion

For the SSAB Domex 700MC the extracted parameters from Eq. 3 are:

a Dc

: 2.38 : 0.929 : 2.0E-4 : 2.1

u e e e e

Figure 3: The shape of the edges on punched holes. The edge is shown both from the side (left) and directly from the normal direction (right)

3 Results
The punching experiments were performed at Uddeholm Tooling AB with a 10 mm punch made from Sleipner tool steel. The cutting experiment was made at Swerea KIMAB AB in a commercial cutting machine. All simulations were performed with the general purpose nite element software package ABAQUS with the Explicit solver. The mesh in the sheared zone was The element size is set to automatically meshed by the ABAQUS pre-processor. dened eld variable subroutine, VUSFLD. The main purpose of the simulations was to obtain the same nal shape of the cut surfaces from both the punching and cutting simulations. Thereby it was assumed the a correct behaviour of the failure criterion was captured.

1/80mm in square. The Wilkins failure criterion was implemented by using a user

3.1

Punching experiments and simulations

The edge of the punched hole is shown in Figure 3. From looking at the edge prole the fracture zone is fairly straight. But by looking straight on it, it appears as the last threads have been torn apart with typically sheared areas in between leaving a very rugged surface. From the ABAQUS simulations this torn, rugged, fracture zone can clearly be observed, Figure 4

 rr

Figure 4: The shape of the edge of a punched hole in a simulation. The torn parts are clearly seen

3.2

Cutting experiments and simulations

The edge of the cut side can be seen in Figure 5. The shape diers from the punched hole with its clear cavity under the shear zone. From the ABAQUS simulations this cavity is also observed. Marked with the arrow in Figure 6.

Figure 5: The shape of the edge made in a cutting machine. The cavity under the shear zone is clearly seen

Figure 6: The shape of the cut edge in the simulations show the similar feature as observed in experiments

The characteristics of the waste part in the cutting operation is also captured. In Figure 7.

4 Discussion and Conclusions

The aim of this paper was to use a failure criterion in some dierent trimming simulations without having to care for the validity of the criterion in that specic simulation. I.e. with changes in geometry the result from the simulation should still be valid. It should also be relatively easy to extract the parameters for the criterion. The Wilkins failure criterion is shown to capture much of the dierences between the punching and cutting operations. Even though the shear zone is too long in the simulations the specic features and dierences are well captured. The shape of the cut edges are captured for both the operations.

The edge of the punched hole, Figure 3, with its torn side are well captured, see Figure 4. The edge of the cut side, Figure 5, with its small cavity under the sheared zone is well captured, see Figure 6 The distinct top seen on the cut waste part, Figure 7 (right), is captured in the simulations Figure 7 (left).

 r rr

Figure 7: The characteristics of the edge of the waste part is also captured. The marked top on the edge is also seen in the simulation

Even though the Wilkins failure criterion works relatively well in the FE simulations there are some obstacles which should be considered:

Not all FE-codes have the Wilkins-, RcDc-, criterion implemented. However, there are always the possibility to write own subroutines for all major codes. But, that is time consuming and an extra source of error.

The mesh size, and element form, dependencies is not dealt with by using the Wilkins failure criterion. However, the Wilkins failure criterion is dened for a small volume,

rc

which can be interpreted as the element in the simulation.

Specically when the element size is small. Also, by inclusion of element size and form dependencies the criterion complexity will grow and its usability will be lost.

4.1

Summary

The Wilkins failure criterion is shown to describe the dierences between the punching and the cutting operations well. The material parameters can be extracted from simple tests and still be useful. By having condence in the failure criterion punching and cutting simulations of any geometry are reliable.

Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledge both the nancial and the knowledge contribution SSAB Strip AB in Borlnge, Sweden and Uddeholm Tooling AB in Hagfors, Sweden have provided. Without the support from these companies this paper would not have been possible. Thank You!

References
[Bacha et al., 2005] Bacha, A., Klocker, H., and Daniel, D. Trimming of aluminium alloy sheets: Experimental and numerical investigations . In

Proceedings of the

International Deep-drawing Research Group IDDRG 2005 International Conference, Besancon, France; 2005.
[Behrens et al., 2007] Behrens, B., Sidhu, K. B., Kamp, M., and Hundertmark, A. Adjustment of relative clearance during blanking using piezoactuators and numerical simulation . In

Proceedings of the International Deep-drawing Research

Group IDDRG 2007 International Conference, Gyr, Hungary; 2007.

[Behrens et al., 2006] Behrens, B., Sidhu, K. B., and Psse, O. Dierent approaches to model the material separation during blanking process using FEM . In

Pro-

ceedings of the International Deep-drawing Research Group IDDRG 2006 International Conference, pp. 271277, Porto, Portugal; 2006.
[Brokken et al., 1998] Brokken, D., Brekelmans, W. A. M., and Baaijens, F. P. T. Numerical modelling of the metal blanking process .

Journal of Materials Pro-

cessing Technology, 83(1-3) pp.192199; 1998.

[Fang et al., 2002] Fang, G., Zeng, P., and Lou, L. Finite element simulation of the eect of clearance on the forming quality in the blanking process .

Journal of

Materials Processing Technology, 122(2-3) pp.249254; 2002.

[Goijaerts et al., 2001] Goijaerts, A., Govaert, L., and Baaijens, F. Evaluation of ductile fracture models for dierent metals in blanking .

Journal of Materials

Processing Technology, 110 pp.312323; 2001.

[Hatanaka et al., 2003] Hatanaka, N., Yamaguchi, K., Takakura, N., and Iizuka, T. Simulation of sheared edge formation process in blanking of sheet metals .

Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 140(1-3) pp.628634; 2003.

[Oyane et al., 1980] Oyane, M., Sato, T., Okimoto, K., and Shima, S. Criteria for ductile fracture and their applications .

Journal of Mechanical Working Tech-

nology, 4 pp.6581; 1980.

[Taupin et al., 1996] Taupin, E., Breitling, J., tsu Wu, W., and Altan, T. Material fracture and burr formation in blanking results of FEM simulations and comparison with experiments . pp.6878; 1996. [Wierzbicki et al., 2005] Wierzbicki, T., Bao, Y., Lee, Y., and Bai, Y. Calibration and evaluation of seven fracture models .

Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 59(1-2)

International Journal of Mechanical

Sciences, 47 pp.719743; 2005.

[Wilkins et al., 1980] Wilkins, M. L., Streit, R. D., and Reaugh, J. E.

Cumulative-

strain-damage model of ductile fracture: simulation and prediction of engineering fracture tests; 1980.

Inverse Identification of Kinematic Hardening Parameters with Bending Tests

M. Doig*, M. Kaupper**, M. Kraska*, G. Eer*, M. Merklein**, K. Roll***, L. Kessler**** * INPRO GmbH, Hallerstr. 1, 10587 Berlin ** LFT Erlangen, Egerlandstrae 13, 91058 Erlangen *** Daimler AG, PK/PWT, 71059 Sindelfingen **** ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, Division Auto, V/E 73, 47166 Duisburg Maria.Doig@inpro.de

Abstract: Advanced high strength steels (AHSS) are indispensable materials in car light weight design. Their complex multiphase microstructure provides high strength along with high formability. Due to the high stress levels during forming the AHSS show high amounts of springback. For the simulation based springback evaluation and compensation of AHSS seems to be essential to take into account the load direction changes during the forming process (Bauschinger effect), in particular when small tool radii are present. For this reason hardening rules should be extended using kinematic hardening. To determine the corresponding material parameters, tests with changing load directions are required. INPRO has designed an improved low cost bending test with load reversal. In the present paper, the inverse parameter identification based on the INPRO bending test is demonstrated. In addition, a comparison with tensioncompression test results is included. The implications for simulation based springback prediction are shown and discussed. Keywords: Sheet metal forming, Springback, kinematic hardening, parameter identification, bending tests

1. INTRODUCTION The increasing request for reduction of CO2-emissions and the growing demand for occupants safety lead among others to the permanent improvement of light weight design. In new developments a material mix of for instance aluminium and magnesium is often expected, but still cost intensive. The application of modern steels remains as one of the most economical solutions. New steel grades with high strength and ductility are the result of an enhanced production process together with specially designed alloys. Thereby such advanced high strength steels (AHHS) obtain a complex microstructure, which is composed of two or more phases with different properties. Dual phase (DP) steels consist of mild ferrite and hard martensite phases while in transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steels retained austenite (RA) is embedded in a ferrite bainite matrix. The retained austenite transforms during the forming process to martensite. This added

deformation mechanism leads to superior properties compared to conventional steels with plasticity based on dislocation kinetics. One major issue for tooling design is the prediction of springback after tool opening at the end of forming processes. Appropriate material models include rules like yield functions defining the limit of the elastic region and flow conditions for the direction of the plastic flow. Also, rules to gather work hardening are included. Most hardening models account for isotropic hardening, which takes into account the accumulated plastic strain, and the kinematic hardening law of anisotropic type, which covers the Bauschinger effect. This term refers to the yield stress decrease after reverse loading, especially for advanced high strength steels [Kessler et al., 2008], [Kessler 2008], see figure 1.
800

Z
Bauschinger Factor
Z Stress at load change D True stress R
D0.2

1.0

Material response
Proof strain for D = 0.2% classical

Actual stress / MPa

AHSS

DP-K 34/60

RA-K 40/70

Z D Z

-800

0.0 0 Strain / 0.1

Material group

Figure 1; Bauschinger factor depending on material strength [Kessler et al., 2008] The models contain material dependent parameters that have to be identified by means of various tests. In particular, for identification of kinematic hardening parameters, tests with load reversal are required. Normally, tension-compression tests are used. These are difficult to perform because of possible buckling during compression due to the dimensions of thin, high strength sheet metal samples. Several authors have developed bending tests with reverse loading [Brunet et al., 2001], [Leonard et al., 1992], [Yoshida et al., 1998]. INPRO has designed an improved bending test for higher strain levels and less instability in the deformation mode, also to overcome high costs and time consumption. The first chapter introduces the bending machine and shows some tests results for different steel grades. After this, the inverse procedure for parameter identification is briefly demonstrated. Simulations of tension-compression-tests using parameters identified by bending tests are discussed. The impact of these parameters on the springback simulation of a test part is illustrated.

CP-K 60/80

Bauschinger factor

HX340LAD +Z

0.5
HX220YD +Z

2. BENDING TEST The bending set-up is introduced in this chapter. Furthermore some tests results for cold rolled dual phase (DP-K) steels are shown. More steel grades were investigated in [Doig et al., 2009], [Merklein et al., 2010]. 2.1. Bending machine The bending machine has two sliding carriages, the vertical one in Figure 2 is displacement controlled, while the horizontal one is free to slide without rotation. The sample is rectangular (19.5 mm width x 120 mm length) and is held horizontally between the clamps. These clamps have adjustable bending radii (3, 5 and 8 mm) providing different strain levels. The clamping distance can be varied in order to keep the load within the design load of 1 KN.
300

200

100

Slip carriage 2 Slip carriage 1 clamps

clamp radius

0
Force [N]

-100 r8d20 r8d30 -300 0 5 10 15 20 25 Displacement [mm] r8d40 30 35

-200

clamps distance

Figure 2; Bending set-up and test results for DP-K 34/60 with 1 mm thickness, clamp radius 8 mm and different clamp distances (20, 30, 40 mm) This is supported by an analytical estimate of the required loads based on tensile test data [Kretzschmar, 2006]. Measurements obtained during idle operation without sample exhibit a scatter force (about 8 N). Actuator, data acquisition and storage are controlled via a custom Labview application. The load displacement curves as well as the test parameters are stored in files. This data is read by the INPRO software tool IMA [Kraska, 2006], which controls the inverse parameter identification using FEcalculation. 2.2. Test results The tests were performed with various radii and different distances between the clamps, resulting in different force-displacement curves. These configurations are labelled using short hand e.g. r3d30, which means radius of 3 mm and clamp distance of 30 mm. Figure 2 shows the measurement results of DP-K 34/60 with blank thickness of 1.0 mm.

Short clamp distances result in higher loads. Due to the limited absolute accuracy of the force sensor, force levels close to the nominal design load of 1 kN are recommended.

3. INVERSE PARAMETER IDENTIFICATION Due to the non-homogeneous stress and strain states, the kinematic hardening parameters cannot be determined directly from the bending load-displacement curve. Therefore, an inverse method involving finite element simulations of the tests is required. The summarized meaned squared error between calculated and experimental results is minimized using a genetic evolution algorithm in the software tool IMA. For the simulation of the bending test the software tool IBURA [Wessels, 2006] was used among others. IBURA is an implicit finite element program for springback analysis, which uses higher order shell and volume elements with special surface contact formulation between blank and tools. The non linear shell elements are thick shells with non-zero stress components in normal direction. The influence of finite element types on simulation of bending tests has been discussed in [Kretzschmar, 2006]. In the present work a Chaboche model with a yield locus according to Hill (anisotropic) [Hill, 1998] and an associated (normal) flow condition is used. For the hardening rules, nonlinear exponential functions are considered both for isotropic and kinematic hardening [Chaboche et al., 1990]. For the uniaxial loading case, the relation can be written as follows:
() = y + Q R1 (1 e cR1 p ) + Q X1 (1 e c X1 p )

(1)

Here, y is the flow stress and = 1 is a factor, which considers the load direction. The coefficients QR1 , CR1 and Q X1 , C X1 refer to the isotropic and kinematic expression respectively. The procedure for the parameter identification consists of two steps. First, the isotropic hardening parameters y , Q1 , C1 are determined from tensile tests. Second, the hardening is split into kinematic and isotropic part based on the second branch of the bending test. The variable represents the relative amount of kinematic hardeing:
() = y + (1 ) Q1 (1 e
c1 p

) + Q1 (1 e

c1 p

(2)

From equation (2), the following relations can be formulated:

QR1 = (1 ) Q1 Q X1 = Q1 C R1 = C1 C X1 = C1

(3)

Optionally, y and Q can be corrected by a factor , to match the first branch of the bending load curve:
() = y + (1 ) Q1 (1 e
c1 p

) + Q1 (1 e

c1 p

(4)

For more than one hardening term additional parameters 1 , 2 ,....n (with n as the number of hardening terms) can be introduced. Figure 3 (a) shows tests with DP-K 34/60, 1.0 mm thickness of configuration r5d30. Experimental curves are compared to optimized ones using a fixed value = 1 with different simulation environments. Besides the already mentioned INPRO environment (IBURA/IMA), results based on commercially available software products (ABAQUS/explicit for the simulation and LS-OPT for the optimization) are given. In ABAQUS, linear volume elements with same material model as in IBURA were utilized.
300 300
300

200 200

200

100 100
Force [N] Force [N]

100

0 0

-100 -100

Force [N]

-100 Measurement ABAQUS/explicit scaled IBURA 0 5 10 15 20 25

-200 -200

Measurement Measurement ABAQUS/explicit ABAQUS/explicit

IBURA IBURA 0 0 5 5 10 10 15 15 20 20 25 25

-200

-300 -300

-300

Displacement [mm] Displacement [mm]

Displacement [mm]

(a)

(b)

Figure 3: Optimized bending test with radius 5 mm and 30 mm clamp distance (r5d30). DP-K 34/60 with 1.0 mm thickness (beta=0.73). a) alpha = 1, b) alpha = 0.93 for ABAQUS) The results after adjusting = 0.93 for ABAQUS and with optimized = 0.73 are shown in figure 3b. In a sense, the parameter alpha corrects for kinematic restrictions in the simulation (Figure 3 (b)). This coupling between resulting material parameters and other modelling settings is an inherent issue in inverse identification. The consistency of the material parameters for tensile and bending tests (no need for correction) is an indicator for appropriate simulation settings. The scaling of the flow curve does not influence the amount of kinematic hardening.

4. COMPARISON WITH TENSION COMPRESSION TESTS Tension-compression tests are frequently used to identify the parameters for kinematic hardening. In this work, tension-compression tests with optical strain measurements were performed, following the procedure in [Staud et al., 2009]. In order to evaluate the quality and possible differences of results obtained from bending tests, these tensioncompression tests are simulated. The results with identified parameters from different (bending tests) configurations are shown in figure 4 for DP-K 34/60 with 1.0 mm thickness.
1000 800 600

true stress [MPa]

400 200 0 -200 -400 -600 -800 -0,10

r8d40 r8d30 r5d40 r5d30 tc - tension tc - 20 tc - 23 tensile test fit

0,00 true strain [ / ]

0,10

0,20

Figure 4: Re-calculation of tension-compression tests with identified parameters from different configurations. DP-K 34/60 with 1.0 mm thickness In this case there is a noticeable influence of the clamp distances in compression compared to the effect of the clamp radii. For the optimisation with bending tests only the fraction of kinematic hardening is varied. After this, the model parameters can be determined following the relations given by equations (2) and (3). This reduces the time for calibrating the parameters but gives poorer agreement for higher strain ranges in the compression part of tension-compression test simulations (figure 4). Allowing the optimisation of all parameters with bending tests, better agreement should be expected. However, the stress level at saturation state shows good agreement with experiments.

5. IMPACT ON SPRINGBACK PREDICTION The impact of the parameter identification method on springback simulation is demonstrated using a hat profile of DP-K 36/40 steel with 1.4 mm thickness [Doig et al, 2009]. The deep drawing radii of the hat profile were varied. The use of kinematic hardening seems to be more important for small radii (2 mm) that induces a higher strain. For greater radii like 10 mm the relevance of the model used (e.g. with kinematic hardening) vanishes. For this investigation two isotropic and two kinematic hardening terms were used.

The elastic modulus estimate from the bending tests (ca. 160 GPa) is less than the one obtained from the tensile tests (210 GPa). This may be caused by the elasticity of the bending machine. For the springback simulation both values were taken into account. The parameters have been identified via bending and by tension-compression tests. These parameters are listed in table 1. Table 1: Parameters identified from bending and tension-compression tests for DP-K 36/60 with 1.4 mm
Parameter identified from Bending TensionCompression Yield stress y 411. 411. Isotropic hardening QR1 107.8 207.9 CR1 [/] 9.5 9.5 QR2 [MPa] 36.4 0. CR2 [/] 52.2 52.2 Kinematic hardening QX1 [MPa] 151.3 51.0 CX1 [/] 9.5 9.5 QX2 [MPa] 91.4 127.8 CX2 [/] 52.2 52.2

[MPa] [MPa]

The results of the springback simulation for die radius 2 mm are shown in figure 5 (a), for DP-K 34/60 with elastic modulus of 210 GPa and in figure 5 (b), with elastic modulus of 160 GPa. The simulation with parameters from bending tests shows good agreement with measurements above all with lower elastic modulus. In contrast the results using tension compression based parameters show greater differences from measurements.
50 40
Prof ile height / mm
50
Experiment Isotropic With bending tests
Experiment isotropic With bending tests

40 30 20 10 0 -10

30 20 10 0 -10 20

With tensile compression tests

With tension-compression test

40 60 Distance f rom center line / mm

80

20

40

60

80

Distance f rom center line / mm

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: Springback simulation for DP-K 34/60 with 1.4 mm thickness. (a) With elastic modulus 210 GPa. (b) With elastic modulus 160 GPa (right)

6. DISCUSSION The presented method for the identification of kinematic hardening based on bending tests provides reasonable input for springback simulations. Both bending test and

springback application indicate that reduced elasticity constants result in better matches between test and simulation. Further investigations should clarify, to what extent the reduced stiffness in the bending test is related to the elastic compliance of the testing rig. Therefore optical measurements of the clamps during bending tests will be performed by LFT-Erlangen in the context of the EFB-Project Kinematic Hardening of Sheet Materials. The good agreements with measurement by the springback prediction with parameters obtained from bending tests (see figure 5) can be traced back to the fact that the ratio of the kinematic hardening to the total hardening for parameters from bending tests is higher than for parameters from tension-compression test (see table 1). This aspect should be thoughtfully investigated also using more tests for different car components. In this context the fact that bending tests are not homogeneous like tension-compression and therefore are more similar to the state during deep drawing has to be analysed and discussed deeply. The influences of different types of finite elements as well as the solver have to be systematically studied. Also the choices of extrapolation function for the flow curve fitting and its impact to the presented method here has to be examined.

7. CONCLUSION In this paper a bending set-up with reversal load has been presented. The measured force displacement curves were use for inverse parameter identification. Different radii and clamp distances to get variable strain levels are needed. Because of the reductions of the model parameters (kinematic hardening fraction) by the optimisation with bending tests the simulations of tension-compression tests show some deviations to the measurements. In contrast, the springback prediction shows better agreement with experiments compared to the simulations with parameters based tension-compression tests. This can be attributed to the high amount of kinematic hardening obtained from bending tests. The bending set-up therefore promises a time and costs saving alternative for the parameter identification using kinematic hardening laws.

REFERENCES [Chaboche et al., 1990] Chaboche, J.-L.; Lemaitre, J.; "Mechanics of solid materials"; Cambridge University Press; 1990; ISBN 978-0521477581 [Brunet et al., 2001] Brunet, M. ; Morestin, F. ; Godereaux, S. ; "Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Identification for Anisotropic Sheet Metals With Bending-Unbending Tests" ; In : Transaction of the ASME. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology ; American Society of Mechanical Engineers ; Bd. 123, Nr. 4 ; pp 378383 ; US 2001 ; ISSN: 0094-4289 [Doig et al., 2009] Doig, M.; Kraska, M.; Wyrwich, P.; Keler, L.; Gerlach, J.; Aydin, M.-S.; "Inverse Parameter Identification with out-of-plane Bending Tests"; In:

Proceedings of the 3th Forming Technology Forum 2009; pp 51-56; Zrich 2009; ISBN 978-3-909386-93-2 [Doig et al., 2009] Doig, M. ; Kraska, M. ; Eer, G. ; Kaupper, M. ; Merklein, M. ; Kessler, L. ; Gerlach, J. ; "Inverse Parameteridentifikation mittels Biegeversuchen " ; In Tagungsband Werkstoffprfung 2009; Verlag Stahleisen GmbH; Dsseldorf 2009 [Hill, 1998] Hill, R ; "The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity"; Oxford University Press Press; New York 1998; ISBN 978-0198503675 [Merklein et al., 2010] Merklein, M. ; Kaupper, M. ; "Identifikation von Modellparametern zur Bestimmung des Flie- und Verfestigungsverhaltens unter Bercksichtigung einer Belastungsumkehr" ; In Tagungsband T31 des 30. EFB-Kolloquiums Blechverarbeitung; Bad Boll 2010; ISBN 978-3-86776343-1 [Kessler et al., 2008] Kessler, L.; Gerlach, J.; "Industrial aspects of material modelling for steel grades in the past, present and future; In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference and Workshop on Numerical Simulation of 3D Sheet Metal Forming Processes, pp. 13-18; Zrich 2008; ISBN 978-3-909386-80-2 [Kessler, 2008] Kessler L.; "New developments for the virtual prediction for a forming behavior when designing stampings"; ThyssenKrupp Steel Auto Tag 2008; Dsseldorf 2008 [Kraska, 2006] Kraska, M.; " INPRO Materialabgleich IMA"; Handbuch; INPRO 2006 [Kretzschmar, 2006] Kretzschmar, T.; " Verbesserter Materialabgleich fr die Umformsimulation mit einem Biegeversuch; Diplomarbeit an der Technischen Fachhochschule Berlin; Berlin 2006 [Leonard et al., 1992] Leonard, T.; Gooberman, G.; "An investigation into DMTA clamping problems" ; In Measurement Science and Technology IOP Publishing ; Bd. 3 ; Nr. 3 ; pp 275-282; Bristol 1992 ; ISSN 0957-0233 [Staud et al., 2009] Staud, D., Merklein, M.; "Zug-Druck-Versuche an Miniaturproben zur Erfassung von Parametern fr kinematische Verfestigungsmodelle" ; Tagungsband Werkstoffprfung 2009; Verlag Stahleisen GmbH; Dsseldorf 2009 [Wessels, 2006] Wessels, H.; "Implizites Blechumformprogramm fr die Rckfederungsanalyse ibura"; Handbuch. INPRO 2006 [Yoshida et al., 1998] Yoshida, F. ; Urabe, M. ; Toropov, V.V. ; "Identifications of material parameters in constitutive model for sheet metals from cyclic bending tests" ; In International Journal of Mechanical Sciences ; Vol. 50 ; Issues 2-3, pp 237-249 ; 1998 ; ISSN 0020-7403

Uniaxial tension/compression tests and cyclic bending tests for hardening parameter identification
P.-A. Eggertsen and K. Mattiasson
Div. of Material and Computational Mechanics Dept. of Applied Mechanics Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gteborg, Sweden e-mail: eggepera@chalmers.se, kjellm@chalmers.se Dept. 91432, PV22 Volvo Cars Safety Center SE-405 31 Gteborg, Sweden e-mail: kmattias@volvocars.com

Abstract: An experimental method that frequently has been used for the determination of material hardening parameters is the three-point bending test. The advantage of this test is that it is simple to perform, and standard test equipments can be used. The disadvantage is that the material parameters have to be determined by some kind of inverse approach. An alternative method is the tensile/compression test of a sheet strip. In practice such a test is very difficult to perform, due to the tendency of the strip to buckle in compression. In spite of these difficulties some successful attempts to perform cyclic tension/compression tests have been reported in the literature. In an ideal world both these test approaches should result in the same material parameter set-ups. However, a few writers have reported that there are substantial differences between hardening parameters determined from bending tests and those from tensile/compression tests. These observations have been partly verified by investigations performed by the current authors. Keywords: Bending test, Tension/compression test, Cyclic test, Hardening law, Parameter identification 1. INTRODUCTION

The residual stresses in the blank after forming are the main cause for the subsequent springback in a sheet forming operation. The accuracy of the predicted springback in a Finite Element simulation of the forming operation is very much determined by the quality of the material modeling. Those parts of the workpiece, which in particular contribute to the global springback, have usually been subjected to a bending/unbending deformation mode, when the sheet material has slipped over a tool radius. It is thus of utmost importance that the material model can accurately describe the material

response, when it is subjected to such a deformation mode. This is considered by the socalled "hardening law" of the material model. All hardening models involve material parameters, which have to be determined from some kind of cyclic test. An experimental method that frequently has been used for the determination of material hardening parameters is the three-point bending test. The advantage of this test is that it is simple to perform, and standard test equipments can be used. The disadvantage is that the material parameters have to be determined by some kind of inverse approach. The current authors have previously, successfully been utilizing this method. The test has then been simulated by means of the Finite Element Method, and the material parameters have been determined by finding a best fit to the experimental results by means of a Response Surface Methodology. An alternative method is the tensile/compression test of a sheet strip. In practice such a test is very difficult to perform, due to the tendency of the strip to buckle in compression. In spite of these difficulties some successful attempts to perform cyclic tension/compression tests have been reported in the literature. However, a few writers have reported that there are substantial differences between hardening parameters determined from bending tests and those from tensile/compression tests. These observations have been partly verified by investigations performed by the current authors. The purpose of the present study is to try to understand the background of these differences, to find out the influence on predicted springback, and to determine an optimal methodology for hardening parameter identification. 2. MATERIAL AND MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

Only one material is considered in this report. It is a DP600 steel with a thickness of 1.46 mm. The material characterization is governed by uniaxial tests that have been complemented with viscous bulging tests (see [Sigvant et al., 2009]) aiming at providing plastic hardening data for strain levels much higher than what can be achieved in ordinary tensile tests. The resulting plastic hardening curve can be seen in Figure 1.
1000

800
Effective Stress

600

400

200

0 0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2 0.25 0.3 Effective Plastic Strain

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

Figure 1; Plastic hardening curve for the DP600 material

3.

CONSTITUTVE EQUATIONS

Two hardening laws of different complexity are used in this report. First the hardening law by Armstrong and Frederick [Armstrong and Frederick, 1966], which stated that the back-stress evolution is given by:
Cx sat p

(1)

where sat and Cx are material parameters. The second hardening law is a modified version of the Yoshida and Uemori hardening law [Yoshida and Uemori, 2002]. The evolution of the back-stress is expressed as: * (2) with
R * Cx - * p Y b k - p Y R

(3)

where * is the relative kinematic motion of the yield surface with respect to the bounding surface, is the centre of the bounding surface, Y is the initial size of the yield surface, Cx and k are material parameters, and R is the isotropic hardening of the bounding surface: R( p ) H ( p ) ( p ) (4) where H ( p ) is the given, experimental plastic hardening curve. A further explanation of these two hardening laws can be found in previous works by the authors [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2009-1],[Eggertsen, 2009]. 4. DETERMINATION OF KINEMATIC HARDENING PARAMETERS

Two types of experimental set-ups were used in this study in order to determine unknown material parameters. A three-point bending test and a tension/compression test. 4.1. Three point bending test The unknown material parameters in the different kinematic hardening laws described above, were identified by an inverse approach from a three-point bending test. The experimental set-up of the bending test is shown in Figure 2. The bearings are free to rotate around the bearing centre. Furthermore, the sheet is free to slip between two rollers at the bearings. The punch in the middle is moved with a prescribed displacement and the applied force is measured. The resulting force-displacement curve

is then used as a target curve in an optimization procedure, where the three-point bending test is simulated by the finite element code LS-DYNA and the optimization procedure is performed by the optimization tool LS-OPT.

(a) Figure 2; Experimental set-up used in the three point cyclic bending tests: (a) a picture of the experimental equipment; (b) a sketch of the test arrangement 4.2. Tension/compression test The experimental test equipment for the tension-compression test is shown in Figure 3 below. The test specimen is cut out according to Figure 3a. The specimen is painted with a randomized dot pattern that is used for the measurements of strains in the specimen. The specimen is clamped in a holder, with the purpose to prevent buckling during the test. The holder has a peek hole that is used for measurements of the strains. A reinforced Teflon film is put between the specimen and the holder in order to eliminate the influence of friction forces. The silicone pieces are used to prevent the specimen to buckle between the specimen holding texture and the chucks. The strain distribution in the specimen was measured by an ARAMIS optical measuring system during the whole process.

(b)

(b) (a) Figure 3; Experimental equipment used in the tension-compression test: (a) a picture of the experimental equipment; (b) a picture of the assembled test equipment

Two sets of experiments are performed in this study in which the specimen is loaded up to 2% and 4%, respectively, in tension and then reloaded to 2% and 4% in compression. 4.3. Optimization procedure The resulting force-displacement curves from the bending tests and the resulting stressstrain relationships from the tension/compression tests were used as target curves in an optimization procedure. For the three-point bending test the experimental set-up was simulated by the FE-method, while the predicted stress-strain relationship for the tension/compression test could be determined directly. The parameters in the various hardening laws served as design variables in this optimization procedure, in which the normalized error between the predicted and experimental curves was minimized. The mean squared error (MSE) is defined as
f x Gp 1 P ep x 1 P MSE Wp p Wp P p1 s p P p1 sp
2 2

(5)

where f p x , p=1, , P are the values on the computed curve, Gp , p=1, , P are the values on the target curve, the Sp, p=1, , P are residual scale factors, and the Wp, p=1, , P are weights applied to the square of the scaled residual (fp - Gp) / sp at point p. That is, the smaller error, the better fit to the experimental data. In this work all parts of the target curve are considered to be of equal importance and the weight and residual scale factors are therefore set to 1. The identification of the hardening parameters was performed by means of the optimization code LS-OPT [Stander et al., 2007] and a Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The RSM is especially advantageous for problems, in which gradients to the object function are difficult to calculate, such as in this highly nonlinear problem. A further explanation of the identification procedure can be found in: [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2009-2]. 5. SPRINGBACK EXPERIMENT

The problem chosen in this study is the well known U-bend benchmark from the NUMISHEET93 conference. The experimental set-up is described in Figure 4 below. Just as for the three point bending test, the FE-code LS-DYNA was used to solve the problem. The forming step was solved by means of an explicit, dynamic solver, and the springback step with an implicit one. The symmetry of the problem was utilized, and only one quarter of the model was analyzed. The geometry of the tools is shown in Figure 4a, and the total size of the blank is 300x50mm. The blank holder force was chosen to be 100kN. Fully integrated quadrilateral shell elements were utilized in the FE-model. It should be mentioned that for accurate springback predictions it is of great importance to include the reduction of elastic properties with increased plastic work. A

detailed explanation of this phenomenon can be found in: [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2010].

(a)

(b)

Figure 4; The NUMISHEET93 benchmark problem. (a) Experimental set-up; (b) Definition of the angles 1 and 2, used for the evaluation of the springback. 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The U-bend springback example used in this work is commonly used in the literature on springback prediction. It is a very simple example and the forming procedure consists of bending and subsequent re-bending of the material. That is, the material is subjected to one half of a full loading/unloading stress-strain cycle. Therefore, the optimization of the unknown material hardening parameters is performed on a half cycle both in the three-point bending test and the tension/compression tests. However, in a real industrial application the part geometry is often more complicated, and more than just a half loading cycle can ocurr. For this reason the optimization procedure is also performed on two whole loading cycles, both in the three-point bending test and in the tension/compression test. The choice of two cycles is based on the assumption that this is an upper limit for what a typical automotive part can be subjected to during forming. Since the behaviour of the various hardening laws varies from one model to another, the results are presented individually for each hardening law. For each model, the results are presented in two tables. The first table describes the results in terms of the obtained material parameters, the obtained MSE-value, and the resulting tip deflection in the U-bend springback example. The second table describes how well a set of hardening parameters, obtained from a certain experiment, can fit the results from other experiments. The accuracy is measued in terms of MSE-values. A further explanation of how this table should be read follows in the first sub-chapter below.

6.1. Armstrong-Frederick hardening As can be seen in Table I, quite good springback results are obtained for the ArmstrongFrederick hardening law, especially for the cases where only half loading cycles are considered. In those cases, also the prediction of the tip deflection becomes very good. For the cases where two whole loading cycles are considered, the MSE-values are larger and the springback predictions are less accurate. The reason for the larger errors in the cases with two whole loading cycles is due to the fact that the Armstrong-Frederick hardening law cannot account for the permanent softening effect (see [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2009]). The results from fitting to a half and two full loading cycles, respectively, are illustrated in Figure 5b. One of the characteristics of the ArmstrongFrederick hardening law is that the stress at reverse loading always saturates towards the isotropic hardening curve. However, as can be seen in Figure 5b, the stress level in the experimental data saturates towards a fixed value of about 700 MPa. This is the reason why the MSE-values and the predicted springback become worse for two whole loading cycles than for a half cycle. In the case shown in Figure 5b, the stress after a half loading cycle is under-estimated, which leads to that even the springback becomes under-estimated. Figure 5a shows the predicted and experimental stress-strain relationships based on the 4% tension-compression test for a half loading cycle. In this case the stress level after a half cycle is slightly over-estimated, and, thus, also the springback becomes slightly over-estimated. Table I; Material parameters, MSE-Values and resulting springback for the ArmstrongFrederick hardening law. Springback Cx MSE sat 27.3 0.2 2% 27.5 75.1 195.7 0.001321 4% 27.5 77.13 191.7 0.001857 bending 27.2 144.7 199.3 0.001498 2% 27.0 66.69 230.8 0.005793 4% 26.1 23.89 247.7 0.009250 bending 49.109 248.3 0.002630 29.1 2 97 Table II shows the errors obtained, when the material parameters from a certain test are used to simulate the other tests. The numbers in the grey-shaded cells represent MSE-values obtained when fitting the material model to that particular test. The percentage-values in the other cells in the same row represent the additional errors obtained, when the material parameters from the test corresponding to the shaded cell are used to simulate the other tests. It is worth mentioning that the best MSE-values in Table II differs a lot for a half and two whole loading cycles, respectively. Thus, care should be taken when comparing the errors in terms of percent. 2 cycles cycle

6.2. Modified Yoshida-Uemori The Yoshida-Uemori model is a more advanced hardening law and accounts also for the permanent softening effect, besides the same characteristics as the Armstrong-Frederick law. Therefore, quite good results could be expected, both for the fit to experimental data and for the springback prediction. As can be seen in Table III, those expectations are more or less fulfilled. The springback predictions are good in five of six cases, and the MSE-values are quite low in all cases. An explanation of the bad tip deflection prediction of the half cycle, 2% tension-compression test is that a strain level of 2% is

(a) Figure 5; Predicted and experimental stress-strain relationships for the ArmstrongFrederick hardening: (a) a half cycle based on the 4% tension compression test. (b) two whole cycles based on the 4% tension compression test. Table II; MSE-values for various experiments based on different optimizations for the Armstrong-Frederick hardening law. cycle 2 cycles Optimized 2% 4% bending 2% 4% bending from 2% 0.00132 +60% +22% +134% +285% +134% 1 4% +50% 0.00185 +2.3% +35% +165% +54% 7 bending +120% +114% 0.001498 +150% +29% +59% 2% +324% +55% +68% 0.0057 +91% +8.1% 93 4% +504% +339% +23% +99% 0.0092 +57% 5 bending +552% +187% +89% +27% +36% 0.002630 simply too far from the real experimental conditions, where the strains can reach levels that are more than five times higher. Table IV reveals that the half cycle, 2% tensioncompression test yields quite bad results when its material parameters are applied to the five other experiments. When comparing the results for the Armstrong-Frederick model in Table II with the results for the modified Yoshida-Uemori model in Table IV, the most striking 2 cycles cycle

(b)

observation is that, for the latter model, even the results for the two-cycle tests are quite accurate. Also for this material model it can be emphasized that, even a large deviation in terms of percent, can still signify a relatively small MSE-value, since the best fits result in low MSE-values for all experiments. Table III; Material parameters, MSE-Values and resulting springback for the modified Yoshida-Uemori hardening law. Springback Cx b k h MSE 27.3 0.2 2% 93.85 400 51.0 0.634 0.001363 25.7 5 6 4% 141.5 12.0 19.5 0.518 0.001144 27.2 2 4 4 bending 97.5 54.9 94.3 0.340 0.001098 27.1 00 2% 225.8 99.8 73.3 0.549 0.001621 27.4 8 1 6 4% 119.2 34.3 57.3 0.561 0.001730 27.3 6 1 6 bending 19.3 84.6 0.433 0.001217 95.5 27.1 9 5 9 Table IV; MSE-values for various experiments based on different optimizations for the modified Yoshida-Uemori hardening law. cycle 2 cycles Optimized bendin 2% 4% bending 2% 4% from g 0.00136 +132% 2% +309% +278% +300% +131% 3 4% +156% 0.00114 +42% +51% +183% +26% 4 0.00109 +161% +310% bending +175% +69% +13% 8 0.00162 +143% 2% +107% +32% +25% +21% 1 4% +172% +67% +11% +32% 0.00173 +3.3% bending +192% +72% +18% +49% +158% 0.00174 8 2 cycles 7. cycle CONCLUDING REMARKS 2 cycles cycle

As can be seen in the previous chapter, it is possible to find material parameter set-ups that result in good fits to the cyclic, experimental values, and in good springback predictions. However, for the simpler Armstrong-Frederick law, this requires that the identification procedure is made for only a half loading cycle, and that a corresponding deformation path is present in the springback experiment. For the more advanced Yoshida-Uemori model good results are generated even for two full cycles. The results of this report shows, that in order to get good springback predictions, it is advantageous to determine the material parameters from experiments that are as

similar to the springback problem of interest, as possible. This means that one should aim to have the same number of cycles and the same strain levels in the cyclic test as in the springback problem. This is of particular importance for simpler material models. 8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The characterization of the materials used in this study was conducted by Per Thilderkvist and Jrgen Hertzman at the Industrial Development Center in Olofstrm, Sweden. The three-point bending tests were performed by Bertil Enquist at Vxj University. Their contribution to this work is gratefully acknowledged. The work has been performed within the Swedish national research program MERA (Manufacturing Engineering Research Area). Financial support has been provided by Vinnova. REFERENCES [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2009-1] Eggertsen, P.A.; Mattiasson, K.; "On the modelling of the bending-unbending behavior for accurate springback predictions"; International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 51, pp. 547-563 [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2009-2] Eggertsen, P.A.; Mattiasson, K.; "An efficient inverse approach for material hardening parameter identification from a three-point bending test"; Engineering with computers; DOI: 10.1007/s00366-009-0149-y [Eggertsen, 2009] Eggertsen, P.A.; "Prediction of springback in sheet metal forming, with emphasis on material modeling"; Licentiate thesis, Chalmers University of Technology. [Eggertsen and Mattiasson, 2010] Eggertsen, P.A.; Mattiasson, K.; "On constitutive modeling for springback analysis"; International Journal of Mechanical Sciences; DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2010.01.008 [Sigvant et al., 2009] Sigvant, M.; Mattiasson, K.; Vegter, H.; Thilderkvist, P.; "A viscous pressure bulge test for determination of a plastic hardening curve and equibiaxial material data"; International Journal for Material Forming 4, pp. 235242 [Armstrong and Frederick, 1966] Armstrong, P.J.; Frederick, C.O.; "A mathematical representation of the multiaxial Bauschinger effect"; G.E.G.B. report RD/B/N 731 [Yoshida and Uemori, 2002] Yoshida, F.; Uemori, T.; "A model of large-strain cyclic plasticity describing the Bauschinger effect and work hardening stagnation"; International Journal of Plasticity 18, pp. 661-686 [Stander et al., 2007] Stander, N.; Roux, W.; Eggleston, T.; Craig, K.; "LS-OPT users manual, Version 3.2"; Livermore Software Technology Corporation (LSTC)

The double bending test: a promising new way for an optimal characterization of cut-edges ductility
O. Bouaziz*, S. Douchamps, L. Durrenberger, A. Bui-Van ArcelorMittal Global R&D, Voie Romaine, BP 30320, F-57283 Maizires-ls-Metz Cedex * Corresponding author: olivier.bouaziz@arcelormittal.com

Abstract: The cut-edges are detrimental to the formability of High Strength Steels. Up to now, the Hole Expansion and the tensile tests on cut-edges samples are commonly used to investigate the edge ductility. Both tests present drawbacks (scattering, necking apparition) that do not allow to accurately determine the edge ductility. The doublebending test proposed here allows to avoid the necking apparition and a continuous measurement of the strain distribution is possible. This experimental test has been successfully applied to few High Strength Steels. Keywords: Formability, cut-edge, bending test.

1. INTRODUCTION In stamping productions, some High Strength Steels have the propensity to fail from the edge of the sheet (see Figure 1). The strain-gradients at the proximity of the edge imply that the concept of Forming Limit Curve (FLC) is not valid in these areas. Surprisingly only few investigations in the scientific literature are dedicated to cut-edges [Dalloz, 2007], [Nitta et al., 2008], [Ken-ichiro, 2010]). The literature is much more dedicated to the understanding and the simulation of the blanking process itself (see for instance [Taupin et al., 1996], [Ko et al., 1997], [Brokken and Brekelmans, 1998], [Stegeman et al., 1999], [Maiti et al., 2000], [Pyttel et al., 2000], [Goijaerts et al., 2001], [Hambli, 2001], [Chen et al., 2002], [Fang et al., 2002], [Rachik et al., 2002], [Klingenberg and Singh, 2003]). Up to now the work done on the edges ductility is obviously technological.

Figure 1; Suspension arms made on High Strength Steel with three flanging heights. For the higher flanging height, a fracture starting from the edge is observed.

Specific tests have been proposed to apprehend the cut-edge ductility. To evaluate the maximum strain admissible by a cut-edge in a blanking operation, a practical evaluation test of stretch flangeability has been proposed in [Nitta et al., 2008]. The two most commonly used tests are the Hole Expansion (HE) and the tensile tests on cut-edges samples (see Figure 2). Both tests present drawbacks that do not allowed to accurately determine the edge ductility. If the HE test is performed according to the ISO standard [ISO/TS 16630:2009], an important scattering is observed. Indeed, the test is eyescontrolled by an operator and is manually stops when the first crack crosses the sheet thickness. In addition, this test is very sensitive to the sample geometry (the HE ratio depends Ac% on the initial hole diameter as a non monotonic function). For some steels, the tensile test on cut-edges samples does not allow to get cut-edge fracture before sample necking which makes much more complicated the deformation analysis. Furthermore, the fracture of some steels which are not sensitive to the cut-edge does not start from the edge.

(a) (b) Figure 2; The two most commonly used tests to apprehend the cut-edge ductility are the Hole Expansion and the tensile tests on cut-edges samples. (a) Hole Expansion sample (b) Tensile test on cut-edges sample A way to improve the measurement quality is to localise the strain on the cut-edge, to follow the strain evolution all along the test and to avoid the necking apparition. The test proposed here is based on the fact that necking is easily delayed by the straingradient in bending.

2. DOUBLE BENDING: TEST DESCRIPTION The principle of the proposed double-bending test is to apply a bending solicitation through the plane of a thin strip. As it is not possible to easily achieve this strain path directly on thin strips, an original way has been proposed. In a first step, a square sample is cut. In a second step, a 90 flanging is performed parallel to one of the cutedges. The obtained sample is illustrated in Figure 3.a. To avoid buckling apparition, the flange height has not to be too important (max ~15mm). Once the 90 flanging is done, a bending in the perpendicular direction of the first bending is performed to apply a local tensile strain to the cut-edge with a strain gradient (Figure 3.b). The strain fields can be determined in continuous using an image correlation system.

Cut-edge

(a) (b) Figure 3; Description of the double bending test (a) Sample after the first 90 flanging with the location of the cut-edge (b) Sample after the second bending

Few High Strength Steels have been characterized using the double bending test. The mechanical properties of the studied laboratory steels are summarized in Table I. Table I; Mechanical properties of the studied steels
Material 1 Material 2 Material 3 Material 4 YS (MPa) [700 - 900] [700 - 900] [300 - 500] [250 - 400] UTS (MPa) >900 >900 >700 >600 Tel (%) 10 10 20 20

The samples have been prepared with a flange height of 10 mm and the cut-edge is along the transverse direction (unfavourable direction). The punch used for the double bending tests presents a radius of 4mm. The strain field has been measured in continuous using an ARAMIS image correlation system (GOM, Germany), see in the Figure 4.

(a)

(b)

(c) Figure 4; Material 1: Evolution of the strain field during the double bending test (major strains are plotted on the right side of the figure) (a) Initial state undeformed cut-edge (b) Intermediate state (c) Final state - after edge fracture. The double bending test can be analyzed by plotting the evolution of the major and minor strains of the point at fracture. The maximum strain admissible by the cut-edge is obtained when the strain evolution of the point at fracture diverges from his neighbour (see the red cross in Figure 5.a). After fracture, the neighbouring point is no more deformed (Figure 5.b). For the material 1, the maximum strain admissible by the cutedge along the transverse direction is 0.13.

0.20 0.18 0.16 Major Strain 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Time (s) Point at fracture Neighboring point

0 Point at fracture -0.01 -0.02 Minor Strain -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 0.00 Neighboring point

0.05 0.10 0.15 Major strain

0.20

(a) (b) Figure 5; Material 1: Double bending test analysis. The red cross indicates the fracture apparition (a) The fracture occurs when the strain evolution of the point at fracture diverges from his neighbour (b) Both point (at fracture and its neighbour) has a strainpath close to uni-axial. After fracture, the neighbouring point is no more deformed. The cutting process induces a burr along the cut-edge. The burr position does not affect the results obtained in tensile test on cut-edge sample and double bending test. Conversely, the HE test is quite influenced by the burr position. Following the ISO standard for HE tests [ISO/TS 16630:2009], the test has to be performed in burr up configuration. It means that the burr has to be in the opposite side compared to the punch (see Figure 6.a). To decrease the test uncertainties, incremental HE tests have been performed in both configurations (the punch automatically stops after an imposed displacement). The samples are then analyzed and classified (good part, part with microcracks or part with cracks). In the burr up configuration, the cracks are initiated after a plastic deformation of 0.12 (see Figure 6.b), which is consistent with the limits defined by the tensile test on cut-edge and the double bending test.
0.25

Burr position
0.2 Major strain (-)

Material 1 Initial hole diameter = 10mm

0.15

0.1
Cracks

0.05

Microcracks Good part expansion

(a)

(b)

0 Burr down Burr up

Figure 6; Hole expansion test (a) Test illustration (b) Good part means that the crack length is lower than the half thickness. Microcrack means that the crack length is greater than the half thickness but do not cross the entire thickness.

In Figure 7, the strain fields just before fracture are showed for the materials 2 to 4.

Material 2
Major strain
Minor strain

Major strain

Minor strain

Time (s)

Time (s)

Material 3

Major strain

Minor strain

Major strain

Minor strain

Time (s)

Time (s)

Material 4

Major strain

Minor strain

Minor strain

Major strain

Time (s)

Time (s)

Figure 7; Strain fields just before fracture measured in the double bending test by the ARAMIS system (GOM, Germany) for materials 2, 3 and 4.

3. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Currently, several tests can be used to assess the cut-edge ductility of steel. Each test presents its own mechanical conditions around the edge which lead to different cut-edge behaviour especially regarding micro-cracks propagation. A new test has been proposed and assessed as suitable to optimize the cut-edges ductility characterization on thin strips. The double bending test is especially convenient because, - the samples preparation is easy, - the test is rapid, - the cut-edges fracture is achieved without any necking, - and it is possible to dynamically and directly observe the strain field by image correlation systems. In order to optimize the test procedure, finite element simulations are in progress to find the most suitable specimen geometry and define the best methodology to determine a reliable fracture strain value. These simulation show a good agreement between predicted and measured strain field, allowing a comprehensive study of this promising test.
Major Strain Major Strain

Experiment

FEA

(a) (b) Figure 8: Strain field (a) measured with the ARAMIS system (GOM, Germany) for material 2 (b) Finite element simulation results

REFERENCES [Brokken and Brekelmans, 1998] Brokken, D.; Brekelmans, W.A.M.; Numerical modelling of the metal blanking process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,Vol.83, 1998, pp. 192-199. [Chen et al., 2002] Chen, Z.; Tang, C.; Lee, T.; Chan, L.; Numerical simulation of fine-blanking process using a mixed finite element method, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol.44, 2002, pp. 1309-1333. [Dalloz, 2007] Dalloz, A. ; Etude de lendommagement par la dcoupe des aciers Dual Phase pour application automobile , Thse Ecole des Mines de Paris, 2007.

[Fang et al., 2002] Fang, G.; Zeng, P.; Lou, L.; Finite element simulation of the effect of clearance on the forming quality in the blanking process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.122, 2002, pp. 249-254. [Goijaerts et al., 2001] Goijaerts, M.; Govaert, L.; Baaijens, F.; Evaluation of ductile fracture models for different metals in blanking, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.110, 2001, pp. 312-323. [Hambli, 2001] Hambli, R.; Finite element simulation of fine blanking processes using a pressure-dependent damage model, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.116, 2001, pp. 252-264. [ISO/TS 16630:2009] Metallic materials - Method of hole expanding test. [Ken-ichiro, 2010] Ken-ichiro, M.; Yohei, A.; Yoshio, S.; Improvement of stretch flangeability of ultra high strength steel sheet by smoothing of sheared edge, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.210, 2010, pp. 653659. [Klingenberg and Singh, 2003] Klingenberg,W.; Singh, U.P.; Comparison of two analytical models of blanking and proposal of a new model, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.134, 2003, pp. 296-302. [Ko et al., 1997] Ko, D.C.; Kim, B.M.; Choi, J.C.; Finite-element simulation of the shear process using the element-kill method, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.72, 1997, pp.129-140. [Maiti et al., 2000] Maiti, S.; Ambekar, A.; Singh,.U.; Date, P.; Narasimhan, K.; Assessment of influence of some process parameters on sheet metal blanking, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.102, Issues 1- 3, 2000, pp. 249256. [Nitta et al., 2008] Nitta, J.; Yoshida, T.; Hashimoto, K.; Kuriyama, Y.; Development of the practical evaluation test and a study of numerical evaluations of edge fracture for stretch flangeability of sheet metal forming; In: Proceedings of the International Deep Drawing Research Group; Olofstrm 2008. [Pyttel et al., 2000] Pyttel, T.; John, R.; Hoogen, N.M.; A finite element based model for the description of aluminium sheet blanking. International Journal Of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Vol.40, 2000, pp. 1993-2002. [Rachik et al., 2002] Rachik, M.; Roelandt, J.M.; Maillard, A.; Some phenomenological and computational aspects of sheet metal blanking simulation, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.128, Issues 1-3, 2002, pp. 256265. [Stegeman et al., 1999] Stegeman, Y.; Goijaerts, A.; Brokken, D.; Brekelmans, W.; Govaert, L.; Baaijens, F.; An experimental and numerical study of a planar blanking process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.87, Issues 1-3, 1999, pp. 266-276. [Taupin et al., 1996] Taupin, E.; Breitling, J.; Wu, W.; Altan, T.; Material fracture and burr formation in blanking, results of FEM simulations and comparison with experiments, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol.59, Issues 1-2, 1996, pp. 68-78.

Comparison of bending and tensile properties for automotive grade strip steel
M. Weiss *, B.F.Rolfe**, P.D.Hodgson* * Institute for Technology and Research Innovation, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia, 3217 ** School of Engineering, Deakin University, Australia, 3217 Bernard.Rolfe@deakin.edu.au

Abstract: A bending test that can be performed in a standard testing machine was described previously (IDDRG 2009). Moment-curvature characteristics can be obtained for elastic and elastic-plastic bending, as well as for reverse and cyclical bending. The equipment was designed to study the bending properties of thick metal strip. While the bending results could be predicted from tensile data, it is believed that in certain materials the actual bending characteristics would differ from those calculated from tensile data. If this is the case, bending tests would provide useful information in the study of certain metal forming processes and also reveal new information on residual stress profiles, the Bauschinger effect, and springback. In this paper, a range of automotive grade sheet steels, namely: an HSLA, a Dual Phase Steel and an Ultra-High Strength Martensitic steel were tested in bending as well as in tension. The elastic modulus and the bending stress at the point of the elastic-plastic transition were determined and compared with published data and the results of the tensile tests, respectively. In some materials differences were observed and the reasons for these are discussed. An inverse method was introduced that enables a stress-strain curve to be obtained from the experimental bend data. Using this material property curve in modelling the bending behaviour near the elastic-plastic transition could provide an improvement over the current use of tensile test data. It is suggested that in process design of thicker, high strength materials formed in bending or roll forming processes, this bending test is a useful adjunct to conventional tensile testing. Keywords: Bending, AHSS, UHSS, Bauschinger effect, Sheet forming.

1. INTRODUCTION A simple bend test that can be performed in a standard tensile testing frame is shown schematically in Figure 1.

Figure 1; Schematic of the bend test set up The test-piece is held in the grips at the left and bent by the application of force, F, on the pins shown. These pins are fitted to the base and the load cell in a tensile testing frame and replace the usual tensile grips. The test imposes nearly pure bending on a strip and is particularly suited to thicker samples. The moment-curvature characteristic of the material can be obtained and in a previous paper [Weiss, Wolfkamp et al. 2009], tests on annealed aluminium were reported. In the present paper, tests on a range of high strength automotive steels are presented. In bending, the outer fibre stress in the strip at the elastic-plastic transition can be determined using a simple analytical model and compared with the yield stress in the tensile test. In addition, the elastic modulus in bending is compared with published values. Clearly if the bending characteristics of a strip can be determined accurately from tensile test data, there would be no need to perform bending tests. There are, however, certain material effects that are not well indicated by the tensile test, but are known to influence bending behaviour near the elastic-plastic transition. Among these are: Variation of material properties through the thickness of the strip due to segregation, or grain size and texture gradients related to rolling, residual stresses in the strip such as those introduced by skin-pass rolling or tension levelling [Scott 2003], strain ageing when the upper yield stress is not indicated accurately in the tensile test [Duncan, Sue-Chu et al. 1983]. It is believed that in operations where bending is the principal mode of deformation and overall strains are small, such as in flanging, hemming and roll forming; springback and shape defects are influenced by the bending characteristic near the elastic-plastic transition. In the study of such processes, it is possible that more accurate simulation can be obtained using material properties gathered from bending tests. To facilitate this,

a technique to obtain a stress-strain curve from the bending test by an inverse method is introduced in this paper. 2. MATERIALS AND TENSILE DATA Three samples of high strength automotive steels were studied. They are a Martensitic sheet, a high strength Dual Phase sample, and an HSLA sheet. The true stress-strain curves are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2; True Stress-Strain curves for Automotive Steel grades (HSLA, DP, and Martensite). To obtain an empirical stress strain relation, the elastic part of the curve was fitted by the equation: 0 , = , (1)

where the elastic constant is taken from published values. In the plastic region, a power law relation was used: > , = (0 + ) . (2)

The constants, K and n, were chosen using a trial and error approach so that a good fit was obtained in the strain region covered by the bending tests (0 0.01) as shown in Figure 3. The constants in the empirical stress-strain curves fitted to the experimental tensile test data that were obtained for the three automotive steels are given in Table I.

Figure 3; Comparison of the experimental stress-strain curve and the empirical fit for the Dual Phase steel. Table I; Material parameters determined from tensile tests for the steel types investigated in this study.
Steel type: Martensite DP HSLA Thickness (mm) 2.08 2.04 2.04 YP (MPa) 942 368 371 E (MPa) 207000 210000 210000
K (MPa) 2100 1800 950 0 n 0.10 0.20 0.10

0.000332 0.000372 0.000082

The yield stress was determined by the same method used to find the elastic-plastic transition in bending, namely by determining the correlation coefficient in a linear regression as a function of strain and noting the stress at which the slope of this correlation coefficient becomes negative, (Figure 4).

a) b) Figure 4; Determination of the yield transition point by calculating the correlation factor and the point where the slope of the correlation factor curve becomes negative; a) stress-strain curve, b) correlation coefficient vs. strain.

3. BENDING TEST The bending tests were performed on strips of 25 mm width cut in the same direction as the tensile test-pieces. In the bending rig in Figure 1, the bend length between grips in these tests was 50mm. In this test, the bending arms can be pulled apart (tension) or moved together (compression) and a curvature of approximately = 9.5/ obtained in each direction; beyond this, some assumptions used in analysing the results are not valid. For material of 2 mm thickness, the outer fibre strain for this curvature is ~1%, and it may be seen that the test only provides information on the onset of yielding and properties near to the elastic-plastic transition. A clip-on curvature gauge was used to obtain a more accurate measure of curvature in the test-piece, and this is fully described in [Weiss, Wolfkamp et al.]. All bending tests were taken to the same final curvature and the moment adjusted to a standardized value for a test strip width of 20 mm using the relation, =
20

(3)

where the standardised moment is, , the measured moment, , and the strip width of the test piece, . It will be noted that the thicknesses of all samples are nearly equal. The moment-curvature diagram for the Dual Phase steel in forward and reverse bending is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5; Moment-curvature diagrams for forward and reverse bending for Dual Phase steel.

Notice that similar to the Dual Phase steel the Martensite and the HSLA did not show significant material hardening during the cyclic deformation.

4. ANALYSIS OF BENDING TEST The elastic modulus was determined from the moment curvature data by fitting the elastic slope of the curve using Equation (4):
=
3 12

(4)

Figure 6 a) compares the E-Moduli determined from the bend test data with those found in the literature. To determine the elastic-plastic transition point, the moment-curvature diagram was transformed into bending stress versus bending strain. The elastic behaviour of an isotropic, residual stress free strip can be determined for the outer fibre using the relations for bending stress and strain [Marciniak, Duncan et al. 2002]:
=
2 6

and

For a purely elastic deformation, the bending stress-strain curve will be given by,
=

(5)

(6)

As already mentioned, the bending yield stress is determined from a linear regression of the bending stress-strain characteristic as illustrated in Figure 3. This value of yield stress derived from the bending test is compared with that from the tensile test in Figure 6b). It is clear that for all three steel types the tensile test indicates lower yield transition stress values than the bend test. To illustrate the significance of the difference in material properties obtained from the tensile and the bending test when predicting bending behaviour, a theoretical moment curve was calculated for the Dual Phase steel using the tensile test data and the usual equilibrium equations [Marciniak, Duncan et al. 2002]. Isotropic material behaviour and Tresca yield condition were assumed, which in the previous work [Weiss, Wolfkamp et al.] fitted the experimental results very closely. (It should be noted that the validity of the assumptions are not proven and might depend on the characteristics of the materials used and the proportions of the test-piece.) The comparison between the experimental curve and that calculated from the tensile data is shown in Figure 7. It can be observed that only a poor fit of the momentcurvature diagram can be achieved using the experimental tensile data; the elasticplastic transition occurs at a higher moment than that predicted from the tensile data.

Moreover, at higher curvatures the tensile data clearly underestimates the experimental bending moment.

Figure 6; a) E-Moduli found in the literature and determined in the bend test for bending and unloading; b) Yield transition determined in the tension and the bending test.

Figure 7; Experimental moment-curvature diagram and moment-curvature diagram calculated from tensile data for the dual phase steel.

5. INVERSE MODEL The estimated tensile curve that gives the best fit to the experimental moment-curvature diagram can be found via an inverse model, and it may provide a good insight into what material information is missing when considering the predictions of the momentcurvature diagram in the previous section. The inverse model has been implemented according to the schematic in Figure 8. A number of simple material models were constructed ( = (, ): elastic-perfectly plastic, elastic-linear plastic, and elasticpower law plastic). Some of the parameters for these models were allowed to vary, while the remaining parameters were fixed at commonly known values. For example, the H, c and YP parameters for the power law model = + , for > were chosen to vary, where H is the plastic linear hardening parameter, c is the plastic

hardening index, and YP is the uniaxial yield stress. The Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio were fixed to standard values for steel. An initial guess of the best values of the parameters was then given to the optimization routine. Within the routine, a procedure was created that analytically calculates the moment curvature diagram for a pure bend scenario given an estimated tensile curve. A root mean squared error was used to calculate the difference between the estimated and experimental momentcurvature curves. A Nelder-Mead Simplex optimization was then applied to find the best set of material parameters, using a Matlab optimization command [Lagarias, Reeds et al. 1998]. This Simplex optimization routine does not require gradient or hessian information, which makes it easier to implement but slower to find a local/global optimum. The optimization routine continues looping until it reaches the tolerance limit (or the maximum number of iterations). The final parameter values for the estimated tensile curve were then saved, and the standard K, n, , and 0 values calculated.

Figure 8; Schematic of the inverse model used showing the seven main steps. The tensile data were fitted with an empirical stress-strain relation using Equations (1) and (2) and the constants obtained are shown in Table II. Table II;. Material parameters determined from the tensile input data generated for the different steel types using the bend test data and the inverse model.
Steel type: Martensite DP HSLA Thickness (mm) 2.08 2.04 2.04 YP (MPa) 773 428 369
K (MPa) 12800 2450 1170 0 n 0.45 0.24 0.13

0.00195 0.0007 0.00014

6. DISCUSSION Cyclic bending: All steel types investigated in this study show very little hardening during cyclic deformation as it is indicated in Figure 3 for the Dual Phase steel. The approximate accumulated plastic strain in the outer fibre of the test sample after the cyclic test is that is greater than about 3%. In the monotonic test of all steels investigated in this study, as shown in Figure 2, there is significant strain hardening at this level of strain. Even though this hardening would be at the outer fibres it would be expected to show some increase in the moment after re-bending. The observation that there is little increase in moment in the tests suggests that cyclic stress strain data rather than monotonic data would be more appropriate in modelling re-bending. E-Modulus: The E-modulus values derived from the bend test data show a good fit with those reported in the literature for the steel grades investigated in this study (Figure 6 a). In a standardized tensile test procedure it is difficult to obtain accurate E-Modulus data; this result suggests that the bend test may be a more appropriate procedure for estimating the E-Modulus. The E-Moduli measured during the unloading do not indicate a significant change from the initial values (Figure 6a). Yield Transition: The yield transition stress values determined in the tensile test are lower compared to those measured in the bend test for all three steel grades (Figure 6b). As can be seen in Figure 2 for the HSLA, yield point elongation indicates strain aging in this sample. Strain aging is generally associated with an upper yield stress, which in the tensile test, can only be measured under special conditions. The higher yield stress values observed in the bending test compared to the tensile test for the HSLA suggest that the bending test tests should be employed with aged materials. Similar observations were made in previous studies [Duncan, Sue-Chu et al. 1983]. Theoretical bending moment: Calculating a theoretical bending moment curve for the dual phase steel using experimental tensile data showed that not only is the yield transition stress underestimated, but that the bending moment cannot be sufficiently represented at higher curvatures using the experimental tensile data (Figure 7). This indicates that, for some materials, not only is the yield transition not well estimated, but also the bending behaviour close to yielding is not well predicted by the material data obtained with the tensile test. Inverse Modelling: In this study an inverse model was presented that generates an improved stress strain curve for bending analysis that is based on the experimental bending test data. The estimated values for the material property constants from this inverse approach are presented in Table II. Comparison with Table I (tensile material values) indicates that near yielding, strain hardening is higher for the steels studied in the bending test than one would expect from tensile behaviour. This may suggest that properties near yielding could be captured better using the values given by the inverse method based on the bending test, and that it would be preferable to use these properties as input to simulation systems for processes such as, for example, roll forming.

7. SUMMARY Three automotive steel grades were tested in tension and in a newly developed bending test routine. The E-Moduli derived from the bending test for all steels were in good agreement with those found in the literature. Comparison between the tensile and the bend test showed that for all materials the tensile test underestimated the yield transition point in bending as well as material hardening close to yield. It is believed that the higher stress values found in the bending test are due to material properties that are not well indicated by the tensile test. This suggests that in forming processes where the material deformation is predominantly small strain bending and near to yielding, such as in roll forming, the bending test described is a useful adjunct to conventional tensile testing. An inverse model approach was presented that allows for the generation of stress strain data from the experimental bend test. This data might be useful in numerical modelling of some processes.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge Emeritus Prof. J.L. Duncan for his help in developing the test and his assistance in writing this paper. The authors further appreciate the financial support of the Australian Research Council (ARC Linkage grant - LP0883399), DataM Sheet Metal solutions, Australian Roll Manufacturers, and Applied Research & Development.

9. REFERENCES [Duncan, J. L., M. Sue-Chu, et al. (1983)] Duncan, J. L.; Sue-Chu; M. Wang, X. J.; Instability in plastic bending of thin sheet"; In Mechanical behaviour of materials -IV. C. J., Pergamon press: Stockholm, Sweden, 1983. [Lagarias, J. C., J. A. Reeds, et al. (1998)] Langarias, J.C.; Reeds, J. A.; Wright, M. H.; Wright, P. E.;"Convergence Properties of the Nelder-Mead Simplex Method in Low Dimensions"; SIAM Journal of Optimization, pp.112-147, 1998, 9(1) [Marciniak, Z., J. L. Duncan, et al. (2002)] Marciniak, Z.; Duncan, J. L.; Hu, S. J.; Mechanics Of Sheet Metal Forming, London, Butterworth Heinemann, 2002. [Scott, R. I. (2003)] Scott, R. I.;"The influence of Processing on the Roll Forming Characteristics of Recovery Annealed Steel"; Geelong, Deakin University, 2003. [Weiss, M., H. Wolfkamp, et al. (2009)] Weiss, M.; Wolfkamp, H.; Rolfe, B. F.; Hodsgson, P.D., Hemmerich, E.;" Measurement of bending properties in strip for roll forming"; International Deep Drawing Research Group, pp. 521-532, D. K. B.S. Levy, Matlock, C.J. Van Tyne. Golden, Colorado, USA.

Development of compact biaxial tensile testing apparatus using conventional compression testing machine and evaluation of the test results
T. Nagayasu*, S. Takahashi * and T. Kuwabara** * Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, College of Industrial Technology, Nihon University, 1-2-1 Izumi-cho, Narashino-shi, Chiba, 275-8575, JAPAN ** Dept. of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology2-24-16, Nakacho, Koganei-shi, Tokyo, 184-8588, JAPAN S. Takahashi : takahashi.susumu32@nihon-u.ac.jp

Abstract: In order to predict defects of springback generated in lightweight materials, the numerical simulation with high accuracy is required. High accuracy of material model is also necessary for that purpose. In order to obtain the accurate model, the biaxial tensile test is applied to characterize yield behaviour of sheet metals. In this paper the compact biaxial tensile testing apparatus is proposed. In order to develop the apparatus, smaller specimen is investigated in the first stage of this research. The shape of the specimen was based on the cruciform specimen proposed by Kuwabara et al [Kuwabara et al, 1992]. It is confirmed that the stress stain curves obtained from both specimens were in good agreement with each other. The amount of plastic work measured by the proposed and the servo controlled apparatus. The results were in good agreement with each other. Keywords: biaxial tensile test, yield function, cruciform specimen 1. INTRODUCTION Demand of accuracy of sheet metal parts and difficulties of forming shape are increasing severely. For example, the cars are required to reduce the weight for decreasing global environment load by increasing fuel efficiency. In order to achieve it, materials such as high tensile steels and aluminium alloys are needed to be applied. However, formability of these materials is low when they are formed by press machines in room temperature. In addition, springback of these materials is considerably large. It makes longer development period of new model cars. In order to overcome these problems, it is necessary to predict defects by numerical simulation. The highly accurate prediction of formability is achieved by the accurate material models. Therefore, it is necessary to measure plastic deformation behaviour in biaxial stress state. However, there were problems with the cost and size of the biaxial tensile testing apparatus [Hoferlin et al, 2000] [Green et al, 2004] [Wu et al, 2004]. In order to deal with these problems, a more compact and economical biaxial tensile testing apparatus was

developed. The measured material properties in biaxial stress filed using the developed and the conventional apparatus were in good agreement with each other. 2. VERIFICATION OF VALIDITY OF SMALL SPECIMEN There was the necessity of miniaturizing a specimen for developing more compact test equipment. Therefore, smaller specimen is investigated in the first stage of this research in order to develop compact biaxial tensile apparatus. The shape of the specimen was based on the cruciform test piece proposed by [Kuwabara et al 1]. The measured part of strain in the specimen was reduced from 60mm60mm to 30mm30mm. The comparison by true stress-true strain curves was performed and it was need to be verified if smaller specimen is able to experiment in the same accuracy as original specimen. The dimensions of each specimen are shown in Figure 1. Rolling direction Strain gage f c e h b a Slit width : g i d i
d e f g h

Specimen /mm large small

a
b

260 60 260 60
60 7.5 0.2 R1 7.5

260 30 260 30
30 3.75 0.2 R1 3.75

(a)Dimension of specimen (b) Location of strain gage Figure 1 Cruciform specimen for biaxial tensile test
The testing material was 780MPa high tensile steel with the thickness 1.2mm, and the biaxial tensile testing apparatus with hydraulic servo control was applied. The investigated stress ratio were NX: NY=1:1 and NX: NY=2:1. In order to measure strain, two stain gauges (KFG-02-120-C1-16-L1M2R: Kyowa Electronic Instruments Co., Ltd.) are attached in each axis of specimen. Experimental results in stress ratios NX: NY=1:1 is shown in Figure 2. It was confirmed that the stress stain curves were in good agreement with each other. The small specimen was broken a little earlier than the large specimen. The slit width of both specimens was almost the same on the problem in processing, therefore it is thought as the ratio of the cross section of the arm part to the cross section of the stress measurement part of the specimen was smaller than that of large specimen. This difference affected the results of the tensile test.

1000

RD

Mark

Cruciform specimen Large Small

800

True stress / MPa

600
400 200

0 0.000
1000
800

0.005

0.015 0.010 True strain

0.020

0.025

(a) Rolling direction

TD

Mark

Cruciform specimen Large Small

True stress / MPa

600 400

200 0 0.000

0.005

(b)Transverse direction Figure 2 True stress-true strain curves (NX: NY=1:1) In addition, experimental results in stress ratio NX: NY=2:1 is shown in Figure 3. Similarly, it was confirmed that the stress stain curves were in good agreement with each other. Therefore, it can be said that the validity of small specimen was confirmed.
1000
800

0.015 0.010 True strain

0.020

0.025

Mark

Cruciform specimen
Large

True stress / MPa

600 400

Small
Large Small

NX

NY

200 0 0.000

0.005

Figure 3 True stress-true strain curves (NX: NY=2:1)

0.015 0.010 True strain

0.020

0.025

3. DEVELOPMENT OF COMPACT BIAXIAL TENSILE TESTING APPARATUS

3.1. Basic specifications and strueture of testing apparatus The developed testing apparatus has some features. It has been designed by based on the following conditions. 1) A special power control system is not required, and the testing apparatus must enable biaxial tensile test by installing it in a general-purpose tension and compression test machine. 2) It must enable to change displacement ratio in biaxial tension. 3) The centre axes of the cruciform specimen and the testing apparatus are identical during biaxial tensile tests. ) The apparatus can be carried by 2 or 3 people (Less than 60kg in total weight of the 4 apparatus). 5) Control equipment is not built in development apparatus itself, and it must enable to produce at a low price by easy structure to process. In consideration of the points cited above, the three mechanisms were proposed and examined the functions. The basic structures of proposed testing apparatus are shown in Figure 4. The comparison table of the function of apparatus is shown in Table 1.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4 Proposed structures of experimental apparatus

Testing machine rigidity, stability of tensile force direction, elongation controllability and test machine weight were investigated for each proposed structure of experimental apparatus. As a result of the investigation, proposed structure of experimental apparatus (c) [Ferron et al, 1988] was adopted as basic structure.

Table 1 Evaluation of proposed experimental apparatus

Proposed experimental apparatus Test machine rigidity Stability of tensile force direction Elongation controllability Test machine weight Cost Total evaluation

a b c

3.2. Development of experimental apparatus The experimental apparatus based on the structure Table 1(c) was developed. The mechanics of the structure (c) differs from the mechanics of the structures (a) and (b). The appearance of the apparatus with CAD is shown in Figure 5 (a). The mechanics of the structure (c) is to extend the distance between central chucks facing each other by adding the compressive load from the top to bottom. The load generates biaxial tensile force on each chuck. In order to carry out the drastic weight reduction and simplification of the structure, the upper half of the structure (c) was reflected to the design of the experimental apparatus. The guide rails (NRS45-LR : THK Co. Ltd.) were applied and fixed to the surface of the plate for sliding chucks smoothly at the time of a loading condition. The compact tension/compression load cells (LUX-A-20KN : Kyowa Electronic Instruments Co., Ltd.) are located between chucks and bases for measuring load which applied to each arm of the specimen. The apparatus design in early development stage is shown in Figure 5 (a). The base has I shape. It makes large bending moment in the base and large moment in the side block when the compressive load was applied to the top of apparatus. Therefore, in order to reduce moment in the side block more than 20%, the shape of the base was changed from I-shape to L-shape

Chuck

Arm (b-1) Base

Base Load cell Slid block Plate Guide rail (b-2) Arm

(a) Apparatus design in early development stage (b) Improvement of apparatus Figure 5 Early development stage apparatus and the improvement of it

as shown in Figure 5 (b-1). If the large strain is subjected to the specimen, the arm is in contact with the base in L-shape. In some cases, it is not able to provide enough strokes. Therefore, this problem was solved by changing the arm shape from straight to curve type as shown in Figure 5 (b-2). It can also provide miniaturised experimental apparatus. It is important that the vertical central axes of the apparatus and the generalpurpose tension and compression test machine coincide with each other for reducing unnecessary forces and moments. For this purpose, location adjustment (LA in Figure 6) was equipped at the top and the bottom of the apparatus. Figure 6 shows the proposed apparatus. It should be noted that in order to investigate the rigidity of the apparatus, static FEM analysis using COSMOS Works was performed. The safety factor of each part of the experimental apparatus was more than 6 for maximum load 20kN. (LA) (LA)

Figure 6 Developed biaxial tensile test apparatus 4. EXPERIMENT

Location adjustment(LA)

4.1. The shape of the specimen and the testing material The shape and size of specimens are shown in Figure 1. The total length of small specimen is 150mm. The material is SPCEN (non-ageing steel sheets for deep drawing) with the thickness 1.2mm. Mechanical properties of the material are shown in Table 2. Table 2 Mechanical properties of SPCEN Tensile 0.2 C* n* 0* direction /MPa /MPa 0 136 607 0.347 0.011 45 150 629 0.340 0.013 90 146 632 0.376 0.018 p n p *Approximated using =C(0+ ) , 0.0010.8 p **Measured at uniaxial plastic strain =0.1 r** 2.02 1.56 2.34

4.2. Experimental Method The developed experimental apparatus was installed in the universal testing machine called Autograph of 250kN (AG25-TB : SHIMADZU CORPORATION) as shown in Figure 7(a). It is in the case of strain ratio 1:1. The biaxial tensile forces are subjected to the cruciform specimen by adding compressive load to the apparatus. The stain near the central portion of the specimen was measured. The compressive velocity was 1mm/min. Two pieces of the stain gauges (KFG-02-120-C1-11 : Kyowa Electronic Instruments Co., Ltd.) were attached to the specimen in the rolling and transverse directions as shown in Figure 7(b). Location of strain gage is shown in Figure 1(b).

(a) Experimental apparatus (b) Specimen fixed to apparatus Figure 7 Developed biaxial tensile apparatus during testing 5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Specimens in the middle and after test are shown in Figure 8. According to the pictures in Figure 8, it was confirmed that the breaking part in the arm has been separated perpendicular to the axis of the specimen. It was confirmed that the rolling and the transverse directions of the specimen were strained uniformly by observing on specimens in the middle and after test. In addition, the experiment results obtained from the developed biaxial testing apparatus and from the biaxial tensile testing apparatus with hydraulic servo control proposed by Kuwabara et al [Kuwabara et al, 1992] were compared. The tests with same condition were performed twice. It was confirmed that the both true stress-true strain curves shown in Figure 9 were in good agreement with each other. The amount of plastic work in biaxial tensile test with strain ratio x:y =1:1 was calculated by using true stress-plastic strain curves. The results are shown in Figure 10. It can be said that both results are very close and the maximum error was about 2.6% at p=0.005. Regarding applied material, both results are very close and the maximum error was about 2.6% at p=0.005. Regarding applied material, the developed biaxial testing

apparatus has the same accuracy as biaxial tensile testing apparatus of hydraulic servo control in strain ratio x:y =1:1.

(a) Middle of test (b) After testing Figure 8 Specimen in the middle and after testing
300 250
True stress / MPa
RD

Mark

SPCEN No.
1 2

Experimental apparatus
Proposed

200 150 100 50 0

0.000 0.005 0.01 0.015 True strain

1
2

Servo controled

0.02

0.025

300 250
True stress / MPa

(a) Rolling direction

Mark

TD

SPCEN No.
1 2

Experimental apparatus
Proposed

200
150 100 50 0

1
2

Servo controled

0.000

0.005

(b)Transverse direction Figure 9 True stress-true strain curves

0.01 0.015 True strain

0.02

0.025

230 230

Mark
210 210 190 190

Spec No. 1
2

Experimental apparatus Proposed Servo controlled

y / MPa

0.02 0.015 0.012 0.01

1 2

170 170
150 150 130 130 130 130

0.005 0.002 0 p =0.001 150 150 170 170

190 190 210 210

230 230

x / MPa Figure 10 Plastic work with different apparatus

6. CONCLUSIONS 1) In order to develop compact biaxial tensile testing apparatus, smaller specimen is investigated in the first stage of this research. The shape of the specimen was based on the cruciform specimen proposed by Kuwabara et al [Kuwabara et al, 1992]. The measured area of the specimen was reduced from 60mm x 60mm to 30mm x 30mm. The specimens in both dimensions are investigated and it is confirmed that the stress stain curves were in good agreement with each other. 2) The compact biaxial tensile testing apparatus which can be installed in the generalpurpose testing machine was developed. The small cruciform specimen can be applied to the apparatus. 3) As a result of biaxial tensile test using the developed apparatus, it was confirmed that the rolling and the transverse directions of the specimen were strained uniformly by the observation on specimens in the middle and after test. The stability of the performance of the biaxial tensile test was confirmed. 4) It can be said that both results from the developed biaxial testing apparatus and the biaxial tensile testing apparatus with hydraulic servo control are very close and the maximum error was about 2.6% at p=0.005 with strain ratio x:y =1:1.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors express their gratitude for the indispensable advice we received from members of the Committee on Standardization of Biaxial Stress Test Methods, who supported this research under the auspices of the Osaka Science and Technology Centre on commission from the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization.

REFERENCES [Hoferlin et al, 2000] Hoferlin, E.; Van Bael, A.; Van Houttec, P.; Steyaert, G.; De Mare, C.; The design of a biaxial tensile test and its use for the validation of crystallographic yield loci, Modelling Simul. Mater. Sci. Eng.,pp.432-433, 8(2000) [Green et al, 2004] Green, D.E.; Neale, K.W.; MacEwen, S.R.; Makinde, R. Perrin, A.; Experimental investigation of the biaxial behaviour of an aluminum sheet, International Journal of Plasticity, pp. 16771706, 20(2004) [Wu et al, 2004] Wu, X.-D.; Wan M.; Zhou, X.-B.; Biaxial tensile testing of cruciform specimen under complex loading, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, pp.181-183, 168(2005) [Kuwabara et al, 1992] Kuwabara,T, ; Ikeda,S,; Measurement and Analysis of Contours of Plastic Work in Cold Rolled Sheet Steel by Biaxial Tensile Tests Using Cruciform Specimens, Journal of the JSTP, pp.145-149, 40-457(1999) [Ferron et al, 1988] Ferron, G.; Makinde, A.; Design and development of a biaxial strength testing device, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, pp. 253-256, 16(1988)

Application of optical strain measuring systems to determine plastic anisotropy and theoretical forming limit curves in AHSS
D. Gutirrez*, A. Lara*, D. Casellas* and J.M. Prado*,** * Department of Materials Technology CTM Technology Centre, Av. Bases de Manresa, 1, 08242 Manresa, Spain ** Department of Materials Science and Engineering Metallurgy, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Av. Diagonal, 647, 08028 Barcelona, Spain david.gutierrez@ctm.com.es

Abstract: Formability characterization of advanced high strength steel (AHSS) sheets in terms of the hardening coefficient and plastic anisotropy becomes an important issue when properly designing sheet components. However, the determination of plastic anisotropy is difficult to carry out using conventional experimental tools. In this work, an optical strain measuring system was used to determine the strain path during forming and during tensile tests. The plastic anisotropy was calculated in different AHSS and mild steels and it showed a clear variation in the strain paths during tensile tests for different strains. It was also possible to measure yield strength, ultimate strength, plastic deformation and hardening coefficient in the same experiment. Furthermore, in this work, the variation of the plastic anisotropy values during deformation was used to calculate theoretical FLC in AHSS and mild steels. Keywords: Plastic anisotropy, AHSS, tensile test, optical strain measuring system, strain paths, FLC.

1. INTRODUCTION The plastic anisotropy in sheet metal is caused by the crystallographic structure and the characteristics of the rolling process. As is known, mechanical working of metals produces preferred orientations or crystallographic textures. A useful parameter to describe this sort of anisotropy is the ratio R, which is defined as the ratio of plastic strain in the width direction to that in the thickness direction [Hosford et al., 2007], such that:

R=

2 3

(1)

Where 2 and 3 are the true strains in the width and the thickness direction respectively

in a uniaxial tension test. The thickness strain, 3, cannot be accurately measured in a thin sheet. Therefore, the 3 is determined from length and width strains measurements assuming plastic incompressibility, thus: 3 = (1 + 2 ) (2) Where 1 is the true plastic strain in the length direction. According to this, R values can be calculated using this expression:

R=

1 + 2

(3)

Plastic anisotropy is determined by uniaxial tension tests on sheet specimens according to standard procedures in ASTM E-517 or EN-10130-B. The result of these determinations is a constant value, which corresponds to a specific strain at the end of a test. However, plastic anisotropy also changes as a function of strain, and should be taken into account in certain cases, like when modelling using Finite Elements Analysis. To avoid such uncertainty, there are others experimental procedures, which allow calculating the plastic anisotropy, using an optical strain measuring system, like the one proposed by Picas et al, [Picas et al., 2008]. This method uses the Aramis system, an optical 3D deformation analysis developed by GOM mbH. Aramis is based on two CCD cameras, which measure the deformation on the sample surface. A stochastic pattern must be applied on the surface to accurately follow the deformation during the test. In this work, the plastic anisotropy was calculated for different AHSS and mild steels during deformation and for different strain levels. These calculations were performed in a unique tension test using an optical strain measuring system. In a tensile test the strain paths are usually assumed to be constant during the deformation. Nowadays, with optical strain measuring systems it is possible to follow the strain paths during test and calculate R values according to the relationship between the major and the minor strains with plastic anisotropy. The slope between major and minor strains in a uniaxial tension test is given by a simple relation [Grumbach et al., 1972]: 1+ R (4) 1 = 2 R Aramis system allows calculating R values according to different approaches. In this work, these different methods were used to calculate R values and then compared with the results obtained while using a conventional video extensometer. Standard procedures use specific sample geometries to calculate R values, but in this work different sample geometries were used to evaluate their influence in the R value for different strains.
Formability of sheet metals is experimentally evaluated by the Forming Limit Diagrams (FLDs). These diagrams give information about the maximum formability by means of the Forming Limit Curves (FLCs), which represents the maximum and minimum strain

that the sheet may withstand without necking or failure. They are widely used to compare different steels or as failure criteria during computer simulations. These curves are normally calculated with stretching tests such as the Nakajima and the Marciniak test described in ISO12004 standard [ISO12004, 2008]. In addition, the FLCs can be calculated theoretically from diffuse and localized plastic instability criteria. Ramaekers and Bongaerts criteria assumes that fracture occurs when d2=0 and dF1=0, whereas the material necking in a uniaxial tension test is related to the maximum force obtained in the stress-strain diagram, with the following fracture criteria [Ramaekers et al.,1994]:

1 = n 1 =

n 0 1+ j JR

JR

FLD0 value for the axis 1 Uniaxial tension area (left hand FLD)

(5) (6) (7)

1 = (1 + j )n

0
JR

Biaxial tension area (right hand FLD)

Where: n hardening exponent, 0 predeformation, R plastic anisotropy, j strain path and JR parameter that depends of plastic anisotropy. The R and n values affect FLCs, for example it is impossible to vary one parameter while keeping the rest constant, the effect of both, n and R, can be considerer together by using the product nR [Ravi, 2002]. In a previous work [Gutirrez, 2009], this product was used to calculate the theoretical FLCs in AHSS and mild steels, using Ramaekers and Bongaerts criteria, but replacing n value with the product nR value in equations 5, 6 and 7. Whereas in this work, the variation of plastic anisotropy with deformation, R(1), was introduced to calculate theoretical FLCs in AHSS and mild steels taking into the variation of R with strain by means of nR(1). These curves were compared with experimental results in the Nakajima and the Marciniak tests which were obtained using a hydraulic press [Gutirrez et al., 2010].

2. MATERIALS Two kinds of AHSS were tested, two Dual-Phase steels (DP780) with thicknesses 0.9 and 1.5mm and one TRIP800 steel with a thickness 2.0mm. A mild steel (DC03) with a thickness of 1.5mm was also tested. Table I and II show the chemical composition and mechanical properties of the steels tested. Table I. Chemical composition (% in weight).
%C TRIP800 2.0mm DP780 0.9mm DP780 1.5mm DC03 1.5mm 0.20 0.17 0.13 0.08 %Si 1.61 0.20 0.21 0.01 %Mn 1.73 1.91 1.89 0.29 %Cr 0.02 0.17 0.18 0.02 %Ni 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03 %Al 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 %Nb 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

Table II. Mechanical properties.

Yield Stress [MPa] TRIP800 2.0mm DP780 0.9mm DP780 1.5mm DC03 1.5mm 546 599 547 185 Ultimate Tensile Stress [MPa] 835 791 813 313 Strain [%] n-value 32.0 20.2 21.3 35.1 0.22 0.13 0.17 0.21

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Tensile tests are performed in an INSTRON 200kN tensile testing machine. Strain measurements were carried out using two different techniques: one using a conventional video extensometer and another using optical measuring systems. In the case of the video extensometer, Figure 1 (a), the R values were calculated before necking started and measurements were carried out in the unloaded condition, i.e. without any residual elastic strains. When using the optical measuring system, the R values were calculated at different stages along the strain path of a test, Figure 1 (b). The R values were determined on specimens cut out in different orientations with respect to the rolling direction. The samples width was 20.0, 12.5 and 9.0mm. (a) (b)

Figure 1. On (a) the video extensometer is shown and on (b) the ARAMIS system during a tensile test.

4. RESULTS

4.1. Plastic anisotropy

The major strain (1) is plotted against the strain path (2/1) in Figure 2. This representation is more useful than conventional representation 1 vs. 2 [Gutirrez et al. 2009], because the variation of strain paths during the experiment is easier to distinguish. According to this representation, the strain paths show a variation during the tensile test depending on the type of steel. In DC03 steel, this deviation is bigger than for AHSS, where R values were almost constant up to a value in the major strain of 0.2. The first initial variation (when 1<0.05) could be due to by elastic deformation.

After that first initial variation 2/1 remained a value of about relatively constant as 1 increased up until 0.2. Afterwards 2/1 almost constant stage appeared significant changes in the R values of all steels, as shown in Figure 3. In AHSS this variation is near the necking region. The beginning of localized necking was calculated according to ISO12004 standard, which uses a mathematical method to eliminate the necking area in order to determine the FLCs. The R values were calculated using expression (3).
Strain paths DC03 1.5mm TRIP800 2.0mm DP780 1.5mm DP780 0.9mm
1,0 0,8 0,6

1
0,4 0,2 0,0 -0,70 -0,65 -0,60 -0,55 -0,50 -0,45 -0,40 -0,35

2/1

Figure 2. Evolution of the strain paths during testing in the studied steels.
1,0 0,8 0,6

Plastic anisotropy specimen 20mm DC03 1.5mm TRIP800 2.0mm DP780 1.5mm DP780 0.9mm Necking

e1
0,4 0,2 0,0 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,25 1,50

1,75

2,00

2,25

Figure 3. Evolution of R values in the different materials as the major strain increases. Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7 compare the evolution of plastic anisotropy during deformation for different sample geometries, at 90 to the rolling direction. The average value and standard error obtained with video extensometer are also plotted. In DP780 steels this average R value was calculated at 0.1 of the major strain, whilst in DC03 and TRIP800 steels at 0.2 of the major strain. According to these figures, the difference in sample width has a little influence in the evolution of plastic anisotropy of all these materials. The change in R value, before the necking region, is more noticeable in the DC03 steel than in the TRIP800 or DP780 steels, which leads to believe that materials with higher elongations and hardening exponent, n, are more susceptible to present variations of R during straining.

0,5 0,4 0,3

Plastic anisotropy DP780 0.9mm

1
0,2 0,1 0,0 0,55 0,60 0,65 0,70 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,90 Tensile_20mm Tensile_12.5mm Tensile_9mm Necking R video extensometer

R Figure 4. Evolution of R values while using different widths for DP780 0.9mm thick.
0,5 0,4 0,3

Plastic anisotropy DP780 1.5mm

1
0,2 0,1 0,0 0,55

Tensile_20mm Tensile_12.5mm Tensile_9mm Necking R video extensometer

0,60 0,65 0,70 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,90 0,95

Figure 5. Evolution of R values while using different widths for DP780 1.5mm thick.
0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4

Plastic anisotropy TRIP800

0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0,70

Tensile_20mm Tensile_12.5mm Tensile_9mm Necking R video extensometer 0,80 0,90 1,00 1,10 1,20 1,30

Figure 6. Evolution of R values while using different widths for TRIP800 2.0mm thick.

1,0 0,8 0,6

Plastic anisotropy DC03

1
0,4 0,2 0,0 0,70

Tensile_20mm Tensile_12.5mm Tensile_9mm Necking R video extensometer

0,90 1,10 1,30 1,50 1,70 1,90 2,10 2,30

Figure 7. Evolution of R values while using different widths for DC03 1.5mm thick.

4.2. Forming Limit Curves

As shown above, change in the value of R can be significant in materials that can accumulate higher deformations. This variation in R is taken into account when calculating theoretical FLCs in DC03 with a thickness of 1.5mm and TRIP800 with a thickness of 2.0mm. In these cases, the normal plastic anisotropy was used to calculate nR. Figure 8 compares the different FLCs obtained while applying the Nakajima and the Marciniak tests and the theoretical nR curve reported previously in different works work [Gutirrez et al., 2010] [Gutirrez, 2009] and the theoretical n.R(1) curve presented in this work for DC03 steel of 1.5mm thick. According to Figure 8, the predictions fit better the experimental results (Nakajima and Marciniak tests) when considering the variation of plastic anisotropy with strain, R(1). In the biaxial tension region (right hand of the FLD) the followed approach predicts well the Nakajima test curve. In the rest of the diagram, the differences between experimental and predicted are reduced with this new approach. Equally, Figure 9 compares the experimental FLCs by the Nakajima and Marciniak tests with nR predictions in TRIP800 steel 2.0mm thick.
0,7

1
0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 -0,4 -0,3 -0,2 -0,1 0,0

DC03 1.5 mm

FLC NAKAJIMA FLC MARCINIAK Theorical_nR Theorical_nR(1)

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

Figure 8. FLCs experimentally obtained by the Nakajima and the Marciniak tests and constructed following the nR predictions for DC03 steel.

0,6

1
0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 -0,3 -0,2 -0,1 0,0

TRIP800 2.0 mm

FLC NAKAJIMA FLC MARCINIAK Theorical_nR Theorical_nR(1)

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

Figure 9. FLCs experimentally obtained by the Nakajima and the Marciniak tests and constructed following the nR predictions for TRIP800 steel. In this other case, the experimental results give different FLCs. The FLC in the Nakajima test presents a higher formability than the Marciniak test, due to the different strain paths. Therefore, in the case of the TRIP800 the FLCs are not directly comparable. If the latter is kept in mind, in the biaxial tension area (right hand of FLD), the nR(1) curve is closer to the experimental results, whilst in the uniaxial tension area the FLCs are closer together and both predictions fit well the experimental results. The FLD0 point of the nR(1) prediction is situated approximately in the middle of the experimental results.

5. DISCUSSION In a tensile test the strain path should be linear, because the tension has only a uniaxial direction. Nevertheless, as it has been experimentally shown in Figure 3, the R value changes during deformation. And consequently the strain pats changes continously. Such variations were more evident in the DC03 steel than the AHSS steels tested. The R values obtained with the optical strain measuring system have revealed the variations of plastic anisotropy for different strains. These variations have also been shown in mild steels in previous works [Hoffmann et al., 2003] and [Aleksandrovic et al., 2009] in aluminum alloys and stainless steels. Hoffmann et al. showed the influence of the elastic deformation has at the beginning of the test on the R values, and this could explain the observed variations in R values at strains around 0.05. The lower variation of the plastic anisotropy with deformation in DP780 steels could be due to a lower capacity to accumulate deformation and an R < 1. Another observation is that in the DC03 steel the R values decrease during entire test, whilst the R values in the AHSS are almost constant in a certain range of strains (0.05-0.25), and then decrease. This could be explained because the DC03 steel has only practically a ferrite phase and the dislocations can move further than in AHSS, where the multiphase microstructure that includes hard phases difficults the deformation.

In other works, the formability in low carbon steels increased when the product nR also increased [Ravi, et al. 2002]. Here nR(1) takes into account the variation of plastic anisotropy with the major strain, which is an additional factor included in the prediction. The new prediction fits better the experimental results, the Nakajima and the Marciniak stretching tests, than the previous approach (nR). The variation of plastic anisotropy with the strain was implemented by Hoffman et al. in the simulation of the Nakajima test in a DC04 steel and showed a better results during simulations. These results are in agreement with those by Hoffman et al. in that the corrected nR(1) curve provides a better approximation with experimental stretching tests than the simple nR curve. For most materials the strain hardening exponent n is not constant. It decreases with increasing strain. Ramaekers, 2000 used a lineal equation for the evolution of strain hardening exponent with strain [Rameakers, 2000]. If this effect was be considered in the model presented in this work, the theoretical FLCs may provide better fits. It is known that FLCs are greatly influenced by the strain paths, as a result these curves can only be used as failure criteria in forming operations that follow linear strain paths, such as in single step forming [Stoughton et al., 2004]. The experimental FLCs in AHSS show more differences due to strain paths when calculating using different stretching tests, than mild steels [Gutirrez et al., 2009, 2010], and thus it is difficult to define the optimal FLC to be uses as failure criteria. The criteria based on stress, Forming Limit Stress Diagram (FLSD), could be a better solution in materials where the strain failure criteria fails. To create the FLSD, it is necessary to have the experimental FLC, so that the theoretical model based on the product nR(1), which takes into account the variation of plastic anisotropy with strain, could help in cases where it is not possible to have the experimental FLC.

6. CONCLUSIONS According to the results, the methods proposed in this paper to calculate plastic anisotropy are consistent with the video extensometer without elastic contribution. These methods provided results for different strains and can be used for different forming applications as theoretical forming limit curves. The different sample widths had a little influence in the evolution of plastic anisotropy during deformation. This evolution should be considered in materials with higher elongations and hardening exponents. The theoretical FLCs presented in this work are a good approximation to experimental results and the integration of the variation of plastic anisotropy with strain in the model improves predictions. Implementation of the variation of plastic anisotropy during finite elements analysis is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is part of the tasks held by CTM for the Forma0 and Consorcia projects. Forma0 is funded by CDTI (Centre for the Development of Industrial Technology) within the CENIT frame of Spanish National Funds. Consorcia is funded by the Spanish Ministerio Industria, Turismo y Comercio (Proyectos Consorciados, FIT 170300-2007-1).

REFERENCES

[Hosford et al., 2007] Hosford, W.F.; Caddell, R.M. "Metal Forming: Mechanics and Metallurgic"; Cambridge University Press; 2007. [Picas et al., 2008] Picas, I.; Prez R.; Lara, A. and Prado, J.M. "A new methodology to determine the plastic anisotropy using optical strain measuring systems applications on AHSS sheet strips and tubes"; In: Proceedings of the IDDRG 2008, pp. 69-80; 2008. [Grumbach et al., 1972] Grumbach, M. and Sanz, G. "Influence of various parameters on forming limit curves. In: Rev. de Metallurgie, Vol. 61, pp. 273-290; 1972. [ISO2004, 2008] ISO12004 standard. Metallic materials Guidelines for the determination of forming limit diagrams; 2008. [Ramaekers et al., 1994] Ramaekers, J.A.H and Bongaerts, P.C.P. A note on the Forming Limit Curve; In: Shemet Belfast, pp. 30.50; 1994. [Ravi, 2002] Ravi Kumar, D. Formability analysys of extra-deep drawing steel; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 31-41, pp. 130-131; 2002. [Gutirrez, 2009] Gutirrez, D. Estudio de la conformabilidad en aceros AHSS y aceros de embuticin; In: Final Thesis Engineering Materials Degree; 2009. [Gutirrez et al., 2010] Gutirrez, D.; Lara, A.; D. Casellas and Prado, J.M. "Effect of strain paths on formability evaluation of TRIP steels; In: Advanced Materials Research. Vols. 89-91, pp. 214-219; 2010. [Gutirrez et al., 2009] Gutirrez, D.; Lara, A.; D. Casellas and Prado, J.M. "Strain paths effects on the formability of advanced strength steels evaluated by stretching tests"; In: Proceedings of the IDDRG 2009, pp. 491-502; 2009. [Hoffmann et al., 2003] Hoffmann, H.; Vogl, C. "Determination of true stress-straincurves and normal anisotropy in tensile tests with optical strain measurement; In: CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 52, pp. 217-220; 2003. [Aleksandrovic et al., 2009] Aleksandrovic, S.; Stefanovic, M.; Adamovic, D. and Lazic, V. Variation of normal anisotropy ratio during plastic forming; In: Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 55, pp. 392-399; 2009. [Ramaekers, 2000] Ramaekers, J.A.H. A criterion for local necking; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 103, pp. 165-171; 2000. [Stoughton et al., 2004] Stoughton, T.B. and Zhu, X. Review of theoretical models of the strain based FLD and their relevance to the stress-based FLD; In: International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 20, pp. 1463-1486; 2004.

Fractional behaviour at cyclic stretch-bending

W.C. Emmens*,**, A.V. Kazantzis***, J.Th.M de Hosson***, A.H. van den Boogaard* * University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands ** Corus RD&T, IJmuiden, the Netherlands *** University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands Corresponding author: w.c.emmens@utwente.nl

Abstract: The fractional behaviour at cyclic stretch-bending has been studied by performing tensile tests at long specimens that are cyclically bent at the same time, on mild steel, dual-phase steel, stainless steel, aluminium and brass. Several types of fracture are observed, these are discussed, as are the underlying mechanisms. The results agree with those obtained with 900 bending tests, concluding that the fracture will be orientated at 900 if the deformation is localized into a small transverse zone. There is a relation between the formability and a certain fracture type, also microscopic examination revealed differences, but no conclusive explanation could be given Keywords: cyclic bending, fracture, formability

1. INTRODUCTIOJN. It has been known for quite some time that additional bending can improve the formability of a sheet metal. However recent developments have shown a renewed interest in this matter, and this has lead to dedicated experimental research. As the focus is on formability, fracture limits and fracture behaviour are of special interest. For example Wagoner and co-workers have performed stretch-bending tests over a single 90O radius, and have noticed different types of fracture [Kim et al., 2009, Wagoner et al. 2009]. They have distinguished three types of fracture which they labelled I, II and III. Type I is a fracture as in a conventional tensile test, type III is a fracture oriented at 90O relative to the strip length, and type II is a mixture of both. Type I prevails at high values of R/t, and type III at low values of R/t. Similar results have been obtained by [Hudgins et al., 2009]. This paper presents results obtained at cyclic stretch-bending tests with different materials. There is a general agreement with the results of Wagoner, although in the cyclic tests more types of fracture can be distinguished.

2.

EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS.

The results presented here have been obtained applying the so-called ContinuousBending-Under-Tension tests. This type of test is schematically presented in figure 1. It

has been described in detail in previous papers [Emmens and van den Boogaard, 2008, 2009] so only a brief description will be given here. Basically, a tensile test is performed on a long specimen, while at the same time a three-roll set is moving continuously up and down along the specimen with a constant speed. This type of test is in fact an incremental forming operation, where at any time the deformation is concentrated into a number of small zones: the zones where the material is actually being bent. An important characteristic of this type of test is that during bending the inner fibres are in compression. Consequently, the net pulling force is lower than in a conventional tensile test, but further depends on experimental conditions. Only two parameters are varied: the penetration of the centre roll P (depth setting), and the cross-bar speed vcb (testing speed). The depth setting simply determines the angle of bending. The testing speed determines the strain increment per passage of the roll set, and as such also the pulling force (large strain increment = large pulling force). The actual radius of bending is (much) larger than the roll radius, it is determined by an equilibrium of tension force and bending moment, and consequently governed by both the geometry (= depth setting) and the pulling force (= testing speed).

vroll
(const)

strip vc-b
(variable)

threeroll set

Figure 1; Left: schematic representation of the test, right: actual roll set. For all tests: roll speed vroll = 66 mm/s, roll diameter D = 15 mm, roll distance L = 35 mm, strip width = 20 mm. Table I presents an overview of all tested materials, and figure 2 presents an overview of the maximum uniform elongation that has been obtained in any CBT test, for a given depth setting. Some other mild-steel variants have been tested as well, but only in a restricted number. These are not mentioned in table I or figure 2, but their results may be used below. Note that different materials show different maximum elongation, and the challenge is to find a relation with the detailed fracture behaviour. For the better under-

standing of this paper also the relation between testing speed and pulling force is important, a typical example is presented in figure 3 (compare to figure 5). A B C D E F mild steel mild steel aluminium aluminium stainless st. DP-steel DC04 DC04 5182-0 6016-T4 SS304 DP600 0.80 mm 0.97 mm 1.15 mm 0.96 mm 0.80 mm 1.00 mm Table I. Overview of materials used in the tests; bottom row is thickness.
max. length strain 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.9
D F
B

G brass 63/37 soft 0.69 mm

max. tensile force (kN) 5

E A

UTS

4 3
G

2 1 0

0.7 0.5 0 1 2

0.1

0.5

1.0

5.0 10.0 20.0

depth setting (mm)

testing speed (mm/s)

Figure 2; Overview of maximum uniform Figure 3; Typical example of relation belength stain obtained in any CBT test for a tween testing speed and max. recorded certain depth setting, for all materials (see pulling force. Symbols and numbers denote table I). fracture type. Material: mild steel, DC04

3. FRACTURE TYPES. During the tests several types of fracture were noticed, these are briefly described here. Easily recognizable is the fracture at an oblique angle just as in a conventional tensile test, this is labelled type 1 (identical to Wagoner's type I). All other fractures are at an orientation of 90O relative to the strip length, similar to Mason's type III. Only some of all observed variants are relevant for this paper. Very characteristic is a fracture type that starts at the centre of the strip, and grows gradually outwards with successive passages of the roll set, there is no 'bang'; this is labelled type 2. Mostly occurring however is a type with a somewhat irregular fracture line, happening suddenly with a clear 'bang' and occasionally accompanied with a slight diffuse neck; this is labelled type 3. A variant of type 3 is a type that is preceded by a small local neck at 90O orientation, and has a very straight edge; this is labelled type 4. Examples of fracture types can be found in figure 4. Note that the distinction is on morphology only; the fact that the same fracture type is observed for different materials does not necessarily imply that the actual frac-

ture mechanisms are equal as well. A characteristic of this type of test is the occurrence of multiple necking and/or fracture. This is a direct consequence of the type of test and should not be interpreted as a material defect. Remember that at any time the deformation is concentrated into a small zone, because in that zone the force required for deformation is lower than in the surrounding areas. If in that zone an instability occurs a neck or fracture will develop, but as the strain is only incremented by a small value, the defect may be too small to create actual failure of the specimen. The next moment the zone of deformation has moved to an adjacent spot, that spot is now the weakest spot and the previous spot has become stronger again with the result that the defect will not grow further. As a consequence a second (or third, etc.) defect may develop at another location. Multiple necking has only been observed accompanying fracture types 2 and 4; examples are shown in figure 4.

Figure 4; Examples of fracture types (1-4). Note that the examples of type 2 and 4 are extreme cases showing multiple necking/fracture; this is not always the case. Samples are not shown to the same scale.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. For a given depth setting the formability (length strain at fracture) depends on the testing speed; a typical example of that relation is presented in figure 5. The graph shows two parts, a part where the elongation at fracture increases with increasing speed, and a part where it decreases with increasing speed; in this example the transition is at 5 mm/s. The two zones are labelled A and B. For all the experiments in this graph the recorded force-displacement curves have been converted into true-stress / true-strain curves, where the stress is the mean tensile stress over a cross-section, and the strain is the macroscopic length strain (not the cumulative bending strain). These curves are collected in figure 6. In this diagram the zones A and B form two very distinct forming limits, indicated by the two dashed lines. This also suggests that the forming limits A and B are caused by different mechanisms. These two limits will now be discussed separately.

length strain at fracture 1.5

true stress (MPa) 750

A
1.0 2 1 0.5

500

B
250

B
0.0 0.1

A
0 0.0 0.5 1.0 true strain 1.5

0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 testing speed (mm/s)

Figure 5; Length strain at fracture as a function of testing speed, a typical example. Symbols denote fracture type as indicated by the small numbers 1, 2 and 3. Material: mild steel, DC04

Figure 6; Collected stress-strain curves for the tests from figure 5. The kink at the end of the curves is caused by the smoothing procedure. The arrow indicates the direction of increase of speed

4.1. Results - Limit A. The following facts have been derived from the experiments concerning limit A. A. All fractures of type 1 fall on limit A. The reverse is not true: limit A also shows fracture types 3 and 4 occasionally. B. The stress and strain for limit A as shown in figure 5 agree with the normal hardening relation for the material. The latter has been determined by carrying out additional, conventional tensile tests on small samples taken from fractured specimens. These are not presented here in detail, but some results are shown in the preceding paper [Emmens et al, 2008]. This relation has been established for all materials tested so far. C. The occurrence of fracture type 1 is related to the pulling force, it only occurs in tests where the maximum pulling forces exceeds approx. 75% of the UTS (remember that the pulling force is reduced as the inner fibres are in compression), see figures 3 and 7. From these observations we can deduce the governing mechanism. In the tests the inner fibres are in compression, or: the neutral line in bending still lies within the strip. During the test the strip gets thinner and thinner, meaning that after some time the neutral lines shifts out of the material. At that moment there is no part in compression any more, and the test has become a conventional tensile test. As a result of the large amount of pre-straining (hardening) an instability originates immediately, causing sudden fracture. This mechanism predicts that such a failure will always occur eventually due to the constant thinning of the material, unless the specimen fractures earlier by another mechanism (limit B, discussed below). Or: fracture occurs as soon as the mean tensile stress over a cross-section is exceeding the stress that corresponds to the elongation of the material. If the pulling speed is very high, the strain increment per passage of the roll set is also very high, and so is the pulling force (see figure 3). This means that in

extreme cases the deformation is no longer concentrated into a number of small zones, but other material, outside that zones, can deform plastically as well. In that case the tensile test behaves like a conventional test, and the fracture is just as in a conventional test (type 1). Nevertheless, it is still possible that the formability is enhanced. The typical examples in figure 5 show that at very high speeds (20 mm/s) the length strain at fracture is similar to that in a conventional tensile test, but at lower speeds it is higher, sometimes considerably, while still fracture type 1 occurs.
1.2
X

1.0 relative max. tensile force

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1 2 3 5
0.1 0.5 1.0 testing speed (mm/s) 5.0 10.0 20.0

0.0

Figure 7; overview of all results obtained with mild steel and stainless steel. The relative max. pulling force is defined as the max. recorded pulling force divided by the material's UTS. Symbols denote fracture types. 4.2. Results - Limit B. Limit B is harder to analyse because it cannot be simply related to material properties. A relevant observation however is that fracture type 2 only occurs with some materials, more in detail: materials showing fracture type 2 have higher formability than materials not showing fracture type 2. Fracture type 2 was observed for mild steel and stainless steel, and a compilation of results is presented in figure 7. This graph also mentions a fracture type 5. This is a variant of type 3, only occurring with stainless steel, and related to the specific cyclic hardening behaviour of that material. That is not relevant for this paper, and will be ignored further on. The graph shows that various fracture types are prevailing in certain areas, indicated by the dashed lines. Fracture type 2 is dominant for pulling speeds of 1 mm/s and lower, except for tests with a very low depth setting P (see figure 1), where type 3 occurs. Fracture type 1 is dominant in all tests where the max. pulling force exceeds approx. 75% of the UTS. In other cases there is fracture type 3. Based on these observations we can now speculate the following mechanism. Basi-

cally the fracture starts at the centre of the strip and grows gradually outwards. However only for tests with very small strain increments (read: low testing speed) this is actually visible (type 2). When the strain increment is higher (read: high testing speeds), a starting crack cause failure within a single passage of the roll set, and this will be observed as an immediate fracture (type 3). At even higher testing speeds the pulling force becomes so high that the test becomes a conventional tensile test with corresponding fracture (type 1). Brass showed a slightly lower formability than mild steel. Type 2 fracture did occur, but was restricted to tests done at medium to high depth settings. Also a variant of type 2 was noticed, where the crack did not start at the centre of the strip, but at the edge. Dual phase steel DP600 showed an even lower formability. The fracture behaviour is comparable to that of mild steel, with the exception that type 2 fracture did NOT occur in any test; only type 1 and type 3 (including variants) were observed. Both aluminium grades showed the lowest formability. Both grades also showed another fracture behaviour: type 4 fracture was observed in almost all tests including those at high speed that result in a high pulling force. The behaviour of aluminium differed from that of mild steel in more respects, and that will be discussed in the next section. In both aluminium grades and in brass type 1 fracture occurred rarely at high speeds. This may be caused by the lack of strain-rate hardening, so that consequently a fracture is not preceded by a diffuse neck. Fracture is therefore instantaneous, and is often initiated by the passage of the roll set, forcing a 90O fracture line similar to type 3 or 4. All materials however showed the following relations: for situations of constant depth setting the max. elongation increases with increasing speed, and for situations of constant speed the max. elongation increases with decreasing depth setting. Both point to the same: increasing speed means that the same elongation is reached with a lower amount of bending cycles, and a decreasing depth settings results in a larger bending radius, meaning less bending strain. So both relations suggest that limit B is related to the level of repetitive bending of the material: less bending results in more elongation. 4.3 Mild steel vs. aluminium. It has been mentioned already that the level of hardening of the materials after testing has been measured by performing a second tensile tests on small samples taken from fractured or non-fractured specimens. These secondary tensile tests can be regarded as tensile tests on material with different levels of pre-deformation (cold working). From these tests the maximum engineering stress was determined, occurring either at fracture or as a proper maximum in the curve, and the engineering strain at force maximum. Figure 8 shows the relation between these two parameters for two materials. Based on general considerations we expect a relation as found for mild steel. The relation for aluminium differed from that, a number of samples apparently showed premature failure, in the figure for fracture strain below 3%. This particular effect has been observed for both aluminium grades, to a small degree also for brass, but for none of the other materials. Further analysis of the aluminium specimens revealed that premature failure mostly occurred at specimens tested at low pulling speeds, that consequently had been subjected to a large amount of bending cycles, and not at specimens that had been tested

at high pulling speeds. This hints to a suggestion that the bending and unbending operations create damage in the material that causes premature failure in the secondary tests, but is also responsible for the reduced formability as observed in the cyclic bending tests. To investigate this further, fractured specimens of DC04 and AA6016 have been subjected to microscopic examination.
550 500 UTS (MPa) 450 400 350 300 250 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 strain at max. force (%)

DC06 AA5182

Figure 8; relation between UTS and strain at max. force as measured in secondary tensile tests on pre-deformed specimens, for two materials. This investigation, performed on an XL-30S scanning electron microscope (FEGSEM), involved examination of the cross-section of the fracture surfaces, but most importantly the surfaces at the side of the specimens, just beneath their fracture cross-section. The side surfaces of aluminium specimens showed that the passage of the bending rolls flattened and spread the grains in a direction along the tensile axis (figure 9(a)). Excessive spreading, however, results in rupture of the continuity of the microstructure, resulting in large cracks perpendicular to the tensile axis. This, as well as the surface damage (cracks along the pulling direction),produced most likely by debris on the surface of the bending rolls, resulted in premature failure of these specimens. This failure was ductile, since their fracture cross-section were characterized entirely by dimples. On the other hand, the surfaces of the specimens from mild steel showed a bimodal distribution of flattened, presumably hard grains pushed inside a heavily deformed matrix that revealed a large number of wavy-like traces. The boundaries of the flattened grains appeared broken by the continuous passage of the bending rolls (figure 9(b)). The evolution of the observed microstructure can be envisaged as follows. Under the effect of bending the softer grains were deformed first; they were flattened, broken into sub-grains and forced to acquire the most easily accessible volume. The traces characterize their intensive slip occurring during their deformation. At the same time the hard grains were flattened and pushed into the surrounding microstructure comprising the initially softer grains resulting in deformation of the latter in such orientation that produced the wavy-like traces. The boundaries of the hard grains being weaker break first and are subsequently introduced into the soft heavily deformed matrix. The deformation introduced by the continuous bending reduces the thickness of the specimens but also makes the microstructure softer and capable to undergo large extensions. High bending depth, however, in-

troduces surface cracks and leads to premature failure. Examination of the fracture cross-sections showed that the specimens of mild steel failed by fatigue (figures 9(c) and (d)). All cross-sections observed showed a thin line of dimples (1st fatigue stage), followed by a striation-like intergranular failure (2nd fatigue stage) and ending in a fast transgranular cleavage (3rd fatigue stage). As a result, the fracture cross-sections, especially where cleavage was observed, were almost parallel to the tensile axis (figure 9(d)).

Figure 9; (a) The side surface of an aluminium specimen showing spread grains and cracks (tensile axis from top to bottom). (b) The side surface of a specimen from mild steel showing a flattened (hard) grain within a soft microstructure with wavy like traces. (c) The fracture cross-section from a specimen of mild steel showing dimples (top) vertical striations (middle) and (d) the transgranular cleavage region.

5. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION. Several authors that have carried out 90O stretch bending tests (see introduction) have tried to explain the different fracture types in terms of micro-mechanical behaviour. However based on the results presented here another hypothesis is presented: if the deformation is localized into a small transverse zone (by whatever means), the fracture will take place in that zone as wells and consequently will be oriented at 900 relative to the tensile axis.

This simply implies that a 90O oriented fracture is not mysterious at all. The hypothesis is not contradicted by results obtained with 90O stretch bending tests. The observation of the occurrence of type 1 fracture here, and the relation with the pulling force (figure 7) substantiates this hypothesis. An even better illustration is the particular fracture marked "X" in figure 7. Based on the conditions one expects type 1 fracture. However it was noticed that at the very moment the instability would grow into a fracture, a roll was passing, again concentrating the deformation into a narrow zone. This forced the crack to lie into that zone as well, resulting in type 3 fracture. The limit type A is reasonably well understood. The limit type B however remains obscure. One can expect that if a material is sensitive to low-cycle fatigue, it will show poor performance in this type of tests with many bending cycles. The reverse however is not true. If a material does show poor performance, it may be caused by other, possibly unknown mechanisms as well. This cannot be deduced from the fracture type. Both DP600 and mild steel show type 3 fracture, but this does not imply that the underlying mechanisms creating failure are the same. Further, microscopic examination suggested that mild steel is failing by fatigue, but did not made clear why aluminium, that is known to be more sensitive to fatigue, had a much poorer performance. There is however one very relevant observation: all materials that show type 2 fracture also show better performance (higher formability) than all materials NOT showing type 2 fracture, and brass seems a transition between these two groups of materials. A statistical relation is not necessarily also a causal relation, but it does point into a certain direction. Nevertheless, much more research is needed to get a final answer. AKNOWLEDGEMENT Part of this research was carried out under the project number K41.1.09349 in the framework of the Research Program of the Materials innovation institute (M2i) (www.m2i.nl). REFERENCES [Emmens and van den Boogaard, 2008] W.C Emmens, A.H. van den Boogaard; Extended tensile testing with simultaneous bending; Proc. IDDRG 2008 Int. Conf., Olofstrm, Sweden, June 16-18 2008, pp 219-229, ISBN 978-91-633-2948-7 [Emmens and van den Boogaard., 2009] W.C Emmens, A.H. van den Boogaard; Incremental forming by continuous bending under tension - An experimental investigation; J. Mat. Proc. Technology, 209 (2009) pp. 5456-5463 [Hudgins et al., 2009] A.W. Hudgins, D.K. Matlock, J.G. Speer; Shear Failures in Bending of Advanced High Strength Steels; Proc. IRRDG 2009 Int. Conf, June 13, 2009, Golden CO, USA, pp 53-64 [Kim et al., 2009] J.H. Kim, Ji.H. Sung, R.H. Wagoner; Thermo-Mechanical Modelling of Draw-Bend Formability Tests; Proc. IRRDG 2009 Int. Conf, June 1-3, 2009, Golden CO, USA, pp 503-512.; ISDN 978-0-615-29641-8 [Wagoner et al., 2009] R.H. Wagoner, J.H. Kim, J.H. Sung; Formability of Advanced High Strength Steels; Proceedings Esaform 2009, Enschede, Netherlands, April 27-29, 2009, paper 12

Determination of hole-flangeability for thin sheets

Feliks Stachowicz Rzeszow University of Technology ul. W. Pola 2, 35-959 Rzeszw, Poland stafel@prz.edu.pl

Abstract: Sheet metal stretching is one of the most frequently applied sheets forming operation in the industry. Hole flanging is a common sheet forming operation to produce structural sheet metal components. Flanges are used for appearance, rigidity, hidden joints, and strengthening of the edge of sheet metal parts. Trial-end-error is the most common approach for tooling and process design in flanging operations. This paper presents some experimental results of hole-flanging process performed on flat deep drawing steel sheets with circular hole drilled or punched in the centre of blank. Three punches of different geometry i.e. cylindrical, hemispherical and conical were used in this experiment. The effect of both the punch geometry and material mechanical parameters (especially strain hardening and plastic anisotropy) on the limit expansion of the hole, limit strain dependence on hole performing technology as well as sheet thickness distribution along collar formed was determined. Keywords: hole flanging, forming limit, strain hardening, plastic anisotropy, thickness distribution 1. INTRODUCTION

Collars performed by hole flanging are used to provide material for thread cutting and to provide additional support for press fits for bolts or for making solder connections with tubes [1, 2]. The modern automobile industry and the household appliance industry have demanded precision products for single part or multiple manufacture parts so that the related industrial product precision size of press forming has gradually been required. Hole flanging is a process in which a sheet blank, with a hole in its center, is rigidly clamped around its periphery by a blank holder, and then a punch is used to force the blank into a die to form a hollow flanged component. Although the process is simple, many technical problems in manufacturing, the accuracy of the component shape, the limitations of stretchability, fractures arising from the stretched surface, and the estimation of the punch load, are revealed. In the hole flanging, a multi loading with tangential tensile and radial compressive stress arises. During the process, the sheet is bent twice, once around the punch radius and again around die radius. Therefore, the conventional approaches based on tensile instability are not always sufficient to determine the limit formability. The greatest strains are in the periphery of the expanded hole - the major deformation increases the

diameter of the initial hole while thickness is reduced. However, the tensile stress in the circumferential direction at the edge of flanged hole is the main cause of failure due to cracking or tearing [3]. General method to predict the material fracture in the process of forming analysis make use of the fracture strain of the specimen obtained by simple tension test, the limit strain based on plastic instability theory, and the ductile fracture criteria. But the hole-expanding process is different from general forming process because the side face of the hole has no constrains and the fracture propagates trough the side face of a plate during the process [4]. The hole flanging process is limited to a certain limit hole diameter below which material failure could take place. The stretch flangeability is decreased by not only small ductility of sheet material but also small quality of the sheared edges. The magnitude of the deformation of flanged parts is usually characterized by the drawing ratio , which is defined as a ratio of the inside diameter d of the finished collar to the initial hole diameter d0 (Fig. 1). The limit value of drawing ratio max, very often is know as Hole Expanding Limit (HEL) [5] and depends on several different parameters [510]: - mechanical properties of sheet material, - the surface quality of the initial hole edge, - geometry of forming punch, - relative hole diameter, - friction conditions.

Figure 1; Schematic diagram of hole flanging To be able to predict the flange hole formed to a specific geometry with a given material, including diameter of the expanded hole and the flange height, it can save a lot of effort in contrast to the conventional trial-end-error approach. This work aims to investigate the influence of punch geometry: cylindrical (flat-bottomed), hemispherical and conical, as well as mechanical parameters of deep drawing steel sheet metal on the value of hole expanding limit, the value limit strain on hole edge and sheet thickness distribution along collar.

2.

MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The tests were carried out on three different kinds of 1.0 mm thick steel sheet: DQ drawing quality, DDQ deep drawing quality and EDQ extra drawing quality. Tensile specimens of 240 mm gauge length and 20 mm width were prepared from strips cut at 00, 450 and 900 to the rolling direction of the strip. The experiments were carried out using a special device, which recorded simultaneously the tensile load, the current length and the current width of the specimens. The effective stress - effective strain relationship was described using the Hollomon model in the form of = Cn. The plastic anisotropy factor r has been determined on the basis of the relationship between the width strain and thickness strain in the whole range of specimen elongation using less square method. The value of the tensile parameters (Table I) has been averaged according to: xmean = (x0 + 2x45 +x90)/4, where the subscripts refer to specimen orientation. Table I. Mechanical properties of DQ, DDQ and EDQ steel sheet Material symbol and specimen orientation DQ_0 DQ_45 DQ_90 Mean value DDQ_0 DDQ_45 DDQ_90 Mean value EDQ_0 EDQ_45 EDQ_90 Mean value Yield Ultimate Ultimate stress strength elongation Rm R0,2 u [MPa] [MPa] 193 197 193 196 196 196 198 196 151 153 153 153 351 372 353 362 336 336 311 330 282 293 281 287 0.36 0.32 0.34 0.34 0.42 0.38 0.41 0.40 0.44 0.40 0.42 0.42 Strain hardening parameters C n [MPa] 554 591 563 575 557 547 526 544 494 497 475 487 0.166 0.171 0.174 0.171 0.192 0.183 0.177 0.184 0.221 0.207 0.210 0.211 Anisotropy factor r 1.218 0.946 1.410 1.130 1.464 1.180 1.902 1.432 1.630 1.445 2.031 1.638

The flanging test was curried out using a special device constructed according to the proposal of standard method [5]. Three punch shapes - conical, cylindrical and spherical were prepared for the axisymmetric collar-drawing test. The punch and die geometry was as follow: - punch diameter - Dp = 30 mm, - die diameter - Dd = 32 mm, die edge radius - rd = 2 mm, - conical end angle - = 600,

- radius of cylindrical punch edge - rp = 4 mm. Sheet specimens 80x80 mm, prepared from the strips with marked orientation according to the rolling direction and with drilled or punched d0 = 10 mm central hole, were firmly clamped at the periphery and deformed progressively up to visible strain localization at the hole edge. Expansion of the hole was recorded using the digital photo-camera and stored as a *.pws files. Using professional computer code, the *.pws files were elaborated in order to determine changes in a hole diameter in rolling direction and transverse rolling direction. After flanging process the collar height was measured. The sample performed by hole flanging of the EDQ steel sheet, with drilled initial hole, where cut along its main diameter and polished due to determine sheet thickness distribution. Starting from hole edge sheet thickness was measured at 20 points in 0.75 mm distance. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Maximum diameter of expanded hole (Table II) visibly depends on both the punch geometry and sheet material type. When the punch geometry is concerned the largest hole expansion was achieved when flanging with the conical punch and the worst in the case of the cylindrical (flat-bottomed) punch. For the conical and spherical punches, the edges of the hole are in contact with the punch surface so that severe friction in the tangential direction is produced, reduces the thinning of the wall and protects the hole periphery from necking or tearing. Additionally the strain state in flanging with conical punch seemed to be the most beneficial, which resulted also in the lowest collar height in comparison with other punch shapes [11, 12]. Since formability of a sheet metal strongly depends on the plastic properties of the material, e.g. the value of both the strain hardening exponent n and plastic anisotropy factor r, as well as initial hole performing technology, the effect of these three parameters on sheet flangeability was examined in our investigations. For all three punch geometry the final hole diameter (before strain localization) increases with the nvalue increase. This relation is more distinct in the case of initial hole punched (Fig. 2). According to the experimental results we can conclude that the limit value of drawing ratio max = 3.0 were achieved in the case of initial hole (Fig. 2): - performed by drilling technology for EDQ steel sheet for all three punch geometry, and for DDQ steel sheet when using conical punch, - performed by punching technology for EDQ steel sheet when using conical punch. At the hole edge (point A in Fig. 1) material points undergo uniaxial tensile stress and the value of maximum true strain at these points could be calculated as: = ln(d/d0). Comparisons between maximum true strains calculated on the basis of the tensile test and hole expanding test demonstrated large differences. The values of maximum strain at the hole edge are nearly to 3 times larger (depending on material and technology of initial hole performing) than the value of maximum strain obtained in uniaxial tensile tests. Larger maximum strains at the hole edge observed in the hole expanding test

resulted from interaction between outer and inner material points of flange [1], which delay the moment of strain localization and material failure. Formability of sheet metal could be expressed by the nr factor, defined as product of strain hardening exponent and plastic anisotropy ratio. The value of strain at the hole edge dependence on the value of nr factor for all three punches shape is more visible in the case of initial hole performed punching technology (Fig. 3). Table II. Maximum diameter (in mm) of hole expanded using different punch shape and technology of initial hole performing Material symbol Punch geometry Cylindrical shape Conical shape Spherical shape 24.12 28.23 30.00 18.06 22.26 26.76

DQ DDQ EDQ DQ DDQ EDQ

3,2 d/d0

Initial hole drilled 23.03 26.32 26.80 30.00 30.00 30.00 Initial hole punched 16.34 20.01 20.17 24.22 24.67 30.00

2,6
cylin_drilled conic_drilled spher_drilled cylin_punched conic_punched spher_punched

1,4 0,165

0,185

0,205

0,225

n
Figure 2; Hole Expanding Limit (d/d0) dependence on the value of strain hardening exponent and initial hole performing technology

1,2

0,8

0,6

cylin_drilled conic_drilled spher_drilled cylin_punched conic_punched spher_punched

0,4 0,18

0,23

0,28

0,33

nxr

0,38

Figure 3; Strain at hole edge dependence on the value of nr factor for different initial hole performing technology The results of sheet thickness distribution determination (Fig. 4) demonstrate the largest sheet thinning after flanging process using cylindrical (flat bottomed) punch. At the hole edge visible strain localization was observed in the form of small groove. It is also noteworthy to mention that in this case the collar height was the largest. As it was expected the most uniform sheet thickness distribution was observed after flanging process using the punch with conical shape. In this case the collar height was the smallest. 4. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the experimental results the following conclusions could be formulated: - although a sheet material at the hole periphery undergoes uniaxial tensile stresses the maximum strains at the hole edge are nearly 3 times larger than the value of maximum strain obtained in uniaxial tensile test, - HEL visibly depends on the punch shape; when using the conical punch, the largest final hole diameter, i.e. hole expanding limit, could be achieved, - HEL increases with the strain hardening exponent and plastic anisotropy (nr factor), especially in the case of flanging with cylindrical punch, - HEL in the case of drilled initial hole was generally larger than that of punched initial hole,

- the collar height and sheet thickness distribution visibly depend on punch shape in the case of conical punch the smallest sheet thinning resulted in the smallest collar height.

1 sheet thickness, mm

0,7

spherical conical cylindrical

0,4 0 5 10 15 20 25 distance from collar edge - point No.

Figure 4; Sheet thickness distribution along collar performed using different punch shape for EDQ steel sheet, drilled initial hole

REFERENCES [1] Erbel S.; Kuczyski K.; Marciniak Z.; Obrbka plastyczna, WNT, Warszawa, 1981. [2] Lange K.; Handbook of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 1985. [3] Huang Y-M.; An elasto-plastic finite element analysis of the sweet metal stretch flanging process, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 34 (2007) 641-648. [4] Ko Y.K, Lee J.S., Huh H., Kim H.K, Park S.H: Prediction of fracture in hub-hole expanding process using a new ductile fracture criterion, J. Mat. Proc. Technol., 187-188 (2007) 358-362. [5] Hayashi H., Urabe T., Hisamatsu S., Nagai Y.: Investigation for standardizing hole-expanding test for evaluating stretch flangeability, IDDRG WB 1996, Eger, pp. WG3 1-6. [6] Huang Y-M., Chien K-H.: The formability limitation of the hole-flanging process, J. Mat. Proc. Technol., 117 (2001) 45-51. [7] Hyun D.I., Oak S.M., Kang S.S., and Moon Y.M.: Estimation of hole flangeability for high strength steel plates, J. Mat. Proc. Technol., 130-131 (2002) 9-13.

[8] Thipprakmas S., Jin M., Murakawa M.: Study of flanged shapes in fine-blankedhole flanging process (FB-hole flanging process) using finite element method (FEM), J. Mat. Proc. Technol., 192-193 (2007) 128-133. [9] Uthaisangsuk V., Prahl U., Bleck W.; Stretch-flangeability characterization of multiphase steel using a microstructure based failure modeling, Computational Mat. Sci., 45 (2009) 617-623. [10] Mori K., Abe Y., Soziu Y.; Improvement of stretch flangeability of ultra high strength steel sheet by smoothing of sheared edge, J. Mat. Proc. Technol., 210 (2010) 653-659. [11] Sitek M., Stachowicz F.: Wpyw geometrii stempla na stopie wywinicia obrzea otworu, Rudy Metale, 49 (2004) 60-64. [12] Li C-L., Huang Y-M., Tsai Y-W.; The analysis of forming limit in re-penetration process of hole-flanging of sheet metal, J. Mat. Proc. Technol., 201 (2008) 256260.

Investigation of the equivalent plastic strain within a flow formed steel work piece determined by microindentation hardness and grain-shape analysis
M. Haghshenas, R.J. Klassen, J.T. Wood Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada mhaghshe@uwo.ca

Abstract: The local equivalent plastic strain within a steel work piece that was subjected to a single roller flow forming operation over a splined-mandrel was assessed by measuring the variation in the local micro-indentation hardness. Changes in the grain shape through out the work piece material were also assessed using electron- and optical-microscopy. The local grain shape around the micro-indentations confirms that the variation in local equivalent plastic strain, measured by the micro-hardness technique, coincides with changes in the local grain aspect ratio. A comparison is then made of the local plastic strain profile measured by grain shape analysis with that obtained by the micro-indentation hardness data through out the highly strained regions of the flow formed work piece. Keywords: Micro-hardness, Splined mandrel, Flow forming, AISI 1020.

1. INTRODUCTION Micro-indentation hardness testing is often used to measure the local plastic flow stress, and the equivalent plastic strain, in samples that have been subjected to non-uniform plastic deformation [1-9]. While the method has, however, limited spatial resolution since the minimum spacing between micro-indentations is between 3 and 5 times the width of the micro-indentations made [10]. Polishing and etching of heavily plastically deformed metal samples depicts grain shapes that are highly elongated. Since the shape of grains can be measured with great precision using optical or scanning electron microscopy it is a potentially useful method for measuring local equivalent plastic strain within samples that contain high plastic strain gradients near surfaces and corners. A typical situation where the analysis of grain elongation to determine local plastic strain would be useful is in modern metal forming operation such as the flow forming process described below. Metal flow forming is a process for fabricating hollow cylindrical components. The basic flow forming technique consists of clamping a relatively thin metal disc on top of a cylindrical mandrel and forming the disc over the mandrel surface while the

mandrel and disc spin about their common axis. The forming is accomplished by one, or more, rollers that press against the spinning work piece. The flow forming technique is now used to create rather complex internally-ribbed parts by forming the work piece over a mandrel that contains longitudinal splines (Fig. 1). In these situations the work piece often fails near the region where it is forced to flow into, and fill, the splines. The degree of local plastic strain in this region therefore defines the forming limit of the process. Since large strain gradients exist in this region it is important to be able to measure the local plastic strain with very high spatial resolution. We present in this paper an assessment of the use grain shape measurement to determine the local equivalent plastic strain within steel work pieces that are formed with a splined mandrel flow forming process performed over a range of thickness reductions. Micro-indentation hardness measurements performed in the same region of flow formed samples where the grain elongation measurements are made are used to correlate the aspect ratio of the elongated grains to the level of equivalent plastic strain.
Work piece

Mandrel Roller

Figure 1; Geometry of the single-roller splined-mandrel flow forming process used in this investigation.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Flat discs, 210 mm diameter and 8.5 mm thickness, were cut from AISI 1020 steel plate. This plain carbon steel alloy has a ferrite/pearlite microstructure with an average ferrite grain size of 7.0 0.5m. The ferrite grains are relatively homogenous in size and are essentially equiaxed in all directions of the plate (Fig. 2). The discs were each subjected to a multi-pass single-roller flow forming operation over a cylindrical mandrel containing longitudinal splines (Fig. 1). The first two passes were identical for each sample and formed the flat disc to the cylindrical shape of the mandrel with minimal change in the thickness of the disc. The final flow forming pass pressed the work piece against the mandrel and caused it to fill the mandrel splines and endure a net change in thickness. The amount of deformation imparted during the final pass was controlled to produce parts with thickness reductions of 19%, 25%, 39%, and 51%. All other forming parameters were kept constant for all the tests. It was found that thickness

reductions greater than 51% resulted in the work piece tearing on a plane directly ahead of the longitudinal internal ribs ribs.

RD

1 2 3

Figure 2; Microstructure of the as received AISI 1020 steel plate from which the discs as-received used in this flow forming study were cut. The ferrite grain shape is equiaxed with respect to the three orthogonal planes of the plate (RD refers to the rolling direction). The av average grain size is 7.0 0.5 m. The as-formed work pieces were sectioned to reveal the Longitudinal Radial (LR) mid formed Longitudinal-Radial midplane of one of the internal ribs and the Circumferential Radial (CR) plane extending Circumferential-Radial across two of the internal ribs (Fig. 3). These planes were ground with successively finer grades of SiC paper followed by polishing with (1 m) diamond compound. iner m) Instrumented micro-indentation hardness tests were performed with a grid of Berkovich indentation and Vickers pyramidal indentations spaced 100 m apart along lines extending from the m mandrel-side and the roller-side of the polished LR and CR planes (Fig. 3). The micro-hardness was observed to change with position in the flow formed hardness samples due to differences in the amount of local plastic strain (i.e. strain hardening). The dependence of the hardness H (kgf/mm2) upon the equivalent plastic strain p was assessed for AISI 1020 steel by M. Roy [9] who presented the following expression for he expressions p as a function of HBerkovich and HVickers. These equations were used to calculate p from the measured H in this study.

H p = Berkovich 307.1

4.573

0.0707

(1a)

H p = Vic ker s 235.1

4.498

0.0890

(1b)

The primary objective of this study is to determine if measurements of the change in grain shape throughout a flow formed work piece can provide a reliable means to measure the local equivalent plastic strain. To reach this objective the as-indented samples were etched in a 2% Nital solution to reveal the ferrite grain boundaries. Scanning electron microscopy, optical microscopy and automated image analyses were then used to assess the aspect ratio, i.e. the ratio of the maximum to the minimum length, of each elongated grain in various regions of sectioned flow formed parts (Fig. 3) made with thickness reductions of 19%, 25%, 39%, and 51%.

Figure 3; Illustration of the internally ribbed flow formed part. The two planes of section; the Longitudinal-Radial (LR) mid-plane of a rib and the CircumferentialRadial (CR) plane across two ribs are shown. Measurement of the indentation hardness were made in the shaded regions (I IV) while the extent of ferrite grain elongation was measured in the shaded regions (I V).

3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION 3-1- Grain elongation during the flow forming process Images of the etched regions of the flow formed work-piece are shown in Fig. 4. The work-piece contains regions where the ferrite grains are considerably more stretched than in the as-received 1020 steel discs (Fig. 2). The region near the lower root of the internal ribs (Fig. 4E) shows the most grain elongation. This region corresponds to the region of the mandrel were a very small radius curvature leads into the recessed spline. Figure 5 shows a higher magnification image of the region shown in Fig. 4E. This region is directly in front of an internal rib and the ferrite grain shape is inhomogeneous with the grains being more elongated near the work piece / mandrel interface (the right side of Fig. 5) than away from the work piece / mandrel interface. This suggests that very large local plastic strain gradients occur in the work piece in the region where it is forced to flow into the longitudinal splines in the mandrel. It is interesting to note that

this region corresponds to the region where the work piece tears when it is flow f formed at thickness reduction greater than about 51%.

A E D B C

Figure 4; Ferrite grain shape in the different regions of the flow formed part. The regions are labeled in the image of the metallographically prepared LR section of the mid-plane of one of the internal ribs (Fig. 3). plane Scanning electron microscopy was used to record the local grain shape around indentations in various regions of the flow formed parts to determine if the variation in p, determined from the measured H and using Eqs. 1a and 1b, coincide with the , coincides observed change in local aspect ratio of the ferri grains. Figure 6 shows scanning ferrite electron micrographs of indentations made in various regions on the LR midplane (Fig. indentations

3) of flow formed sample made from high strained (mandrel side) and low strained (roller side) regions of flow formed parts made with thickness reductions of 19%, 25%, 39%, and 51%. Figure 7 shows the dependence of the grain aspect ratio upon thickness reduction. Linear regression lines fitted to the data indicate that the data from the mandrel side of the work piece display a different dependence upon thickness reduction than the data from roller side. This is the result of differences in the local equivalent plastic strain within these two regions as described below.

Fine stretched grains Coarse stretched grains

Figure 5; Inhomogeneous nature of microstructure in the highly strained region of the nhomogeneous flow formed part. This region corresponds to the region shown in Fig. 4E. The ferrite grains are more elongated on the right side of this image, which is the region closest to the splined mandrel surface, than they are on the left side. This illustrates the very high rel local plastic strain gradients present in some regions of this sample. 3-2- Equivalent plastic strain throughout the work piece Figure 8 shows p, calculated from the measured HVickers and HBerkovich by using Eqs. 1a and 1b, versus position across the thickness of LR sample (Fig. 3) of flow formed parts made with thickness reductions of 19%, 25%, 39%, and 51%. While the magnitude of p at any location within the work piece increases with increasing thickness reduction, t increases the maximum p for a given thickness reduction occurs near the mandrel side of the work piece in the region directly ahead of the internal ribs The p at the roller side of the ribs. work piece is considerably lower. Figure 9 shows the grain aspect ratio data plotted against the p corresponding to the location within the work piece, and the level of thickness reduction of the work piece, (Fig. 8). Unlike Fig. 7, the data from the mandrel and the roller-sides of the work mandrelsides piece now fall upon the same trend. This trend indicates that the aspect ratio of the ferrite grains is linearly related to the local equivalent plastic strain. This has considerable practical importance as is described in the conclusions.

Figure 6; SEM images of Berkovich indentations through made on polished LR sections of flow formed work pieces made at thickness reductions of : (A) 19% , (B) 25%, (C) 39%, and (D) 51%. The images on the left side are from regions near the work piece / mandrel interface while the images on the right side are from regions near the roller side of the work piece. The images indicate that the extent of grain elongation (i.e. the aspect ratio) increases with increasing thickness reduction and is also increased in the regions near the work piece / mandrel interface where the p is larger.

14 12 Mandrel side Roller side

Aspect ratio

10 8 6 4 2 0 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Reduction area

Figure 7; Ferrite grain aspect ratio versus thickness reduction; the aspect ratio increases with increasing thickness reduction however the aspect ratios measured near the mandrel side of the work piece show a different dependence upon thickness reduction than the aspect ratios measured near the roller side. This is attributed to the difference in p at the two regions of the work piece.
0.9 0.8 51% RA 39% RA 0.7 25% RA 0.6 19% RA 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Equivalent plastic strain

Distance from mandrel surface (m)

Figure 8; Equivalent plastic strain p versus distance across the thickness on the LR plane of flow formed work pieces made with thickness reductions of 19% , 25%, 39%, and 51%. For any thickness reduction the magnitude of p is largest at the work piece / mandrel interface.

14 12

Aspect ratio

10 8 6 4 2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Equivalent plastic strain

Figure 9; Ferrite grain aspect ratio (Fig. 7) versus local equivalent plastic strain (Fig. 8). The data from aspect ratios measured from all regions of the flow formed part (Fig. 3) fall on the same linear trend. This suggests that measurement of the ferrite grain elongation, i.e. the aspect ratio, can be used to determine the local equivalent plastic strain within a highly inhomogenously deformed steel sample.

4. CONCLUSIONS We present in this paper an assessment of the use of grain aspect ratio measurement to determine the local equivalent plastic strain within steel work pieces that are formed by a splined mandrel flow forming operation. We observed that a universal linear trend exists between the measured grain aspect ratio and the local equivalent plastic strain as measured by micro-indentation hardness regardless of where in the work piece the grain aspect ratio and p were measured. This suggests that measurement of the change in grain aspect ratio can be used to assess the local magnitude of p in highly deformed steel samples. This has clear advantages for characterizing metal forming operations where intense local plastic strains, and strain gradients, exist in regions of the work piece that are sufficiently small that the p can not be measured using micro-indentation hardness.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support provided for this research by the Ontario Centres of Excellence (OCE) through a collaborative research and development grant. We also wish to acknowledge the help of Ms. M. Jhaver in processing much of the experimental data.

REFERENCES 1- Chaudhri, M.M., 1996. Subsurface plastic strain distribution around spherical indentations in metals. Phys. Status Solid (a) 74, 12131224. 2- Chaudhri, M.M., 2000. Strain hardening around spherical indentations. Phys. Status Solidi (a) 182, 641652. 3- Tseng, A.A., Wang, S.R., Lau, A.C.W., 1998. Local variations of strain and strain rate in roll bite region during rolling of steels. Transactions of the ASME 120, 8696. 4- Sonmez, F.O., Demir. A., 2007. Analytical relations between hardness and strain for cold formed parts, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 186, 163173. 5- Petruska, J., Janicek, L., 2003. On the evaluation of strain inhomogeneity by hardness measurement of formed products. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 143144, 300305. 6- Ruminski, M., Luksza, J., Kusiak, J., Packo, M., 1998. Analysis of the effect of die shape on the distribution of mechanical properties and strain field in the tube spinning process. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 8081, 683689. 7- Plewinski, A., Drenger, T., 2009. Spinning and flow forming hard-to-deform metal alloys. Archive of civil and mechanical engineering, Vol. IX, No. 1, 101-109. 8- Roy, M.J., Klassen, R.J., Wood, J.T., 2009, Evolution of plastic strain during a flow forming process, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 209, 10181025. 9- Roy, M.J., 2007, Use of micro-indentation to measure the local plastic strain in steel automotive transmission components, Masters of Engineering Science thesis, University of Western Ontario, Canada. 10- Dieter, G.E., 1976. Mechanical Metallurgy 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Inc. 398.

Indentation Limit Diagram (ILD) assessment of metallic sheets using spherical instrumented indentation test
1

P. Brammer1,2,*, G. Mauvoisin1, O. Bartier1, X. Hernot1 and S.-S. Sablin2 LARMAUR, Campus de Baulieu, Universit de Rennes 1, 35042 Rennes cedex, France 2 Technocentre Renault, Vehicle Engineering Material Engineering Department, 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt cedex, France *Corresponding author: philippe.brammer@renault.com

Abstract: The spherical instrumented indentation test is an interesting alternative to conventional mechanical tests. It can evaluate elastoplastic properties with little sample preparation. Most proposed indentation-based methods apply to bulk samples. This article deals with the case of finite thickness samples and attempts to evaluate the influence of thickness reduction on the obtained indentation curve. The results are summarized in the form of Indentation Limit Diagrams, which can locate the optimal indention protocol to use existing methods for thin metallic sheets characterization. Keywords: Instrumented spherical indentation, elastoplastic properties, thickness

1. INTRODUCTION The spherical instrumented indentation test can evaluate material elastoplastic properties with few restrictions on the sample shape and size. In the past decade, many analysis methods to characterize bulk materials [2-8], treated surfaces and coatings [9, 10] were proposed using computer assisted inverse analysis.

Figure 1; Indentation test (a) and curve (b)

During the spherical indentation test, the applied load F and penetration depth h of a spherical indenter of radius R in the surface of the tested material are continuously measured (Fig. 1.a.). The indentation material response is then expressed through the relationship between two adimensional parameters: the normalized penetration depth h/R and the normalized load F/ER (Fig. 1.b.), with E the sample Young modulus. Recent studies [5-7] prescribe the achievement of quite deep h/R values, up to 0.3, in order to obtain further information on the hardening behaviour as well as to differentiate difficult materials. Recent theoretical study [1] showed that a single spherical indentation test has the potential to evaluate a unique solution for the Young modulus as well as for the two parameters of the Hollomons hardening law (eq. 1).

yE E ( ) = 1 n n n y E > y E

(1)

Most of the theoretical and numerical models proposed so far consider infinite sample dimensions compared to the indenter radius, which implies no influence on the indentation response. In the present study, the influence of thickness is investigated. The sample radius L is taken sufficiently large to have no influence on the solution and the sample thickness e is monitored through the normalized thickness e/R, which is set either to 500, 20, 4, 2 or 1 (Fig. 2). The indenter radius is set to 1. Calculations are led up to an h/R value of 0.3. No lower e/R values are considered because, at such an h/R value, the experiment would resemble cutting.

Figure 2; Indentation of a thin sample (e/R=2) This study is conducted with the hypothesis that the indentation tools have perfect geometry and infinitely stiff behaviour. Moreover, the sample initial shape is assumed to be perfectly flat. Of course, these conditions do not apply in real experiments. Nevertheless, the results of this study enable us to observe the behaviour of the sample only. Further work will be focused on the experimental indentation device behaviour.

2. COMPUTATION OF INDENTATION CURVES The commercial ABAQUS/Standard FEM code is used for the calculations. The indentation test is simulated using axisymmetric conditions. The parameterized sample mesh (Fig. 3) is composed of about 10,000 CAX4 (axisymmetric 4-noded fully integrated elements). The indenter and sample holder are represented as analytical rigid lines. A penalty contact algorithm with a friction coefficient of 0.15 is used, which is a frequently used value in the simulation of the contact between steel and tungsten carbide during deep indentation [5-7].

Figure 3; Parameterized mesh Although thin metallic sheets often show anisotropic behaviour due to cold drawing, in this first approach the material is considered isotropic, following the Von Mises yield criterion. The simulated material is steel, with a Young modulus of 210 GPa and a Poisson ratio of 0.3. The isotropic hardening law is Hollomon (eq. 1). In order to differentiate the respective influence of the two plastic parameters, the yield stress is set either to 200 MPa (MAT I and III) or 600 MPa (MAT II and IV), and the hardening exponent to either 0 (MAT I and II) or 0.2 (MAT III and IV). Figure 4 shows the corresponding true uniaxial stress-strain (a) and indentation (b) curves up to, respectively, a strain value of 100%, and an h/R of 0.3.
2000 1800
30 35

1600 1400

1200 1000 800 600 400

Normalized load F/ER

True stress

MAT I MAT II MAT III MAT IV

25

MAT I MAT II MAT III MAT IV

20

15

10

200 0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

0 0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3

True strain

Normalized penetration depth h/R

(a) (b) Figure 4; Material uniaxial stress-strain (a) and indentation (b) curve

3. OBSERVATION OF THE RESULTS The indentation curves computed with a 500R thickness are considered as the reference bulk sample curves (Fig. 4.b.). Figure 5 shows the influence of sample thickness on the measured load during the indentation process for the four materials. For clarity, the same symbols as in section 2 are kept to represent the materials.
e/R = 20 Relative load difference with bulk sample reference (%)
Relative load difference with bulk sample reference (%)
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3

e/R = 4

hindenter/R
e/R = 2

hindenter/R

e/R = 1 Relative load difference with bulk sample reference (%)

4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3

Relative load difference with bulk sample reference (%)

4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0,1 0,2 0,3

hindenter/R

hindenter/R

Figure 5; Relative load difference with bulk sample reference At an e/R value of 20, nearly no influence is observed. With reducing e/R, two observations can be made. The first is the influence of yield stress. If the thickness is low, high yield stress materials (MAT II and IV) show a stiffer initial indentation behaviour whereas low yield stress materials (MAT I and III) do not exhibit a different initial behaviour. The second observation is the globally softening behaviour of thin samples compared to bulk samples after the initial behaviour. This softening is apparently linked to the hardening behaviour of the material. Indeed, MAT III and IV show a greater softening amplitude than MAT I and II. The global difference between thin and bulk samples is thus a combination of the influence of hardening behaviour on which depends the amplitude of softening, and of the yield stress on which depends the initial behaviour of the curve.

4. CREATION OF IDENTATION LIMIT DIAGRAMS The relative differences observed in the previous section can be drawn as isovalues in the R/e-h/R plane for each material. Such use of these values creates the Indentation Limit Diagrams (ILDs) presented in figure 6.

Figure 6; Indentation Limit Diagrams for the 4 studied materials Indentation-based methods use multiple points on the F-h curve, and the load values are often extracted at defined h/R values. Three indentation based methods [2, 6, 7] were chosen and their maximal necessary h/R values were placed on the diagrams. The ILDs can provide information on the reliability of using existing characterization methods in the case of thin samples. For instance, for the method of Cao and Lu, 2004 [2], which is fully described up to an h/R value of 0.06, all data points will be within an arbitrary 1% tolerance for low yield stress materials, which is not the case for high yield stress materials. Likewise, the method of Ogasawara and al, 2009 [7], which uses a data point at an h/R value of 0.3, will mostly be sensitive to hardening materials. The choice of a tolerance is dependant on the sensitivity of the existing methods to the input data. Further work will thus put the focus on the influence of such differences on existing indentation-based characterization methods.

5. CONCLUSION From the numerical results obtained in this study, we can conclude that even in the case of very thin samples, it is possible to find an indentation protocol which can provide similar indentation curves to those obtained on bulk samples. This protocol depends on the ratio between the thickness and the indenter radius as well as on the maximal normalized penetration depth. Using these experimental conditions, existing identification methods for bulk samples can be applied to thin samples, providing that the method is not too sensitive to the input data. Our further work will thus consider the sensitivity of existing methods to the input data, as well as the real behaviour of the indentation device, since in real experimental conditions the assumptions of rigid tools and perfect geometry are not verified.

REFERENCES [1]: Cheng Y.T. and Cheng C.M. Scaling, dimensional analysis, and indentation measurements. Materials Science and Engineering R 44, 91-149, 2004. [2]: Cao Y. P., Lu J. New method to extract the plastic properties of metal materials from an instrumented spherical indentation loading curve. Acta Materiala 52, 40234032., 2004. [3]: Lee H., Lee J. H., Pharr G.M. A numerical approach to spherical indentation techniques for material property evaluation. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 53, 20372069, 2005. [4]: Beghini M., Bertini L. and Fontanari V. Evaluation of the stress-strain curve of metallic materials by spherical indentation. Int. J. Sol. Struct. 43, 7-8, 2441-2459, 2006. [5]: Zhao M., Ogasawara N., Chiba N. and Chen X. A new approach to measure the elastoplastic properties of bulk materials using spherical indentation. Acta Materialia 54 (1), 23-32, 2006. [6]: Cao Y., Qian X. and Huber N. Spherical indentation into Elastoplastic materials:indentation-response based definitions of the representative strain. Materials Science and Engineering A 454-455, 1-13, 2007. [7]: Ogasawara N., Chiba N., Chen X. A simple framework of spherical indentation for measuring elastoplastic properties. Mechanics of Materials 41, 1025-1033, 2009. [8]: J.-M. Collin, G. Mauvoisin, O. Bartier, R. El Abdi, P. Pilvin. Experimental evaluation of the stressstrain curve by continuous indentation using different indenter shapes. Mat. Sci. and Eng. - A . 501, pp.140145, 2009. [9]:Nayebi A., El Abdi R., Bartier O. and Mauvoisin G. Hardness profile analysis of elasto-plastic heat-treated steels with a gradient in yield strength. Mat. Sci. and Eng. - A . 333, pp.160169, 2002. [10]:Nayebi A., Bartier O., Mauvoisin G. and El Abdi R. New method to determine the mechanical properties of heat treated steels. Int. Journal of Mech. Sci. - 43, pp.26792697, 2001.

Tube bulging test: evaluation of errors on material characterization

Nathalie Boudeau, Abdel Hakim Ben Ouirane, Grard Michel ENSMM - FEMTO-ST Department of Applied Mechanics, 26 rue de lEpitaphe 25000 Besanon, France Nathalie.Boudeau@ens2m.fr

Abstract: To get precise material data for advanced numerical modeling of tube hydroforming process, the tube bulging test is recommended. Stresses and strains in the tube cannot be evaluated easily and a semi-analytical model proposed by the authors is presented. It is based on some classical assumptions and the slab method applied to two infinitesimal volumes of tube. Experiments are the source of several imprecision linked to sensors precision, imprecision of die and tube geometries. A local sensitivity analysis is performed and reveals the most influencing parameters on the accuracy of the experimental hardening curve. It also permits to give important information to perform relevant experiments. Keywords: tube bulging test; semi-analytical model, hardening curve, error calculation, local sensitivity analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION Tube hydroforming process presents a great interest for industrial applications. It permits to, obtain complex hollow shaped parts with reduced number of welding spots and higher quality [Ko et al., 2001], reduce numbers of parts in assemblies, and improve the ratio of stiffness/weight [Mac Donald et al., 2002][Lang et al., 2004]. Dohman and Harlt have regrouped since 1997 the basic principles of hydroforming technology providing a multitude of examples of pieces made by this process [Dohman et al., 1997]. Zhang describes in [Zhang, 1999] recent developments in conventional hydroforming, indicating that this technology should be developed in conjunction with the growing technical needs of the automotive industry. In order to conduct advanced FE simulations of the hydroforming process, material parameters directly measured on tube must be preferred. To characterize precisely tubular material behavior, tube bulging test is recommended. It consists in bulging a tube over an area defined by the die by applying an internal pressure. The identification of the hardening curve of a given tube and the estimation of its formability needs a specific experimental device coupled with a mathematical model [Fuchizawa et al., 1993][Hwang et al., 2007]. In [Slota et al, 2008] the use of this test to identify

difficulties related to the strain hardening behavior of a material is justified, since the rate of uniform and stable deformation in a conventional tensile test is limited to half the limit of fracture under a biaxial load. The construction of any mathematical model is subject to two sources of uncertainties: epistemic uncertainties, partly due to the impossibility of knowing perfectly the problem studied, and random uncertainties due to the fact that certain parameters of the deterministic model are estimated by mean values of random variables. In order to find out how our model answers back to input factors, a local sensitivity study is performed to investigate the effects of various bulging parameters upon the strain and stress states. The physical parameters in question are mainly the initial thickness of the tube, the initial outer radius, the position of the displacement sensor, the bulge length, the bulge height and pressure in the tube. Different methods of differentiation can be used to form the sensitivity matrix. In the present case there are more input parameters than outputs and an analytical differentiation is then chosen.

2. BOUDEAU&VELASCOS SEMI-ANALYTICAL MODEL The model is devoted to quantify the stress-strain couple during a thin tube bulging test so plane stress assumption can be done. The axial symmetry of the initial tube and the loading (internal pressure) permits to affirm that the principal directions are the normal to the tube surface and the two tangential directions (Figure 1).

Figure 1; Bulged tube and definition of the local frame for tube bulging modeling The proposed model is based on the following ingredients: - a geometrical model (where all geometrical parameters are defined); - an assumption on the strain and stress tensors; - a relation between the different stress components established by the slab method. 2.1. Geometric model From observations done on deformed tube (Figure 1) and numerical simulation of the tube bulging test (Figure 2), the following assumptions can be done: - in the bulged area, the tube is supposed to deform into two arcs of circumference in two perpendicular planes;

- the bulged zone is considered to be symmetrical: it presents a circular symmetry around the tube axis and a mirror symmetry through the plane perpendicular to the tube axis and centered on the free length. Furthermore it is supposed that no sliding takes place in the blocked areas during experiment.

Figure 2; Numerical verification of the assumption of deformation in arc of circumference of tube during bulging test The geometric configuration of Figure 3 can therefore be proposed, where two local frames can be considered: - er , e , e in the (Y,Z) plane,

( ) - (e , e , e ) in the (X,Y) plane.

e is perpendicular to the representation plane of Figure 3 and then isnt represented

Figure 3; Geometric model for tube bulging test analysis and definition of the parameters

2.2. Strain tensor In er , e , e , the strain tensor can be expressed as following:

0 0 0 Its components are defined by: 0

t( z) t ( ) rr = ln t = ln t 0 0 (z) ( ) = ln e = ln e r r e e

rr = 0 0

= rr (from plastic incompressibility condition)

And the equivalent strain is:

3 The current thickness at the pole is given by: t ( = 0) = t 0 + he hi The current thickness for any point of the tube different from the pole is defined in Figure 4: t ( 0) = t ( z 0) = Ai Ae

. ( rr ) + ( ) + rr .
2 2

Figure 4; Calculation of the current thickness for a position different from the pole position Finally, all the parameters can be written in function of the pole parameters for which only hi is an unknown. The hi parameter can be calculated by solving a non linear

equation corresponding to the volume conservation of matter by a Newton-Raphson algorithm [Velasco et al., 2008].
2.3. Stress tensor In er , e , e , the stress tensor is assumed to be:

0 0 The stress components can be found by the slab method. The local equilibrium of two infinitesimal tube parts loaded with an internal pressure p (Figure 5) is studied.

0 0 = 0 0 0

(a)

(b) Figure 5; Slab method: study of the mechanical equilibrium of two infinitesimal parts of tube (a) to get the relation between and (b) to evaluate

From Figure 5.a, it can be found that: p + cos . = R( ) ( ) t ( ) From Figure 5.b the following relation is obtained: p. ( ) = 2.t ( ). cos And the von Mises equivalent stress is equal to:

( )2 + ( )2 .

The main steps of the modeling are described above but more details can be found in [Velasco et al., 2008].

3. LOCAL SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS Tube bulging test is the source of several uncertainties: - the tube geometry ( re , t 0 ); - the tool geometry ( d , position of the displacement sensor Z ); - the accuracy of the sensors ( he , p ). It is important to know how all these inaccuracies (Table I) influence the stress-strain curve. As a semi-analytical model is used to evaluate the stresses and strains in the tube under pressure, it is possible to use a local sensitivity analysis.
Characteristics of the bulged test

Domain of variation Error p he

Tube

Source

Comments /

0 40 MPa 0 8 mm

0.3 % Datasheet of the pressure sensor 0.02 %

Nominal value re t0
Tool

Error 1%

Source

Comments /

17,5 mm 1 mm

Tube supplier 10 % Higher than reality

Nominal value d Z 25 mm 0 mm

Error 5 mm

Source

Comments Upper evaluated

From manufacture of the tool 5 mm Upper evaluated

Table I; Nominal dimensions or domain of variation and associated errors of the main parameters
3.1. Method Let note with Greek letters measured data (such as pressure and dome height), with small Latin letters imposed geometric data that stays constant during the test (like initial thickness, initial tube radius), with capital Latin letters all others parameters that present

an evolution when the pressure increases in the tube (for example, the current thickness, the stresses and strains, but also any other intermediate parameters). For some parameters, their relation with the others takes the following form:

X = X(, x ) The differentiation of the equation above gives:

dX = X X .d + .dx x

The error done on X-parameter can be linked to the errors done on and x:
X = X X . + .x x

Often, the problem is expressed as following:

X = X ( , Y , x ) Y = Y(, y) In these conditions, the error on X-parameter is expressed by:
X = X X Y X Y X . + . . + . .y + .x Y Y y x

Sometimes there is an implicit relation between parameters like: f (, X, x ) = 0 . In that case, the error on X-parameter is expressed by:
f + X f f .x . + x f X

This will be applied with all the equations defining the model of section 2 by using Matlab software.
3.2. Results and discussion From equations of section 2 and the analysis presented in section 3.1, it is possible to quantify the resulting errors on equivalent strain and stress but also the critical sources of errors on the resulting hardening law. The study has been conducted for the couple = 0.45 ; = 636 MPa . Figure 6 gives the global error on the equivalent strain and stress and the contribution of each source of error. Through this sensitivity analysis the most important factors can be identified. Influent factors are those lead to greatest reduction in the variance of the effective strain and

stress. In the present case, imprecision on the initial thickness is the most critical for a safe evaluation of the equivalent strain-stress curve. The others relevant parameters are the bulging height he and the initial external radius of the tube re . These results are in agreement with numerical results presented in [Velasco et al., 2008].

(a)

(b) Figure 6; Global error and the different contributions on (a) the equivalent strain calculated for nom = 0.45 (b) the equivalent stress calculated for nom = 636 MPa
3.3. Error evaluations based on experimental measurements of initial thickness Error on strain and stress linked to the imprecision of the initial thickness is very important. It is due to a high imprecision on tube thickness announced by the tube

supplier (Table I). So an original tube has been cut in its length for measuring its thickness repartition. A lengthwise section of the tube has been realized by Wire Electro Discharge Machining and thickness has been measured with a WERTH machine using an optical sensor. It consists in detecting edges by playing on three light sources. The technology of this machine insures to get measurements with a repeatability of 1m maximum. Figure 7 gives an idea of the thickness distribution along a generating line of tube. The measurement has been done on a length twice the useful zone imposed by the tube bulging test. From these measurements, the initial thickness is t 0 = 0.985 0.0225 mm . In this case the corresponding maximal strain-stress couple is (0.45 , 645 MPa) and the resulting errors are listed in Table II.

Figure 7; Thickness measurements along the generating line for an original tube (squares: measurements dashed line: mean value obtained by linear regression) 44.2 30.3 9.2 / nom 6.8 % 4.7 % 1.4 % 0.0146 0.0304 0.0032 / nom 3.2 % 6.7 % 0.7 %

Part of t 0 Part of he Part of re Part of p

6.9 1.1 % 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% Part of Z 0.8 0.1 % 0 0% Part of d Global 91.4 ~14.1 % 0.0482 ~10.7 % Table II; Global error and the different contributions on the equivalent strain calculated for nom = 0.45 and the equivalent stress calculated for nom = 645 MPa

The global error falls down from 22% to 10.7% for the equivalent strain and from 37% to 14.1% for the equivalent stress.

4. CONCLUSIONS This analysis gives interesting indications for performing pertinent experiments and the following recommendations can be expressed: 1) The quality of the tube is important to get exploitable data for the hardening law and it is necessary to know exactly the imprecision on the initial thickness and radius of the tube to be tested. 2) It is important to use precise LVDT and pressure sensors to measure respectively the height of bulge and the internal pressure. But it could be more instructive by taking into account interactions between parameters which arent considered in the present work. REFERENCES
[Ko et al., 2001] M. Ko; T. Altan; An overall review of the tube hydroforming (THF) technology; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108, pp. 384-393; 2001. [Mac Donald et al., 2002] B. J. Mac Donald; M.S.J. Hashmi; Near-net-shape manufacture of engineering components using bulge-forming processes: a review; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120, pp. 341-347; 2002. [Lang et al., 2004] L. H. Lang; Z.R. Wang; D.C. Kang; S.J. Yuan; S.H. Zhang; J. Danckert; K. B. Nielsen; Hydroforming highlights: sheet hydroforming and tube hydroforming; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 151, pp. 165-177; 2004. [Dohmann et al., 1997] F. Dohmann; C. Harlt; Tube hydroforming: research and practical application In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 71, pp. 174-186; 1997. [Zhang, 1999] S. H. Zhang; Developments in hydroforming In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 91, pp. 236-244; 1999. [Fuchizawa et al., 1993] S. Fuchizawa; M. Narazaki; Bulge test for determining Stress-Strain characteristics of thin tubes, Advanced Technology of Plasticity; In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, pp. 488-493; 1993. [Hwang et al., 2007] Yeong-Maw Hwang; Yi-Kai Lin; Taylan Altan; Evaluation of tubular materials by a hydraulic bulge test; In: International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 47, pp. 343-351; 2007. [Slota et al., 2008] J. Slota; E. Spisak; Determination of flow stress by hydraulic bulge test; In: Metalurgija 47, pp. 13-17; 2008. [Velasco et al., 2008] R. Velasco; N. Boudeau; Tube bulging test: Theoretical analysis and numerical validation In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 205, pp. 5159; 2008.

Advanced Constitutive Laws for Describing Plastic Anisotropy: Material Parameters Identification and their Impact on Finite Element Computation
S. Bouviera,b & S.S. Sablinc LPMTM-CNRS, UPR9001 University Paris 13, 99 av. J.B. Clment Villentaneuse, 93430 France, b Currently Laboratoire Roberval, CNRS UMR 6253, UTC, Compigne, 60205 France salima.bouvier@utc.fr c TECHNOCENTRE RENAULT Vehicle Engineering Materials Engineering Department 1 avenue du Golf, 78288 Guyancourt cedex, France
a

Abstract: Among factors that influence the quality of numerical predictions, the hardening laws and yield criteria play a significant role. In recent years, intensive efforts have been done to develop new constitutive models that allow a more accurate description of the mechanical behavior of materials. Such models raise basic questions regarding strategies of material parameters identification in connection with FE computation. The purpose of the present work is to analyze several issues around the relation between the constitutive models, their identification and the FEM results. Various examples are discussed in order to highlight the effects of the yield criteria and hardening laws on the accuracy of the numerical simulations. Besides their obvious practical interest, such studies have the merit of providing a reliable tool for assessing the ability of recently developed models to improve the description of the material behavior during forming processes. Keywords: Yield criteria, Hardening laws, Identification, Sensitivity analysis, FE simulation.

1. INTRODUCTION Over the last few years, forming simulations have become fully integrated into product, tool and process design. In the ongoing improvement of sheet metal forming simulations through the optimization of the constitutive models, attention should be paid on the right knowledge of the material features (its composition: single phase, dual phase, multiphase,, its initial crystallographic texture and how its evolves ?,) and of its strain hardening under several strain path changes and at large strains [Hu et al.,

1992], [Gardey et al., 2005], [Haddadi et al., 2006], [Bouvier et al., 2006a]. All these aspects significantly affect the evolution of the anisotropy of the material; its work hardening and its forming limit (i.e. the evolution of its residual ductility). The material modelling can have a great effect on the final result of the simulations: the shape of the yield locus, the hardening model (isotropic, kinematic or mixed), the strain rate sensitivity . In the last years, intensive research efforts have been done in order to develop new constitutive models that allow a more accurate description of materials mechanical behavior. [Lian et al., 1989] showed that the localization problem in biaxial expansion is very sensitive to the shape of the yield locus. [Barlat, 1987] indicated that the theoretical forming limit in equibiaxiale expansion is roughly five times higher when the yield surface of the material is described by the von Mises criterion instead of the Tresca criterion. Several works also highlighted the consequences of the strain path changes which are typical in forming operation, on the evolution of the work hardening and on the residual ductility of materials (e.g. [Ghosh and Backofen, 1973]). Other studies analyzed the effect of the description of work hardening on the springback problems [Zhang and Lee, 1995], [Wagoner et al., 2000], [Chum et al., 2002], [Bouvier et al., 2005], [Oliveira et al., 2007] among others. This indicates that the knowledge and the comprehension of the sensitivity of the numerical simulations to the material description, is of crucial importance. During sheet metal forming processes, each material point can be submitted to several arbitrary strain path changes. Since the mechanical behavior of a material point under an arbitrary strain path change is very difficult to model, and since these arbitrary strain path changes can neither be all taken into account in the experimental characterization, the study of some well-defined strain path changes seems to be particularly motivating, mainly when different materials evidence opposite behaviors. The present study is mainly focused on the influence of the work-hardening (i.e. the isotropic, the kinematic and the mixed hardening description) and the plastic anisotropy description (i.e. the yield criteria) on the FE results ([Rabahallah et al., 2009a,b]). Such study constitutes a powerful tool to assess the capabilities of recently developed constitutive models. The hardening models chosen here are: (1) The physically based Teodosiu-Hu model [Teodosiu and Hu, 1995], which associates the properties of both an isotropic hardening and a non linear kinematic hardening; (2) Classical isotropic hardening described by either Voce or Swift law combined with a non linear kinematic hardening description proposed by ArmstrongFrederick (3) Simply classical isotropic hardening described by previous laws. The initial anisotropy due to the rolling of metal sheets is taken into account using several yield surface description: (a) the isotropic von Mises criterion, (b) the quadratic orthotropic Hills 1948 criterion, (c) The non quadratic orthotropic criteria as proposed in [Cazacu and Barlat, 2001]. These selected yield criteria differ by the number of the material parameters involved in the description of the material anisotropy, but also their

mathematical description are rather different. Detail description of the different models can be found in the proposed reference. The present work is mainly focused on the sensitivity of finite element computation to not only material modeling but also material parameters determination. Several aspects are discussed in case of forming using the cross-tool for different materials (aluminum alloys, single phase and dual phase steels).

2. MATERIAL PARAMETERS IDENTIFICATION FOR ANISOTROPIC YIELD CRITERIA Several strategies can be adopted in the identification of the material parameters for a given criterion going from the classical use of the three Lankford coefficients (0, 45 and 90, strategy called strat1 in the present work) to a complete set of both in plane Lankford coefficients evolution and the initial yield stresses after several monotonic loadings. Using such strategy, the previous yield criteria are identified, as explained hereafter: (a) The isotropic von Mises criterion, referred as von Mises. (b) The quadratic [Hill, 1948] criterion where the material parameters are obtained using the experimental r-value r0, r22.5, r45, r67.5, r90 as well as 0, 22.5, 45, 67.5, 90 where () are the initial yield stresses under uniaxial tensile test along the direction with respect to the rolling direction. This criterion is referred as Hill48. (c) The Cazacu and Barlat criterion where the material parameters are obtained using all the set of experimental data as in case of Hill48 {r0, r22.5, r45, r67.5, r90 as well as 0, 22.5, 45, 67.5, 90} + data related to equibiaxial loading. This criterion is referred as CB2001. (d) The Druckers isotropic criterion with a linear transformation of the deviatoric Cauchy stress tensor in order to model an anisotropic material. The identification of the material parameters is obtained using all the set of experimental data as in case of Hill48 {r0, r22.5, r45, r67.5, r90 as well as 0, 22.5, 45, 67.5, 90}. This criterion is referred as D~L. In order to investigate the effect of the strategy of identification, the material parameters for [Hill, 1948] criterion are determined using either only the experimental r0, r45, r90 values as well as 0 which is the initial yield stress along the rolling direction after uniaxial tensile test. This criterion is referred as Hill48(ref), or all the experimental data involved for material parameters identification in CB2001. In order to highlight the sensitivity of the yield criteria description to the experimental data base involved in the material parameters determination, two distinct materials are selected: an Al-Mg aluminum alloy AA5182-O, l mm thickness and an interstitial free (IF) mild steel FeP06t, 0.8 mm thickness. These two materials have a very different behavior. The aluminum alloy presents a very weak Bauschinger effect. Its behavior can

be described using a simple isotropic hardening model. The material exhibits also a weak evolution of its Lankford coefficient r(), with an average value r 0.68 . The behavior of the second material is very sensitive to the imposed strain path. The Bauschinger effect is more pronounced (about 18% decrease of yield stress between forward and reverse shear stress) and a transitory work-hardening regime is observed under stress reversal. Finally, this material presents a significant variation of its Lankford coefficient r() (2.1 r() 3.2). The identifications of the selected criteria are depicted in Figure 1 and Figure 2. As expected, the CB2001 criterion ensures the best description of both the yield stresses and the Lankford coefficients for the examined materials. Inspection of the figures reveals also that the results obtained with Hill48 and D~L criteria are very similar notwithstanding that their analytical forms are very different. This is mainly due to the number of adjustment parameters in the identification process (four in both cases).
0.80

3.40

(a)
3.20
Hill48

0.70

3.00
r - va lu e

r - value

2.80 2.60 2.40 2.20 2.00

Exp. Hill48 (ref.)

Hill48 (ref.)

Exp. Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

(b)

0.60

Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

0.50 0 15

30 45 60 Angle from Rolling Direction []

75

90

15

30

45

60

75

90

Angle from Rolling Direction []

Figure 1 Evolution of the Lankford coefficients, (a) AA5182-O, (b) FeP06t.

140

140
U n ia xial T e n sile Y ie ld S tress [M pa ]

U niaxial Tensile Y ield Stress [M pa]

(a)
135

(b)
130
Hill48 (ref.) Hill48

Exp. Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

130

Hill48
Exp. Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

120

Hill48 (ref.)

125

110

120 0 15 30 45 60 Angle from Rolling Direction [] 75 90

100 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 Angle from Rolling Direction []

Figure 2 Yield stress anisotropy during uniaxial tensile test, (a) AA5182-O, (b) FeP06t.

According to the mathematical expression of the criterion, this variation in the number of adjustment parameters yields to a significant difference in the quality of adjustment (see example bellow). The sensitivity of the results to the strategy of identification of the material parameters is clearly highlighted in our example in the case of [Hill, 1948] criterion. As it will be discussed latter, such sensitivity will directly affect the FE simulations. The initial yield surfaces are presented in Figure 4. The levels of the yield stress in equibiaxial loading b predicted with the different criteria are very distinct, particularly in the case of the mild steel. For such anisotropic material, the accuracy in modeling the anisotropic behavior along biaxial loading will have a huge effect in the prediction of thickness distribution in forming processes as it will be shown afterwards.
140

140
U n ia xial T e n sile Y ie ld S tress [M pa ]

U niaxial Tensile Y ield Stress [M pa]

(a)
135

(b)
130
Hill48 (ref.) Hill48

Exp. Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

130

Hill48
Exp. Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

120

Hill48 (ref.)

125

110

120 0 15 30 45 60 Angle from Rolling Direction [] 75 90

100 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 Angle from Rolling Direction []

Figure 3 Yield stress anisotropy during uniaxial tensile test, (a) AA5182-O, (b) FeP06t.
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

22/0 Hill48

22/0
2 1.5 Hill48 (ref.) Hill48 CB2001 D~L von Mises

Hill48

CB2001
1 0.5

b
D~L 11/0 CB2001

11/0

0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

Hill48 (ref.) D~L -1.5 von Mises

-2 -2 -1 0 1

-1

(a)
2

von Mises
-2 -1 0 1

(b)
2

-2

Figure 4 Yield surfaces relative to the different criteria: (a) AA5182-O, (b) FeP06t.

3. INTERACTION BETWEEN YIELD SURFACE AND HARDENING LAWS DESCRIPTION The numerical simulations presented in this work are carried out with the static implicit in-house finite elements three-dimensional DD3IMP code (Deep Drawing 3d IMPlicit Code) [Menezes and Teodosiu, 2000], [Oliveira et al., 2003]). The examples discussed in this paragraph attempt to clarify the relative contribution of the work hardening and the yield surface descriptions on the prediction of the thicknesses distribution during forming processes. The study is carried out on the cross tool (Figure 5) developed by Renault [Maeder, 2005]. This tool has been initially designed to reproduce most of the industrial strain paths (simple tension, plane strain, shear and biaxial stretching). The material is therefore successively or simultaneously deformed over a wide range of strain path. Consequently, this tool is a suitable to investigate the relative weight of the work-hardening and the yield locus description on the accuracy of the numerical predictions. Besides, using this tool, the constitutive models with strain path sensitivity can be analyzed.

Figure 5 Cross die test [Maeder, 2005]. Sequential material parameters identification is adopted (i.e. yield surface description as indicated in section 2 and hardening laws parameters as indicated in [Haddadi et al., 2006]). A square metal sheet of 250x250 mm is deeply formed at a given depth and for a given blank-holder force. Details on finite element computation can be found in [Alves et al., 2006]. According to the experimental data given in Figure 6 and Figure 7, the decrease of thickness in some area of the formed part is significant (about 20%) for the two materials. Inspection of the numerical prediction of the thickness distribution along the median (i.e. Ox/RD) and diagonal (i.e. Oxy/45-RD) directions (Figure 5) for various yield criteria using Teodosiu-Hu hardening laws (Figure 6 and Figure 7) or Swift isotropic hardening model (Figure 8) led to the following preliminary conclusions: In spite of a noticeable difference in the behaviour of the selected materials, the finite element simulations indicate a weak sensitivity of the thickness prediction to the work hardening description for a given plastic criterion (Figure 7 and Figure 8). Conversely,

a strong effect of the yield surface description is observed. This result can be to some extent explained by the weight of the r-values in characterizing the yield criteria. For the mild steel, CB2001 seems to be the more suitable criterion in describing the material behaviour (Figure 7). Whereas for the aluminium alloy, the simple von Mises criterion is more suitable.

AA5182 1.00mm, 30 mm depth 1.2 1.1 Thickness [m m ] 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 Exp. Ox (30 mm) von Mises Hill48 ref Hill48
Thickness [mm] 1.0 1.1

AA5182 1.00mm, 30 mm depth

Exp. Oxy (30 mm) vonMises Hil 48 ref Hill48

0.9

0.8

(a)
0.6 0 20 40 60 80 100 Path from centre [mm]

CB2001
0.7

(b)
140
0 50 100 Path from centre [mm]

CB2001

120

150

200

Figure 6 Thickness prediction for an Aluminum alloy AA5182. (a) along median (0/RD). (b) along diagonal (45/RD) Teodosiu-Hu hardening model.
FeP06t 0.80mm, 30 mm depth

FeP06t 0.80mm, 30 mm depth

0.85

0.85

Thickness [m m ]

0.75

Exp. Ox (30 mm) von Mises Hill48 ref Hill48 CB2001

Thickness [m m ]

0.80
Exp. Oxy (30 mm) vonMises Hil 48 ref Hill48 CB2001

0.75

0.65

0.70

(a)
0.55 0 50 100 Path from centre [mm]

DL

(b)
0.65
150

DL

50

100 150 Path from centre [mm]

200

Figure 7 Thickness prediction for an IF mild steel FeP06t. (a) along median (0/RD), (b) along diagonal (45/RD). Teodosiu-Hu hardening model.

It is worth noting that, the yield surfaces for these two materials indicate a noticeable difference of material behavior along the biaxial loading (Figure 4). This result emphasizes an important issue in numerical simulation of forming processes. Indeed, the stress and/or the strain states involved in the identification strategy should include the domain of intended applications. In the example of Figure 9, different strategies of CB2001 are performed using or not the data from the equibiaxial test
FeP06t 0.80mm, 30 mm depth

0.85

0.85

FeP06t 0.80mm, 30 mm depth

Thickness [m m]

0.75
Exp. Ox (30 mm) von Mises Hill48 ref Hill48 CB2001 DL

Thickness [mm]

0.80

0.75

0.65

0.70

Exp. Oxy (30 mm) vonMises Hil 48 ref Hill48 CB2001 DL

0.55 0 50 100 Path from centre [mm] 150

0.65 0 50 100 150 Path from centre [mm] 200

Figure 8 Thickness prediction for an IF mild steel FeP06t (a) along median (0/RD), (b) along diagonal (45/RD). Isotropic Swift hardening model. A significant sensitivity of the FE results in term of thickness prediction is observed due to the presence of the biaxial stress state in this forming process. Back to the simulations of Figure 6 and Figure 7, despite a quasi identical response for D~L and Hill48 criteria in describing the r-values and the initial yield stresses (Figure 1 and Figure 2), their respective predicted thickness distribution are rather different. Conversely, Hill48 and Hill48(ref) exhibit very similar thickness variations, despite distinct descriptions of the r-values and the initial yield stresses. To conclude, there are simultaneous effects of the mathematical description and the parameters identification of the yield locus, on finite element simulations. As long as, only off-axes uniaxial tensile data are considered, the numerical simulations are mainly affected by the mathematical description of the yield locus. However, when biaxial strain paths are considered in the identification data base, the numerical simulation will be very sensitive to the identification strategy of the yield locus. The strong Bauschinger effect generally observed in case of dual phase steels, allows to highlight the sensitivity of thickness prediction to the kinematic hardening modeling and its material parameters determination as well Figure 10. It is worth noting, that for such material, very weak stress and strain anisotropy is observed on the experimental data. The different criteria produce almost the same yield surface as indicated in Figure 11-b; which is in agreement with the weak sensitivity of the thickness prediction to the yield surface description in this case Figure 11-a. The impact of data along the biaxial loading is again indicated.

Distribution des paisseurs le long de Ox, DP600 1.00mm, 60 mm de profondeur

1.21.3 1.11.2

Thickness [mm]

Epaisseur [mm]

1.0 0.9

1.1

1.0

0.9

CB+Voce+CNLstrat1 CB+Voce+CNLstrat2 CB+Voce+CNLstrat3 CB+Voce+CNLstrat4 CB+Voce+CNLstrat5 Exp

0.80.8 0.70.7
0.60.6 0 0
20 20 40 40 60 60 80 80 100 100 120 120

Path from centre [mm] Figure 9 Thickness distribution along the median direction Ox for dual phase steel DP600 deformed up to 60mm depth. Sensitivity to strategies of parameter identification.
Distribution des paisseurs le long de Ox, DP600 1.00mm, 60 mm de profondeur
1.2 1.2

Dplacement [mm]

140 140

1.1 1.1

Thickness [mm]

1.0 1.0

Epaisseur [mm]

0.9 0.9

Hill48+Voce Voce Hill48 + strat1

strat1

0.8 0.8

Hill48+Voce+CNL strat1 Hill48 + Voce+CNL strat1 Hill48+T-H strat1 Hill48 + T-H

strat1

0.7 0.7

Exp Exp
0 0

0.6 0.6

20

20 120

40

4060

80

140 Path from centre [mm]

Dplacement [mm]

60

100

80

120

140 100

Figure 10 Thickness distribution along the median direction Ox for dual phase steel DP600 deformed up to 60mm depth.

4. CONCLUSION The purpose of the present work is to analyze several issues around the relation between the constitutive models, their identification and the FEM results. It is worth noting that the identification procedure of constitutive laws is far from being trivial and may have a large effect on FE predictions. Various examples are presented and discussed in order to highlight the effects and the relative weight of the yield criteria and hardening laws on the accuracy of the numerical simulations. For anisotropic material, displaying weak Bauschinger effect, the present work clearly emphasizes the importance of the yield criteria when dealing with the thickness distribution as long as the texture evolution is not taken into account (i.e. when the shape of the yield surface remains the same). In such situation, when comparing the simple isotropic hardening model (e.g. Swift

model), with a strain path sensitive anisotropic hardening model (as Teodosiu-Hu model), the sensitivity of the FE results is almost negligible. Besides, sensitivity of the FE simulations to the strategy used in the identification of the material criteria parameters is clearly observed (e.g. the use of the r-values and/or the initial yield stresses (), the biaxial loading ). For materials that exhibit significant Bauschinger effect, the present work clearly shows the strong sensitivity of the thickness prediction to the hardening laws. While many studies focus on the accurate description of the hardening behavior, the present analysis clearly shows the importance of the yield locus description, the hardening laws and their identification in the numerical prediction of forming processes
22
500

Distribution des paisseurs le long de Ox, DP600 1.00mm, 60 mm de profondeur

1.200 1.2

Hill48 CB200
D~L von Mises
Hill48

Section (Sig11, Sig22) Sig33=0 Sig12=0 Sig13=0 Sig23=0

(b)
(a)

400

1.1

300

1.100

Thickness [mm] [mm] Epaisseur

200
1.000 1.0

100

0.900 0.9

T-H + VM strat1 T-H +VM strat1

T-H+Hill48 strat1 T-H + Hill48 strat1
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100

CB2001
0 0 100 200 300 400 500

0.800 0.8

-100

11

D~L von Mises

T-H + CB strat1 T-H +CB strat1

-200

0.700 0.7

Exp Exp

-300

0.6 0.600
0 0 20 20 40 40 60 60 80 80 100 100 120 120 140 140

-400

Path from centre [mm]

Dplacement [mm]

-500

Figure 11 (a) Thickness distribution along the median direction Ox for dual phase steel DP600 deformed up to 60mm depth, (b) . Yield surfaces relative to the different criteria for dual phase DP600: (11, 22) cut for 12=0, identification using strat1, iso-weight.

REFERENCES [Alves et al., 2006] Alves J.L., Oliveira M.C., Menezes L.F. and Bouvier S., In Proc. 9th International Conference on Material Forming, ESAFORM 2006, Eds. Juster N. Rosochowski A., pp 887-890, Glasgow, UK. [Barlat, 1987] Barlat F., In: Mat. Sci. Eng., 91, pp. 5572. [Bouvier et al., 2005] Bouvier S., Alves J.L., Oliveira M.C., Menezes L.F, In: Computational Materials Science vol. 32, pp.301-315. [Bouvier et al., 2006] Bouvier S., Gardey B., Haddadi H. and Teodosiu C., In: J. Mat. Proc. & Technology Vol. 174, pp. 115-126. [Cazacu and Barlat 2001] Cazacu O. and Barlat F.;In: Math. Mech. Solids 6 2001, pp. 613-630.

[Chum et al., 2002] Chum B.K., Kim H.Y., Lee J.K., In: Int. J. Plasticity 18, pp.597616. [Gardey et al., 2005] Gardey B., Bouvier S., Richard V. and Bacroix B., In: Mat. Sce. Engng: A, 400-401, pp. 136-141. [Ghosh and Backofen, 1973] Ghosh A.K. and Backofen W.A., In: Metall. Trans. 4, pp. 1113-1123. [Haddadi et al., 2006] Haddadi H., Bouvier S., Banu M., Maier C. and Teodosiu C.; In: Int. J. Plasticity 2006. vol. 22, pp. 2226-2271. [Hu et al., 1992] Hu Z., Rauch E.F. and Teodosiu C., In Int. J. Plasticity, 8, pp. 839856. [Lian et al., 1989] Lian J., Barlat F. and Beaudelet B., In:Int J. Plasticity 5, pp. 131147. [Maeder, 2005] Maeder G.; In: Proc. 8th Esaform Conference on Material Forming, Ed. D. Banabic, The publishing House of the Romanian Academy 2005, pp. 11-20. [Menezes and Teodosiu, 2000] Menezes L.F. and Teodosiu C., In: Journal of Meterials Processing and Technology, vol. 97, pp.100-106. [Oliveira et al., 2007] Oliveira M.C., Alves J.L., Chaparro B.M. and Menezes L.F., In: International Journal of Plasticity, vol. 23, pp.516-543. [Rabahallah et al., 2009a] Rabahallah M., Bouvier S., Balan T. and Bacroix B., In: Materials Science & Engineering A 2009, vol. 517, pp. 261-275. [Rabahallah et al., 2009b] Rabahallah M., Balan T., Bouvier S., Bacroix B., Barlat F., Chung K. and Teodosiu C.;In: Int. J. Plasticity 2009, vol. 25, pp. 491-512. [Teodosiu and Hu, 1995] Teodosiu C. and Hu Z.; In: Proc. NUMIFORM95 1995, Eds. S.F Shen and P.R. Dawson, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.173-182. [Wagonner et al., 2000] Wagonner R.H., Geng L. and Balakrishnan V. (2000), In: Proc. 8th Symp. on Plasticity and its Current applications, Eds. Khan A.S., Zhan H., Yuen Y., Neat Press, pp. 609-611. [Zhang and Lee, 1995] Zhang Z.T. and Lee D. (1995), In: SAE Paper 950692, in SP1067. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Sheet Engineers, pp.11-18.

Material modeling of 980MPa dual phase steel sheet based on biaxial tensile test and in-plane stress reversal test
R. Saito*, E. Iizuka** and T. Kuwabara*** * Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16, Nakacho, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan 50009643106@st.tuat.ac.jp ** JFE Steel Corporation, Steel Research Laboratory, 1 Kawasaki-cho, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-0835 JAPAN e-iizuka@jfe-steel.co.jp ***Institute of Symbiotic Science and Technology, Division of Advanced Mechanical Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16, Nakacho, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan kuwabara@cc.tuat.ac.jp

Abstract: Biaxial tensile tests of 980MPa dual phase steel sheet have been carried out using cruciform specimens, the geometry of which was originally proposed by one of the authors [Kuwabara, T., Ikeda, S. and Kuroda, T., Measurement and analysis of differential work hardening in cold-rolled steel sheet under biaxial tension, J. Mater. Processing Technol., 80-81 (1998), 517-523]. The specimens were loaded under linear stress paths in a servo-controlled biaxial tensile testing machine. Plastic orthotropy remained coaxial with the principal stresses throughout every experiment. The successive contours of plastic work in biaxial stress space changed their shapes progressively, exemplifying differential work hardening. The geometry of the entire family of the work contours and the directions of plastic strain rates have been precisely measured and compared with those calculated using proper yield functions. The Yld2000-2d yield function [Barlat, F., Brem, J.C., Yoon, J.W., Chung, K., Dick, R.E., Lege, D.J., Pourboghrat, F., Choi, S.H., and Chu, E., Int. J. Plasticity, 19 (2003), 12971319] with an exponent of 4 was capable of reproducing the general trends of the work contours and the directions of plastic strain rates with good accuracy. Furthermore, in order to quantitatively evaluate the Bauschinger effect and the strength differential effect of the test material, in-plane tension/compression reverse loading tests have been performed for different levels of pre-strains. Keywords: Biaxial tensile test, yield function, stress reversal, Bauschinger effect

1. INTRODUCTION The demand for high strength steel sheet is increasing in the automotive industry for manufacturing environment-friendly and collision-safe cars. However, it is a difficult material to use from the view point of manufacturing, because it is prone to fracture and causes large springback after forming. Predictive calculations of press loads, failure loci and springback in sheet metal forming operations depend on an accurate knowledge of elastic-plastic behavior of sheet metals under various stress states [Kuwabara, 2007]. From an experimental point of view biaxial testing is required to quantify and clarify the yield functions and constitutive models for given materials. Furthermore, in order to accurately predict the springback behavior of press-formed sheet metals, it is important to make a precise constitutive model that is capable of reproducing the stress-strain curves of the material under stress-reversal [Kuwabara et al., 1999, Yoshida et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2009]. The objective of this study is to clarify experimentally the elastic-plastic deformation behavior of 980MPa high strength dual phase steel sheet using biaxial tensile tests and determine a proper anisotropic yield function for it. Moreover, in order to directly observe the stress-strain relationships of the test material under tension/ compression stress reversals, in-plane stress reversal tests were conducted.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2.1. Test material The test material used in this study was 1.6 mm thick 980MPa dual phase steel sheet. The work hardening characteristics and r -values obtained from uniaxial tensile tests in the 0, 22.5, 45, 67.5 and 90 directions to the rolling direction of the materials are listed in Table I. Table I: Mechanical properties of test material Rolling direction 0 22.5 45 67.5 90 E /GPa 203 202 208 211 210

0.2 /MPa

c* /MPa

n*

a*

r**

667 1370 0.102 -0.00363 0.89 669 1371 0.100 -0.00396 0.91 662 1380 0.100 -0.00429 0.98 660 1387 0.100 -0.00434 0.99 657 1381 0.097 -0.00445 0.99 p n p *Approximated using = c( + ) for = 0.008 0.09 **Measured at uniaxial norminal strain N = 0.1

2.2. Biaxial tensile test The elastic-plastic deformation behavior of the test material was precisely measured using biaxial tensile tests with cruciform specimens in order to determine an appropriate anisotropic yield function for the test material. Figure 1 shows the cruciform specimen used in this study. This specimen was originally proposed by Kuwabara et al. (1998). Hereafter, we define the rolling and transverse directions of the specimen as the x - and y -axes, respectively. Each arm of the specimen has seven slits, 60 mm in length and 0.2 mm in width, at 7.5 mm intervals so as to exclude geometric constraint on the deformation of the 60 60 mm2 square gauge section. The slits were fabricated by laser-cutting. Normal strain components ( x , y ) were measured using four uniaxial strain gauges (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo, YFLA-2) mounted on the centerlines of the specimens at ( x, y ) = ( 7.5 mm, 0) and (0, 7.5 mm) in the cruciform specimen.

y
Slit width: 0.2mm

R.D.

Strain gauge

7.5

7.5

x
R 1

60

60 260

Figure1; Cruciform specimen for biaxial tensile test.

The biaxial tensile testing machine used in this study was the same as that used in [Kuwabara et al., 1998]. The cruciform specimen was subjected to biaxial tensile loading with the nominal tensile stress components ( N x , N y ) being in fixed proportions: N x : N y = 1:0, 4:1, 2:1, 4:3, 1:1, 3:4, 1:2, 1:4 and 0:1. For N x : N y = 1:0 and 0:1, standard uniaxial tensile specimens (JIS 13 B-type) were used. True stress components ( x , y ) were determined by dividing the measured loads Fx and Fy by the current cross-sectional area of the gauge section, which was p determined from the measured values of plastic strain components ( xp , y ) assuming the condition of constant volume. Since x and y were measured on the centerlines of the specimen, we assumed that xy = 0 . In order to determine the yield locus and the subsequent work hardening characteristics of the test material, we here adopt the idea of the contour of plastic work. The stress-strain curve obtained from a uniaxial tensile test in the rolling direction of the

material was chosen as a reference datum for work hardening: the uniaxial true stresses, 0 , and the plastic work per unit volume, W , corresponding to particular values of p offset logarithmic plastic strains 0 were determined. Then, the uniaxial true stresses 90 obtained from a uniaxial tensile test in the transverse direction of the material and the biaxial true stress components ( x , y ) obtained from biaxial tensile tests were determined at the same plastic work as W . The stress points ( 0 , 0) , (0, 90 ) and ( x , y ) thus plotted in the principal stress space consist of a contour of plastic work p p corresponding to a particular value of 0 . When 0 is taken as sufficiently small, the corresponding work contour can be practically viewed as a yield locus.
2.3. In-plane reverse loading test In order to directly observe the stress-strain relationships in the samples subjected to tension/compression stress reversals, in-plane reverse loading tests were conducted. Figure 2 shows the testing apparatus for the in-plane tension/compression stress reversal tests used in this study. This apparatus was originally designed and developed by Kuwabara et al. (2009). Figure 2a shows the comb-type dies developed for application of continuous in-plane stress reversal to sheet specimens. Lower and upper comb-type dies are installed in the testing apparatus as shown in Fig. 2b. Lower die 1 is fixed to the lower plate of the die set and lower die 2 is on a slide rail that enables the die to move smoothly in the horizontal direction. A sheet specimen is set on the lower dies 1 and 2 and both ends of the specimen are attached to the dies by chucking plates. The upper dies are placed on the specimen so that the four positioning pins fixed to the lower dies align with the holes of the upper dies. Accordingly, the movement of the upper dies is synchronized with that of the lower dies. Lower die 2 is actuated in the horizontal direction by a servo-controlled hydraulic cylinder A, so that continuous inplane stress reversals are applied to the specimen. Hydraulic cylinder B exerts a constant blank-holding force on the specimen through the upper dies and the cylindrical

Upper die 2 Upper die 1 Specimen Teflon sheets

Upper die 1 Specimen

Hydraulic cylinder B

Blank holding platen Upper die 2 Load cell

Lower die 2
Lower plate Slide rail Lower die 2 Hydraulic cylinder A

Lower die 1

Lower die 1

(a)

(b)

Figure 2; Experimental apparatus for application of in-plane stress reversals to a sheet specimen: (a) configuration of the dies, (b) an overview of the testing apparatus.

rollers lying between the upper dies and the blank-holding platen. The specimen can thus be compressed in the longitudinal direction without buckling. In order to prevent the specimen from galling the dies, the specimen was lubricated on both sides with Vaseline and Teflon sheets (0.05 mm thickness). The amount of longitudinal strain was measured using a strain gauge (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo, YFLA-2). The gauge section of the test specimen was 30 mm wide and 78 mm long. In order to prevent buckling of the specimen during in-plane compression, a blank-holding pressure of 6 MPa was applied to the specimen.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Results of Biaxial tensile test Figure 3 shows the measured stress points that comprise the contour of plastic work for p different levels of 0 . The stress values are normalized by the uniaxial tensile flow p stress 0 corresponding to a specific value of 0 . The successive contours of plastic work in biaxial stress space changed their shapes progressively, exemplifying differential work hardening. The measured stress points that comprise the contours of plastic work for p 0 = 0.002 and 0.01 are shown in Fig. 4 (a) and (b), respectively, compared with the theoretical yield loci based on the von Mises, Hills quadratic (Hill 48) [Hill, 1948], and the Yld2000-2d non-quadratic yield functions with exponents of M = 4, 6 and 8 [Barlat et al., 2003a]. In addition, the standard deviation of the theoretical yield loci from the measured stress points was calculated to determine the proper yield function p that has the closest agreement with the measured data. For 0 = 0.002 (Fig. 4a), the von Mises yield function underestimates the work contour at x : y = 4:3, 1:1 and 3:4.
1.4 DP980 1.2 1.0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
p

y / 0

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

x / 0

Figure 3; Measured stress points comprising the contours of plastic work for different p levels of 0 .

1.4
DP980

1.2 1.0

y / 0

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Experimental (0 =0.002) von Mises Hill'48 Yld2000-2d (M =4) Yld2000-2d (M =6) Yld2000-2d (M =8)
p

Standard deviation r

0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00

I : von Mises II : Hill '48 III : Yld2000-2d (M =4) IV : Yld2000-2d (M =6) V : Yld2000-2d (M =8)

0.2

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Experimental (0 =0.01) von Mises Hill'48 Yld2000-2d (M =4) Yld2000-2d (M =6) Yld2000-2d (M =8)
p

Standard deviation r

0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00

I : von Mises II : Hill '48 III : Yld2000-2d (M =4) IV : Yld2000-2d (M =6) V : Yld2000-2d (M =8)

0.4

0.6

(b) p Figure 4 Measured stress points comprising the contours of plastic work at 0 = (a) 0.002 and (b) 0.01, compared with theoretical yield loci. Hills quadratic yield function underestimates the work contour at x : y = 2:1, 4:3, 1:1 and 3:4, while it overestimates the work contour at x : y = 1:4 and 0:1. The Yld2000-2d yield functions with exponents of 6 and 8 underestimate the work contour at x : y = 4:1, 2:1, 4:3, 3:4, 1:2, and 1:4, while the Yld2000-2d with an exponent of 4 is in good agreement with the work contour for all stress ratios. The standard deviation of the Yld2000-2d with an exponent of 4 is smallest; therefore, the Yld20002d with an exponent of 4 is the most proper yield function for the test material. For 0p = 0.01 (Fig. 4b), the Yld2000-2d yield function with an exponent of 4 again provides the closest agreement with the measured work contour. The standard deviation of the Yld2000-2d with an exponent of 4 is smallest; therefore, the Yld2000-2d with an exponent of 4 is again the most proper yield function for the test material. In order to check whether the work contours can be considered to be a plastic p potential, the directions of plastic strain rates, , measured at 0 = 0.002 and 0.01 are shown in Fig. 5 (a) and (b), respectively, compared with those of the outward vectors normal to the theoretical yield loci based on the von Mises, Hills quadratic (Hill 48)

x / 0

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DP980 p Experimental (0 =0.002) von Mises Hill '48 Yld2000-2d (M=4) Yld2000-2d (M=6) Yld2000-2d (M=8)

90

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8 6 4 2 0

I : von Mises II : Hill '48 III : Yld2000-2d (M =4) IV : Yld2000-2d (M =6) V : Yld2000-2d (M =8)

45

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Direction of plastic strain rate /
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II

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8 6 4 2 0

I : von Mises II : Hill '48 III : Yld2000-2d (M =4) IV : Yld2000-2d (M =6) V : Yld2000-2d (M =8)

y
0

x
90

-45

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30

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II
p 0

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Figure 5; Measured directions of plastic strain rates at = (a) 0.002 and (b) 0.01,, compared with those predicted using theoreteical yield functions.

and the Yld2000-2d non-quadratic yield functions. It is noted that the stress ratios are represented by the angle of stress vector, . In addition, the standard deviation of the p predicted strain rates from the measured data was calculated. For both 0 = 0.002 and 0.01, it is clear that the Yld2000-2d with an exponent of 4 provides the closest agreement with the measurement. From the results of Figs. 4 and 5, it was concluded that the Yld2000-2d yield function with an exponent of 4 is capable of reproducing the plastic deformation behavior of the test material most accurately.
3.2. Results of In-plane reverse loading test Figure 6 shows the true stress-true strain curves measured using in-plane stress reversal tests in the rolling direction. In order to evaluate the effects of the amount of pre-strain on the subsequent stress-strain behavior during unloading, the amounts of pre-strains were chosen to be 0.025, 0.05 and 0.10 in tension, while -0.025, -0.05 and -0.08 in compression. Figure 6a shows an overall view of the true stress-true strain curves. Nonlinearity of stress-strain curves during unloading is clearly observed. Figure 6b compares the

stress-strain curves measured in the monotonic tension and compression tests. The stresses are slightly higher in compression than in tension. The physical causes of tension/compression asymmetry (TCA) in metals have been, and remain, an issue of considerable interest. Considering that the test material used in this study is a high strength steel alloy, the possible causes of the TCA is the pressure dependence of plastic flow, as was observed for high strength steel alloys and concluded so by Spitzig et al. (1976, 1979) and Spitzig and Richmond (1984). Figure 7 shows the stress-strain curves during stress reversal; Fig. 7a is the results for tension followed by compression (TC-test) and Fig. 7b is the results for compression followed by tension (CT-test). The vertical axis indicates the current stress normalized by the stress u at the onset of unloading. The horizontal axis indicates the total strain increment ( 0 for TC-test and 0 for CT-test) during unloading
1200
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400 0 -400 -800 -1200 -0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0.04 True strain 0.00 0.08 0.12

True stress / MPa

800 600 400 200 0 0.00

Tension Compression
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

True strain

(a)

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Figure 6; True stress-true strain curves measured using in-plane stress reversal tests.
1.0
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Figure 7; Relationship between non-dimensional stress / u and strain increment /( u E ) during unloading followed by (a) compression and (b) tension after different levels of pre-strain.

normalized by an elastic strain recovery for u , u E . In early stages of unloading, /( u E ) < 3, all ( / u ) -( /( u E ) ) curves almost fall on a single curve and are independent of the amount of pre-strain for both TC- and CT-tests. On the other hand, in the range of /( u E ) > 3, the decreasing rate of / u is lower with the increase of the amount of pre-strain u . The authors are planning to carry out draw-bending tests using the test material. In the springback analysis of the draw-bent specimen, the elastic-plastic deformation behavior observed in this work will be utilized to make an accurate material model for the test material.

4. CONCLUSIONS Biaxial tensile tests of 980MPa dual phase steel sheet were carried out to clarify its plastic deformation behavior under biaxial tension and to validate the accuracy of material modeling by using conventional yield functions. Moreover, in-plane reverse loading tests were conducted to measure the stress-strain relationships of the test material subjected to tension/compression stress reversals. The results obtained in this study are summarized at follows. (1) Yld2000-2d with an exponent of 4 is the most appropriate yield function for the test material. (2) The asymmetry of flow stresses between monotonic tension and compression was observed. The stresses are slightly higher in compression than in tension. (3) ( / u ) - /( u E ) curves observed during unloading of the pre-strained test material almost fall on a single curve and are independent of the amount of prestrain for both TC- and CT-tests in early stages of unloading, /( u E ) < 3. On the other hand, in the range of /( u E ) > 3, the decreasing rate of / u is lower with the increase of the amount of pre-strain u . REFERENCES Barlat, F., Brem, J.C., Yoon, J.W., Chung, K., Dick, R.E., Lege, D.J., Pourboghrat, F., Choi, S.H., Chu, E., Plane stress yield function for aluminum alloy sheets - Part 1: Theory. Int. J. Plasticity, Vol. 19 (2003a), 1297-1319. Bulatov, V.V., Richmond, O., Glazov, M.V., An atomistic dislocation mechanism of pressure-dependent plastic flow in aluminum. Acta Mater., Vol. 47 (1999), 35073514. Hill, R., A Theory of the yielding and plastic flow of anisotropic metals. Proc. Royal Soc. London, Vol. A193 (1948), 281-297. Kuwabara, T., Advances in experiments on metal sheets and tubes in support of constitutive modeling and forming simulations, Int. J. Plasticity, Vol. 23 (2007), 385-419. Kuwabara, T., Ikeda, S., Kuroda, T., Measurement and analysis of differential work hardening in cold-rolled steel sheet under biaxial tension. J. Mater. Process Technol., Vol.

80-81 (1998), 517-523. Kuwabara, T., Kumano, Y., Ziegelheim, J., Kurosaki, I, Tension-compression asymmetry of phosphor bronze for electronic parts and its effect on bending behavior. Int. J. Plasticity, Vol. 25 (2009), 1759-1776. Kuwabara, T., Kuroda, M., Tvergaard, V., Nomura, K., Use of abrupt strain path change for determining subsequent yield surface: experimental study with metal sheets. Acta Mater., Vol. 48 (2000), 2071-2079. Kuwabara, T., Seki, N., Takahashi, S., A rigorous numerical analysis of residual curvature of sheet metals subjected to bending-unbending under tension, in: Gaiger, T. (Ed.), Advanced Technology of Plasticity 1999, Proc. 6th ICTP, Springer-Verlag, Nuremberg, (1999), pp. 1071-1076. Kuwabara, T., Van Bael, A., Iizuka, E., Measurement and analysis of yield locus and work hardening characteristics of steel sheets with different r-values. Acta Mater., Vol. 50 (2002), 3717-3729. Lee, M.G., Kim, S.J., Wagoner, R.H., Chung, K., Kim, H.Y., Constitutive modeling for anisotropic/asymmetric hardening behavior of magnesium alloy sheets: Application to sheet springback. Int. J. Plasticity, Vol. 25 (2009), 70-104. Spitzig, W.A., Sober, R.J., Richmond, O., Pressure dependence of yielding and associated volume expansion in tempered martensite. Acta Metall., Vol. 23 (1975), 885-893. Spitzig, W.A., Sober, R.J., Richmond, O., The effect of hydrostatic pressure on the deformation behavior of maraging and HY-80 steels and its implication for plasticity. Met. Trans., Vol. 7A (1976), 1703-1710. Spitzig, W.A., Effect of hydrostatic pressure on plastic-flow properties of iron single crystals. Acta Metall., Vol. 27 (1979), 523-534. Spitzig, W.A., Richmond, O., The effect of pressure on the flow stress of metals. Acta Metall., Vol. 32 (1984), 457-463. Yoshida, F., Uemori, T., Fujiwara, K., Elasticplastic behavior of steel sheets under in-plane cyclic tensioncompression at large strain. Int. J. Plasticity, Vol. 18 (2002), 633-659.

A discussion of benefits and challenges by using multiparameter yield locus models in FEM-simulation
T. Beier, J. Gerlach, L. Kessler and M. Linnepe ThyssenKrupp Steel Europe AG, Research and Development Application Technology Kaiser-Wilhelm Strae 100, 47166 Duisburg, Germany Lutz.kessler@thyssenkrupp.com

Abstract: Industrial simulation is offering a choice of more than five different yield locus models in a FEM program in order to get the best results in sheet metal forming simulation. The calibration of these models differs in afford and cost. A first estimation of modelling compromise with the model of Hill 48 can be identified by combining tensile test and hydraulic bulge test results. More advanced material calibration strategies allow a better fitting of the advanced models to the measured values. For mild steels some rules have been identified to get a better biaxial stress forecast. Based on the analysis of different models and real parts a strong impact of modelling can be recognized if special forming conditions have to be fulfilled. These differences are sometimes extreme and are discussed in detail. Keywords: FEM, yield locus, material modelling, mild steels

INTRODUCTION Feasibility studies with the help of forming simulations are, regarding material aspects, characterized by the hardening rule, yield locus and the failure criteria applied. In daily practice the strain distribution is mostly compared with the forming limit curve (FLC). In addition to that also the friction law and especially for spring-back requirements the Youngs-modulus and the modelling of a combined isotropickinematic hardening play an important role. A qualified statement about the process safety for a given part by simulation is only possible if reliable material modelling is applied. A wide variety of yield locus models exists today. The actually discussed data for material modelling is e.g. yield locus calibration based on non-standardized experiments and material hardening. In the end the final selection of the chosen material model has to guarantee a realistic simulation result.

THEORETICAL MATERIAL MODELS FOR FORMING SIMULATION In figure 1 different proposals for modelling the plastic behaviour of steel sheets are shown. During the last years an increasing number of yield locus definitions has been presented in order to allow a better material modelling for forming simulations. All of

the newer models have in common that a larger quantity of parameters is essential, resulting in an increase of the experimental effort. Here the classification of different levels is based on the operating expense to calibrate the models. In general a level one model can be fitted by tensile tests in three directions of the sheet plane. All models listed in higher level groups two and three need at least one more experiment. Naturally the higher level models allow a more flexible calibration and fit to the real material needs. Stress levels and r-values in different directions of the sheet plane can be modelled more accurate. In contrast to the possibilities of university studies however (where a number of special experiments for model calibration are available) in industrial practice the determination of material parameters using such non-standardized experiments is very expensive and time consuming. This results in a nearly impracticable situation in the application of these models. This is even more essential when a large number of steel grades in combination with different thicknesses and coatings are in operation. Figure 1 right shows an extraction of possible experiments for yield locus and partly hardening calibration. All tests differ in the stress state, generated during testing. Beside the already available plane strain tensile test, there is no experiment to cover the most critical area in forming operations. To skip this gap many people try to fit the higher level yield locus models by different experiments, like biaxial stress state, or to make an assumption of the nonquadratic factor for the more advanced yield locus models. Often results of microstructure interpretations are used to define a reliable factor for the yield locus shape.

Figure 1; General models in forming simulation (left) and possible calibration experiments (right). With the today experimentally measured data a wide field of model possibilities can be used and calibrated [Hill, 1948], [Hill, 1990], [Barlat et al., 1989], [Banabic et al., 2008]. The impact of the different models is pronounced, if materials with high r-values are used. Therefore the following discussion concentrates on mild steel grades owing this property. The easiest way is still the use of Hill 48 with an extrapolation based on Swift. Here only the three Lankford coefficients and the tensile test curve are needed. For all other material models additional data are necessary. Table 1 gives an overview. The most data is needed for the Banabic 2005 model where in addition to the tensile test data a biaxial

stress point (b) and corresponding anisotropy (Rb) are needed. Furthermore the user has to identify the grade of the yield locus by the definition of the m-value. Often for steels a m-value of 6 and for aluminium a m-value of 8 is recommended.

Table 1; Input parameter for yield locus model calibration

YIELD LOCUS CALIBRATION STRATEGIES FOR MILD STEEL GRADES For finite element simulations a model for yield locus, a flow rule and a hardening curve are needed. Normally the flow rule is associated with the selected yield locus and therefore seldom of user interest. The simplest way to model deep drawing quality steel sheets is based on the yield locus theory of Hill 48. The advantage of this model is the exclusive need of tensile test data for calibration (compare table 1). State of the art is to use the three Lankford coefficients to calibrate the yield locus shape and a stress strain curve in rolling direction for the hardening. The hardening could also be defined by making an average of the overall hardening from all three directions and use this artificial curve as a master yield curve. If we use the models of Hill 48, Hill 90, Barlat 89 and Banabic 2005 for the mild steel grade (DX56) the in figure 2 shown yield loci result. To calibrate the biaxial stress point a hydraulic bulge test has been used. The detailed discussion of the strategy is published in [Gerlach et al., 2010].

Figure 2; Yield locus shape for different material models

The three non-quadratic yield loci are characterised by an identical biaxial stress point. In contrast to the model of Banabic 2005 the m-value is automatically defined by the biaxial stress point for the models of Hill 90 and Barlat 89. The effect of the separate m-value strategy is obvious in the area of plane strain. Here the Banabic 2005 with an m-value of 6 is significant softer and has less curvature in-between uniaxial and biaxal tension points.

INFLUENCE OF THE YIELD LOCUS MODELLING ON A REAL PART In this study the influence of different yield locus models is identified under the same process conditions. As a typical part the structure inner of a door has been selected. The real stamping results are known. Based on the existing experimental results of one steel batch, the yield locus models of Barlat 89 and Banabic 2005 are additionally applied to the two Hill models. The results of these simulation runs are shown in figure 3. A directly noticeable result is the huge difference in formability prediction with respect to the FLC. The Hill 48 assumes a safe process. Hill 90 and Barlat 89, both with an identical biaxial stress point, propose a similar formability. Hill 90 shows a small spot of critical strain and Barlat 89 identifies a larger one at the same area. Surprisingly the Banabic 2005 prognoses an unfeasible forming process with large rupture in the part. It has to be remembered that only the model of Banabic 2005 is calibrated to all data given in table 1. In particular the stresses in 45 and 90 to rolling direction can be modelled, but the deviation between the Banabic 2005 values and the assumed stresses from all other models are below 15 MPa. The biaxial stress point of all non-quadratic yield locus models is identical in this study. As is the hardening curve and its extrapolation. These facts can hardly be the reason for identifying the differences in forming strains shown in figure 3. To clarify the differences and to proof which of the results is more realistic additional testing and calculations are performed.

Figure 3; Numerical results for different yield locus calibrations

Due to the fact that the most significant difference in the yield locus shape is documented in the plane strain area a simple press part with nearly pure plane strain conditions has been selected to proof the models. As a result there was hardly any impact of the selected material model to the forecast of part feasibility, figure 4 (left). Assuming that the shape of the yield locus is extremely active, when a high gradient of stress states occurs, a second model part is used (figure 4, right). Here we have significant variation of stress states at the corner of the part. All combinations from uniaxial tension up to biaxial stretching are present. The simulation with the given models results in a totally different estimation of part feasibility.

Figure 4; Yield locus modelling and part feasibility As a first consequence it can be stated that the calibration based on individual material test findings might result in a totally different forecast of part feasibility. Even using more advanced material testing strategies can not guarantee a more realistic result. The impact of the material model is strongly dependent from the forming conditions of the selected part and forming method. We noticed a more severe impact of the different yield locus shapes if high strain values near the forming limit curve are present. To overcome this problem of extreme unsureness for modelling at least one representative, cheap but critical experiment is desirable.

AN APPROACH TO ASSURE THE YIELD LOCUS FITTING QUALITY Analysing the differences of the yield locus model prediction for formability the door model part is characterised by different strain distributions inside a relative small area, figure 5. Unfortunately an final identification of the yield locus shape, for example a fit of the m-value of the Banabic 2005 model, is hindered by unknown process parameters like friction in the punch and flange area. This complicates an easy identification of the best yield locus shape based on the material tests and the forming simulation. To address the best model for forming simulation an additional experiment seems to be necessary. This should be able to minimize the impact of friction and should allow an

easy result interpretation. These results could be punch force, location of failure in combination with the strain distribution at point of failure or drawing depth.

Figure 5; Strain distribution at the door model part and strain path development in different points Based on the ideas above the in figure 6 given setup is able to fulfil most of the criteria. A relative small polished punch generates only limited friction. The clamping in the blank holder area suppresses intensive material flow inside the die. A large, free of tool contact area allows a strain induced material flow which is dominated by the blank geometry. Changing the width of the sheet it is finally possible to vary the strain path to failure. In general the failure occurs in the area without tool contact. This test results in a strain combination from plane strain up to uniaxial tension. Representing most of the yield locus areas where no additional test information is available.

Figure 6; Setup for experiments addressing the yield locus identification

Using a mild steel for the experiment we identified a drawing depth of 49 mm to 51 mm with a strip width of 100 mm. Failure always occurred at the area directly after the last punch contact in the free forming zone. The above mentioned drawing depths have been identified by using different lubrication systems, a no-oiled punch, an oiled punch and a special lubrication based on grease. The scatter in drawing depths reaching the material specific forming limit curve is relatively small, figure 7 (right).

Figure 7; Experimental and numerical results for the mild steel grade Comparing the differences in the maximum drawing depth for the specific yield locus models with identical hardening curve a large scatter can be noticed, figure 7 (left). For all simulations the identical criteria for failure (strain reaching the FLC) has been applied. The model of Banabic 2005 with the literature m-value of 6 is much too critical in this test. A moderate increase of the maximum punch travel can be achieved by modifying the punch friction coefficient to 0.01. A change of the m-value to smaller numbers, shaping the yield locus more to a Hill 90 type, increases the maximum punch travel to failure only limited with this model. If the yield locus calibration is based on the uniaxial tensile test in addition to hydraulic bulge tests we can conclude the following findings. The yield locus of Hill 48 is overestimating the biaxial stress point derived from the hydraulic bulge test. The more flexible models of Hill 90, Barlat 89 and Banabic 2005 can completely fulfil the material input parameters, the model of Banabic 2005 furthermore is able to accurately model the r-values and the stress levels of all three testing directions. Comparing the forecasts of maximum drawing punch depth for the small test setup mentioned above a different finding has to be concluded. Here the models of Hill 48, Hill 90 and Barlat 89 have a similar prediction. Punch force and position of failure are robust and correlate with the experimental findings. For the Banabic 2005 model in combination with the proposed m-value of 6 for steel grades a too critical prediction has to be noticed. This correlates with the simulations for real parts where also some very conservative results have been generated under similar conditions.

CONCLUSION A large variety of different yield locus models for forming simulations exists. Most of the new models allow a larger flexibility to scale the models to material data with respect to different directions in tensile testing. To allow a better forecast of forming also biaxial stress point and shape of the yield locus can be modified by the user. This has been tested for mild steels. In addition to tensile tests hydraulic bulge tests have been used to allow a calibration of the yield locus. Nevertheless some parameters of the yield locus models have to be defined without relevant experimental data. In this study we used four different yield loci under different forming conditions. First of all a clear benefit of the advanced models has been identified, when fitting them to the experimental test data. The higher the model flexibility the lower the deviation from the experimental input values. Looking on the identified yield locus we can notice no difference in biaxial stress state, but in the plane strain area of the yield locus. Using theses different models we find nearly no impact of the yield locus, when not severe strain gradients occur in a forming part. For more complex parts, like door inner, the impact of the yield locus is more pronounced and gives a wide variety of part feasibilities. Because of an extreme sensitivity for some models to large strain gradients has been identified, a simple test is proposed to estimate the optimal yield locus which fulfils tensile testing, hydraulic bulge testing and a loading under plane strain condition.

REFERENCES [Hill, 1948] Hill, R.; "A Theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of Anisotropic Metals "; In: Proceedings of the Royal Society, pp 281; London, A193, 1948 [Hill, 1990] Hill, R.; "Constitutive Modelling of Orthotropic Plasticity in Sheet Metals"; In: Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp 405417; 1990 [Barlat, 1989] Barlat, F., Lian, J.; "Plastic Behaviour and Stretchability of Sheet Metals. Part I: A Yield Function for Orthotropic Sheet under Plane Stress Conditions "; In: Int. J. Plasticity, Vol.5., pp 51-56; 1989 [Banabic, 2005] Banabic, D., Comsa, D. S., Sester, M., Selig, M., et. al.; "Influence of constitutive equations on the accuracy of prediction in sheet metal forming simulation"; In: Numisheet 2008, pp 37-42; 2008 [Gerlach et al., 2010] Beier, Th.; Gerlach, J.; Kessler, L.; Linnepe, M.; "The Impact of Advanced Material Simulation Parameters in Press Shop Operations Using Mild Steel Grades"; In: SAE 2010 World Congress, paper number 2010-01-0992; Detroit 2010

Material Modelling for Stochastic Simulation

V. Gdel1,a, C. Annen2,b, M. Merklein1,c Chair of Manufacturing Technology (LFT), Friedrich-Alexander University ErlangenNuremberg, Egerlandstr. 13, 91058 Erlangen, Germany 2 Audi AG, 85045 Ingolstadt, Germany a v.goedel @lft.uni-erlangen.de, bchristoph.annen@audi.de, cm.merklein@lft.unierlangen.de Abstract: Within the scope of this work the influence of the material model on the results of a stochastic simulation will be evaluated. First, forming experiments are made using two coils of the same steel grade. Sheet metal thinning is measured with respect to reference points and the difference between the two coils is evaluated for various settings of blank holder force and lubrication. Within Finite-Element (FE) -simulation the process is modelled on bases of two material models. The effect of the variation of mechanical properties on the formability of components is compared between simulation and reality. The goal of the work is to describe the effect of the variation of the materials properties in a FE-simulation. In this context the influence of the chosen material model on the results of a stochastic simulation is analysed, as in material model mechanical properties are considered in a different way.
1

Keywords: stochastic simulation, material modelling, robust manufacturing

1. INTRODUCTION In the automotive industry the demand on emission reduction as well as increasing requirements on design remain major challenges. Taking into account the reduction of weight on the one hand and the increasing complexity of forming parts on the other hand manufacturing processes are running at the limit of metallic materials formability. In order to tap the full potential of the materials, the forming process is virtually designed in FE-simulation and the risk of failure within the forming process can be estimated accordingly. Within numerical simulation the feasibility of the complex forming part is analysed in one deterministic simulation representing a single operating point. As Figure 1 points out, the size of the process window depends on the complexity of the part. Thus, for very complex parts small variations of the mechanical properties of the formed sheet can lead to failure due to fracture or wrinkling. Basically the position of the operating point within the process window can be controlled by the blank holder force. This means that the effect of uncontrollable variations on the risk of failure is also dependent on the selection of the accordant process parameters. Consequently the virtual process layout requires a realistic description of the materials behaviour during the deformation

process as well as the knowledge of the influence of process noise on the operating point.

Figure 1; Influence of variations on the operating point according to [Lange, 1990] Within this work the effect of materials properties variation is analysed with respect to different operating points. Therefore an experimental die, the cross die, is used for deforming blanks taken off the same steel grade. The evaluation of the differences in blank thinning shows a dependency on the operating point. As the numerical prediction of the flow behaviour in FE-simulation is a basic requirement for industrial sheet metal forming, further investigations are made on whether the effect detected in reality can be reproduced in FE-simulation. In this context the influence of the material model on the results of a stochastic simulation will be evaluated.

2. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

2.1. Investigated Material In the automotive industry zink layered ferritic steel grade DX56D +Z represents the standard material for deep drawing parts fabricated within large series production. Two coils of this steel grade with a blank thickness of 0.71 mm were subject of the following investigations. Both coils are delivered by the same steel supplier. The steel grades are characterised within uniaxial tension-test according to the guideline PUD-S [N.N., 2008] which is based on the standardised guideline DIN EN 10002. The description of the flow behaviour for the FE-simulation is based on the extrapolation according to linear combination between Swift and Hockett Sherby, weighted with a factor of 0.15.

2.2. Experimental Geometry To investigate the effect of varying materials properties an experimental tool and geometry, the so-called cross die, is used. Apart from the typical tension-compression stress condition of a deep drawing process further stress conditions are indicated within this geometry. On the outer radius of the forming part a tension-tension condition is indicated, whereby a compression-compression condition is developed in the inner radius of the part [Neukamm, 2008]. Thus, the complexity of serial forming part can be represented within this experimental die with controllable influencing parameters. In Figure 2 the geometry of the punch is shown. The initial blank is shaped elliptical with a diameter of 286 mm x 326 mm.

Figure 2; Punch dimensions of the cross die 2.3. Experimental Setup and Methodology The forming process is realised within a hydraulic press HYDRAP HPDZb 630 with a nominal force of 6300 kN. The elliptic blanks are deformed under different process conditions. In order to analyse the effect of variation of materials properties in different operating points, the blank holder force is set on two levels, 160 kN and 240 kN respectively. Furthermore the frictional behaviour is also varied within two different setups. On the one hand side the blanks are analysed in the as delivered lubrication condition, on the other hand side a Teflon foil is used for a reproducible friction condition. The blank thickness of the forming parts is measured with a coordinate measuring machine of the type Leitz PMM 654. The sensing device detects the blank thickness along a measurement path in the longitudinal symmetry axis of the parts.

3. EFFECT OF THE VARIATION OF MATERIALS PROPERTIES IN DEPENDENCY OF THE OPERATING POINT

3.1. Variation of the mechanical properties of the investigated material In Figure 3 the flow curves and the mechanical properties of the investigated coils are presented. The flow curves differ up to 8% from one coil to another. The Lankford coefficients in 45 and 90 to the rolling direction are quasi identical, whereby a difference of 0.2 can be detected 0 to the rolling direction. It is obvious, that the differences in mechanical properties are very small. Thus it is of interest, if such small variations may lead to subsequent differences with respect to the forming results.

Figure 3; Flow curve and mechanical properties of the investigated material 3.2. Influence of materials properties variation in an uncritical operating point The blank thickness measurement along the longitudinal axis of the cross parts for the two investigated materials can be seen in Figure 4. The analysed parts are deformed with a blank holder force of 160 kN. For a reproducible lubrication system Teflon foil was used for both materials. The distribution of the blank thickness is quasi identical from one coil to the other. In the border of the part localised thinning can be detected (reference point 1), which is of higher intensity as the thinning within the upper radius (reference point 2). The blank thickness in the bottom of the part is reduced by 0.03 mm compared to the initial blank thickness of 0.71 mm (reference point 4), whereby thinning increases up to a blank thickness of 0.65 in reference point 3. The difference between coil 1 and coil 2 is very small. Only in areas with localised thinning (reference point 1 and 2) small differences in the range of 0.01 mm can be detected. Thus the small differences in mechanical properties do not impact the blank thickness of the forming part.

Figure 4; Blank thickness of cross part for two coils of DX56 with a blank holder force of 160 kN and Teflon foil 3.3. Influence of the variation of the materials properties in critical operating points As a following step the effect of materials properties variation will be analysed in dependency of the operating point. In Figure 5 the thinning of the two coils is printed only for a half of a part. At the left hand side the results for a blank holder force of 160 kN are shown. The right hand side shows the thinning of the material in dependency of a blank holder force of 240 kN. It is obvious that the differences between coil1 and coil2 are significantly higher at a blank holder force of 240 kN. In reference point 1 there is a difference of 3 % between the thinning of coil 1 and coil 2, whereby in reference point 2 and 3 the thinning differs about 2 %.

Figure 5; Thinning of cross part for two coils of DX56 with a blank holder force of 160 kN (left) and 240 kN (right) In industrial sheet metal forming the feasibility of complex parts is required without a special lubrication system, as the blanks are delivered with a basic lubrication. As a consequence, the experiments are also performed without Teflon foil, but with the

initial lubrication if the blanks. In Figure 6 the differences of the thinning in reference point 1 are shown for the appropriate process parameters.

Figure 6; Effect of the variation of material properties in dependency of the operating point Figure 6 shows that the thinning of the initial blank depends on the operating point. For low blank holder forces in combination with a high level of lubrication the variation of mechanical properties does not lead to different results in blank thickness. Using a high blank holder force the deformation process lies near the limit of feasibility. Thus, small differences in mechanical properties have a bigger impact on the thinning of the blank.

4. PREDICTION OF THE EFFECT OF THE VARIATION OF MATERIALS PROPERTIES IN FE-SIMULATION In industrial sheet metal forming the complexity of the forming parts increases continuously. In consequence of this challenge the processes have to be designed at the margin of formability. Referring to the presented results it is of high importance to consider the variation of mechanical properties during the virtual process layout. Especially in critical areas small differences in mechanical properties lead to high differences in the risk of failure. In the following chapter the prediction of the effect of materials properties variation on the blank thinning in FE-simulation will be analysed. Therefore the process is modelled in the software Autoform V4. 4.1. Influence of the material model on the results of a stochastic simulation Validation of the FE-Results using different material models The exact description of the materials behaviour in FE-simulation has been focussed in research for many years and is still ongoing. The development of material models which are valid for the different stress states is a requirement for an exact prediction of the flow behaviour. For deep drawing steels the Hill 48 material model is widely used to describe the yield locus in FE-simulation. In [Kessler, 2006] Hill 90 is recommended as an exact description of the mild steel grade. In Figure 7 the numerical results for the blank thinning along the axis of symmetry of the cross die are illustrated. The experimental results are compared with the simulation results, assuming Hill 48 and Hill 90, respectively. On the left hand side the results are shown for the experiments with

foil, whereas a friction coefficient of = 0 for the contact between blank and punch and a coefficient of = 0.07 for the contact between blank and die as well as blank and blank holder is chosen. On the right hand side the thinning for the deformation process without using a foil is presented. In FE-simulation a friction coefficient of = 0.1 is selected for the contact blank to punch and a coefficient of = 0.2 for the contact blank/die and blank/blank holder. The friction coefficients have been detected by the least error comparing the simulation results to measured experimental data.

Figure 7; Comparison of the blank thinning in FE-models with different material models for experiments with foil (left) and without foil (right) Describing the deformation process with foil in FE-simulation (left) differences between the predicted thinning using Hill 48 and Hill 90 material model can only be detected in the area of the upper radius of the part (reference point 2 to 3). Simulating a process with higher friction the differences in the simulation results between Hill 48 and Hill 90 are conspicuous as the amount of the localised thinning in reference point 1 and reference point 3 is predicted divergently. Effect of a variation of mechanical values using different material models As the mechanical properties are taken into consideration in a different way in the material models, a variation of the appropriate properties will lead to a different effect on the risk of failure. In Figure 8 the effect of an increased Lankford coefficient on the yield locus shape is illustrated for Hill 48 and Hill 90, respectively. The maximum effect of the variation occurs in the biaxial stress state where 1 equals 2. However, a variation of the Lankford coefficients effects the yield point in a different amount for Hill 48 and Hill 90 in the plane strain area, where 2 equals 0.8 1.

Figure 8; Influence of the variation of the Lankford parameter on the description of the yield locus with Hill 48 and Hill 90 4.2. Effect of the variation of mechanical properties using Hill 48 and Hill 90 Chapter 3 shows that the effect of divergent mechanical material properties on the blank thinning is dependent on the operating point. As in industrial sheet metal forming the processes are often designed near the limit of feasibility, it is of high importance that the effect of process variation is taken into account in FE-simulation. For reference point 1 the simulation results were evaluated in the same way as the experimental results. Thus in Figure 9 the difference between the thinning of the two analysed coils is printed for the two material models.

Figure 9; Differences in blank thinning between Coil 1 and Coil 2 for operating points predicted in FE-simulation based on Hill 48 and Hill 90

The numerical results show the same dependency between blank thinning and the respective operating point as it was detected within the experiments. Under a more critical process condition, which means with higher blank holder force and higher friction, the variation of mechanical properties leads to higher differences in blank thinning. As it was shown in Figure 8 the differences from the thinning caused by different coils is smaller for process modelled with Hill 90. It has to be underlined that apart from the concordant tendency the amount of the differences within the experiments can not be detected in FE-simulation. Referring to the mechanical properties of the two investigated coils the differences modelled in FE-simulation are fairly small. The low variations in FE-results conform to the similar material description.

5. CONCLUSION Within this work it was evaluated that the effect of mechanical properties variation is dependent on the operating point of the process. Two coils of the same steel grade were used for forming of the so-called cross die and the components blank thickness was measured within the longitudinal symmetry axis of the part. Working with a high blank holder force and no additional lubrication the differences in thinning between the two materials reached values up to 8 %, whereby in an uncritical process point no differences were detected. As industrial sheet metal forming processes often are designed near the limit of feasibility it is of great importance to predict the effect of materials variations in FE-simulation as precisely as possible. Consequently, the flow behaviour of the two coils was described in FE-simulation and the process designed for the investigated operating points. The effect of the mechanical properties variation was predicted also in FE-simulation, but not in the same amount as within the experiments. Furthermore the material model used in FE-simulation has an impact on the detected differences between two materials. The mechanical properties of the two coils measured in the tensile test do not show significant differences, but the thinning under a high blank holder force is divergent from one coil to the other. Thus, the FE-simulation using material model based on the results of the tensile test can not reproduce the different thinning of the two coils. Further investigations in the exact description of the materials flow behaviour are necessary in order to describe the differences between the coils. Therefore a detailed analysis of the stress conditions in the sensitive part areas is necessary. Hence, the two coils have to be described under alternative stress conditions.

REFERENCES [Lange 1990] Lange, K.: Handbuch der Umformtechnik. Band 3: Blechbearbeitung. Springer-Verlag Berlin, 1990 [N.N., 2008] SEP 1240 (Stahl-Eisen-Prfbltter des VDEh), Prf- und Dokumentationsrichtlinie fr die experimentelle Ermittlung mechanischer Kennwerte von Feinblechen aus Stahl fr die CAE-Berechnung, Verlag Stahleisen GmbH, Dsseldorf, Deutschland [Neukamm, 2008] Neukamm, F.; Feucht, M.; Haufe, A.; Roll, K.: A generalized incremental stress state dependent da-mage model for forming and crashworthiness simulations. In: Proceedings of the NumiSheet Conference, Interlaken, Switzerland, 2008, pages 805-810 [Kessler, 2006] Kessler, L.; Gerlach, J.: The impact of material testing strategies on the determination and calibration of different FEM material model. In: Proceedings of the IDDRG Conference, Porto, Portugal, 2006, pages 113-120

Finite-element modelling of Nakajima tests in due consideration of anisotropic ductile damage

Georg Falkinger, Florence Andrieux. Dirk Helm, Hermann Riedel Fraunhofer Institute for Mechanics of Materials IWM, Whlerstr. 11,79108 Freiburg, Germany georg.falkinger@iwm.fraunhofer.de

Abstract: In an effort to improve the numerical prediction of cracking in sheet metal forming, a material model based on the proposal of Gologanu [Gologanu et al., 1993] is examined. The model includes the nucleation, growth and coalescence of voids with spheroidal shape. The model has been implemented as a user subroutine in Abaqus/Explicit, thus enabling finite element simulations of complex forming processes. In order to assess the suitability of the model, Nakajima tests were performed for six different specimen geometries. The investigated material is a commercial dualphase steel (DP600). Numerical and experimental results are presented and the identification of model parameters is discussed. Keywords: Material model, ductile damage, Nakajima test, DP600.

1. INTRODUCTION A combination of necking and ductile fracture usually sets the limits to the formability of metal sheets. The characteristic dimpled structure of a ductile fracture surface as shown in figure 1, reflects the evolution of damage by void nucleation, growth and coalescence. Figure 2 shows a metallographic section with the fracture surface on the right and voids prior to coalescence on the left. In the dual-phase steel considered in this paper, the primary nucleation sites are the phase boundaries between the hard martensitic and the soft ferritic phase. A classical model for describing ductile damage is the Gurson model [Gurson, 1977] in combination with a suitable empirical law for the void nucleation process. The voids are assumed to be spherical. Coalescence is supposed to occur when a critical void volume fraction is reached. Such a model was used to model the Nakajima test and a hole-expansion test [Uthaisangsuk et al., 2008]. The model is attractive since, in contrast to phenomenological models, it takes the stress and strain histories into account and the evolving damage influences the macroscopic material response. There are, however, drawbacks, that arise from the simplified assumption of spherical voids. In reality, the voids develop prolate or oblate shapes, depending on the deformation history (see figure 2). Furthermore it is known (e.g. [Pardoen and Hutchinson, 2000]), that coalescence depends not only on the void fraction but also on the stress state and the void shape.

In order to overcome these drawbacks, a material model based on the proposal of Gologanu is examined in this paper. Spheroidal void shapes are considered and a more sophisticated coalescence criterion is adopted. Furthermore the effect of plastic anisotropy is taken into account. A similar model was successfully employed to study the formation of edge-cracks in rolling [Riedel et al., 2007] as well as to model cutting processes and the formation of edge-cracks in hole-expansion tests [Descas and Helm, 2010].

Figure 1; Ductile fracture surface of Figure 2; A metallographic section a tensile specimen of a Nakajima specimen with the fracture surface on the right.

Figure 3; A tapered specimen (width 125 mm) in the initial state and after testing.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Experiments were carried out using a commercial dual-phase steel (DP600) provided by voestalpine Stahl GmbH. The material was taken from the process line after cold-rolling and heat treatment with a sheet thickness of 1.2 mm. The microstructure consists of a ferritic matrix, containing small islands of martensite grains. The volume fraction of the hard martensitic phase amounts to approximately 15%. Characteristics of this material are its high formability due to the soft ferritic matrix and its high strength-to-weight ratio. Dual-phase steels are typically applied in structural parts of the car-body.

A standardized method to measure forming limit diagrams (FLD) is the Nakajima test (ISO 12004-2). The sheet specimen is held by a blank holder near its outer rim and is loaded by a hemispherical punch. Figure 3 shows the initial and deformed state of a specimen. Different specimen geometries are used in order to influence the stress state from uniaxial to equi-biaxial (for the circular specimen). In the present study the diameter of the punch was 100 mm, and the punch velocity was 2mm/s. The diameter of the circular blank was 180 mm and the width of the tapered specimens was 30, 70, 85, 125, and 150 mm. The principal stress direction was aligned with the rolling direction of the blank. A combination of polymer foils and oil between punch and blank was used as a lubricant system in order to minimize friction and to guarantee, that the crack appeared right above the punch dome. The tests were stopped at the first occurrence of a macroscopic crack. The strain-fields on the surface of each specimen were measured during the tests by use of an automated optical system. It is important to apply a standardized evaluation method (ISO 12004-2), since the evaluation method is known to have a marked effect on the resulting forming limit diagram.

3. THE DAMAGE MECHANICS MODEL As illustrated in figure 4, a simplified void distribution and void geometry is considered in the following. The assumption of spheroidal voids (i.e. axisymmetric ellipsoids) implies the existence of a preferred axis, marked by arrows in the figure. The orientation of this axis was aligned with the rolling direction of the material in all simulations. Possible alternatives will be treated in the discussion.

Figure 4; Schematic illustration of the presumed shape and distribution of the voids with the semi-axes a and b the void spacing d and the dimensions of a unit cell R and H.

3.1. The yield function The constitutive model developed by Gologanu and co-workers [Gologanu et al., 1993] for porous media is an extension of the Gurson model, which additionally takes into account the effect of void shape evolution. The yield condition is given by
( ij , M , f , S ) = 0 ,

(1)

where ij is the Cauchy stress and M the flow stress of the matrix material. The yield function depends on the porosity f and on the shape parameter S=ln(a/b) (see figure 3). It has the form

2 2 2 + 2q1f cosh 2 1 - q1 f = 0 M M

(2)

Here represents the equivalent stress and is an anisotropic generalization of the hydrostatic stress. is a function of the current void shape, which equals 1.5 for spherical voids. The parameter q1 was introduced by Tvergaard [Tvergaard, 1981] in order to improve the agreement with cell model calculations. In the present work it is set to the commonly accepted value 1.5. In order to incorporate the plastic anisotropy of the matrix material in a heuristic manner, the equivalent stress in equation (2) is calculated according to Barlat (Yld2004-18p, [Barlat et al., 2005]) instead of von Mises. To the authors' knowledge, no rigorous modification of Gologanu's model for anisotropic plastic material behaviour has yet been published. As in the Gurson model the evolution equation for the porosity contains a term for the nucleation of new pores and one for the growth of existing pores:

f = f nucl + f growth

(3)

The contribution due to void growth equals the macroscopic volume change, whereas the nucleation of new voids is assumed to be controlled by the equivalent plastic strain p of the matrix material M , according to the phenomenological relation:
&p f nucl = D M

D=

fN SN

1 p N exp M S 2 2 N

(4)

In this expression, fN , S N and N are material parameters.

3.2. Void coalescence model The damage mechanics model is completed by a suitable coalescence criterion. The criterion used in this work was derived by Pardoen and Hutchinson [Pardoen and Hutchinson, 2000] from cell model simulations. The basic concept of the criterion is that microscopic strain localization and subsequent fracture occurs, if a certain limit load on the ligament between neighbouring voids is exceeded. The criterion is

In this expression, S is the current shape parameter, R represents the ligament size and b the radius of a spheroid as illustrated in figure 4. The parameter is equal to 0.3 and is equal to 1.2 according to [Pardoen and Hutchinson, 2000].

Figure 5; The yield surface used in the simulations in comparison with the isotropic case and with scaled units (RD-rolling direction, TD-transverse direction).

Figure 6; Comparison of stress-strain curves from simulation and experiment obtained from a hydraulic bulge test.

3.3. Parameter Identification As revealed by a metallographic investigation, the material exhibits no porosity in the as-received state. Any damage, which might have developed during cold rolling, is removed in the subsequent heat treatment step, if it has developed at all. Thus both the initial porosity and the initial shape parameter were set to zero. In order to adjust the other model parameters, a set of standard forming tests was carried out. The plastic anisotropy was determined from tension, bending and hydraulic bulge tests. Figure 5 depicts the yield surface in the initial state. The hardening behaviour and the parameters N, SN and fN, which govern the nucleation process, were determined by adjusting calculated stress-strain curves to the results of the hydraulic bulge tests (figure 6).

22 b 1 M R

R / b 1 eS

R b

1/ 2

=0

(5)

3.4. Finite-element modelling FEM simulations of the Nakajima test were carried out with Abaqus/Explicit using continuum elements and a rather fine mesh in the region above the punch dome. The same specimen geometries as in the experiments were used and the same mesh size was adopted for all specimen geometries in the critical region. Only a quarter of the specimen was considered in the simulations according to the symmetry conditions. The above damage mechanics model was implemented as a user subroutine. If the coalescence criterion applies, the relevant element is deleted, losing its load-carrying capacity. The deletion of an element is interpreted as the initiation of a macroscopic crack, and the simulation is stopped. The friction coefficient between the punch and the blank is assumed to be zero. In order to determine the FLD from the simulations, the same evaluation procedure as in the experiments was applied.

4. RESULTS Figure 7 shows a comparison of the experimental and the calculated FLD. The squares denote the results for the individual specimens (specimen width from left to right: 30, 70, 85, 125, 150 mm, circular blank). The agreement is good. Figure 8 exemplarily shows the force-displacement curve of the 125 mm specimen. Again the simulation matches the experimental result well.

Figure 7; The calculated forming limit diagram (FLD) in comparison with the experimental result. The symbols represent the individual specimens.

The simulations demonstrate a basic difference between the failure mechanisms in uniaxial and biaxial loading. The loading condition of the 30 mm specimen corresponds to uniaxial tension with stress triaxiality (~1/3). In this case the voids are stretched along the loading direction, but their volume hardly grows. The situation changes drastically with the onset of localization, when void growth accelerates strongly in the

necked region prior to rupture. This kind of behaviour dominates in the region of negative minor strain from uniaxial tension to plane strain deformation. For the circular blank and the 150 mm specimen, i.e. for positive minor strain, no localized necking takes place but, due to the higher stress triaxiality (~2/3), the voids grow faster. This difference was recently confirmed experimentally by other authors [Tasan et al., 2009], and can be summarized in the following rule-of-thumb: The dominating failure mechanism in the FLD is localized necking on the left-hand side and damage on the right hand side.

Figure 8; The force-displacement curve obtained from the simulation in comparison with the experimental result. The specimen width was 125 mm.

Figure 9; Strain distributions along a section perpendicular to the crack just before rupture for the 125 mm specimen on the left and the 150 mm specimen on the right.

Figure 9 shows the strain distribution of a 125 mm specimen along a section perpendicular to the crack just prior to rupture. Strain localization is reflected by the characteristic peak. The agreement between simulation and experiment is fair but the exact shape of the strain concentration could not be reproduced. Better agreement could be reached for the 150 mm specimen where no pronounced localization was detected as depicted in figure 9. The exact modelling of localization phenomena is known to be a

difficult task, which was beyond the scope of this paper. Figure 10 depicts the strain path of a point just above the punch dome on the surface of the 70mm-specimen and the 125mm-specimen. The consideration of plastic anisotropy has no influence for the 30mm-specimen, whereas the numerical predictions could be improved for the 125mm and 150 mm specimens. The small remaining mismatch could not be fully understood yet, though the effect of friction could be excluded.

Figure 10; Strain paths of two different specimens (70 mm, 125 mm). The numerical prediction could be improved by the consideration of anisotropic matrix material behaviour in the case of positive minor strain.

5. DISCUSSION

5.1. Modified punch geometry Further simulations with two modified punch geometries were performed. In the first case the punch diameter was reduced to 50 mm. Four simulations were carried out (specimen width 30, 125 and 150 mm, circular blank). In the second, the punch was replaced by a wedge-shaped stretch-bending tool. A specimen width of 70 mm was used in this case. As figure 11 shows, both modifications lead to higher forming limits than the standard geometry. The reason is probably that the specimen experience greater bending components when loaded by the modified punch geometries with their smaller radii of curvature. Bending is less prone to necking than stretching.

Figure 11; Numerically predicted forming limits from Nakajima tests with punch diameter 100 mm and 50 mm. The triangle marks the maximal strain achieved in the stretch-bending test. 5.2. Limitations of the model A limitation of the Gologanu model arises from the fact that it is formulated for axisymmetric voids, whereas in the Nakajima test the deformations are different in all three directions, except in uniaxial tension, where the rotation axis of the spheroids is parallel to the tensile direction, and in equi-biaxial tension, where the rotation axis is normal to the sheet plane. In the present investigation, the rotation axis was always aligned with the maximum principal strain direction. This limits the model to loading histories with only small changes of the principal strain directions. At the present time, the error caused by the limitation to spheroidal voids with fixed orientation is difficult to quantify. Improvements will be possible in the future by using the damage model developed by Ponte-Castaeda and co-workers (e.g. [Kailasam et al., 2000]), who consider ellipsoids with three different axis. Their model also includes evolution equations for the void orientation.

6. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK The damage mechanics model examined in this paper was found to be capable of describing the Nakajima tests. The force-displacement curves, the strain fields and the strain-to-failure provided by the simulations are consistent with experimental data. The numerically predicted FLD agrees with the experimental one as well. Strain localization accelerates the growth of voids and thus reduces the formability on the left-hand side of the FLD, whereas on the right hand side no localized necking occurs. Taking into account the plastic anisotropy of the material improves the numerical predictions.

Simulations with modified punch geometries were performed. A reduction of the punch diameter yields higher forming limits due to a reduced tendency to necking under bending compared with tension. Further experiments are necessary in order to study this behaviour in more detail. The assumed axisymmetric void geometry, though clearly an improvement over Gurson's classical model with spherical voids, is not entirely appropriate to describe the Nakajima test, in which all three strain components are different. The use of PonteCastaedas model, based on general ellipsoidal void shapes, will overcome this limitation in the future.

REFERENCES
[Gologanu et al., 1993] M. Gologanu; J.-B. Leblond; J. Devaux; "Approximate models for ductile metals containing non-spherical voids-case of axisymmetric prolate ellipsoidal cavities"; J. Mech. Phys. Solids 41, pp. 1723-1754; [Gurson, 1977] A.L. Gurson; "Continuum theory of ductile rupture by void nucleation and growth: Part I-Yield criteria and flow rules for porous ductile media"; J. Engng. Mater. Technology 99, pp. 2-15; [Uthaisangsuk et al., 2008] V. Uthaisangsuk; U. Prahl; S. Mnstermann; W. Bleck; "Experimental and numerical failure criterion for formability prediction in sheet metal"; Computational Materials Science 43, pp. 43-50; [Riedel et al., 2007] H. Riedel; F. Andrieux; T. Walde; K.-F. Karhausen; "The formation of edge cracks during rolling of metal sheet"; Steel Research Int. 78, pp. 818-824; [Descas and Helm, 2010] R. Descas; D. Helm; "Mikromechanisch basierte Modellierung der Umformgrenzen von Blechwerkstoffen"; In: Begleitband zum 3. Symposium des CSME; to be published; [Tvergaard, 1981] V. Tvergaard; "Influence of voids on shear band instabilities under plane stress conditions"; Int. J. Fracture 17, pp. 389-407; [Pardoen and Hutchinson, 2000] T. Pardoen; J.W. Hutchinson; "An extended model for void growth and coalescence"; J. Mech. Phys Solids 48, pp. 2467-2512; [Barlat et al., 2005] F. Barlat; H. Aretz; J.W. Yoon; M.E. Karabin; J.C. Brem; R.E. Dick; "Linear transformation-based anisotropic yield functions"; Int. J. Plasticity 21, pp. 1009-1039; [Tasan et al., 2009] C.C. Tasan; J.P.M. Hoefnagels, C.H.L.J. ten Horn; M.G.D. Geers; "Experimental analysis of strain path dependent ductile damage mechanics and forming limits"; Mech. Mater. 41, pp. 1264-1276; [Kailasam et al., 2000] M. Kailasam; N. Aravas; P. Ponte-Castaeda; "Porous metals with developing anisotropy: Constitutuve models, computational issues and applications to deformation processing"; Comput. Model. Engrg. Sci. 1, pp. 105118;

Forming simulation of aluminum car body sheet with different yield models and comparison with experiment
C. Lange*, F. Bron**, P. Hnggi*, T. Mller***, H. Friebe***, H. Gese****, D. Daniel**, C. Leppin*
* Alcan T&M, Bad. Bahnhofstr. 16, CH-8212 Neuhausen, Switzerland, ** Alcan Centre de Recherches de Voreppe, CentrAlp BP 27 38341 Voreppe cedex, France *** GOM mbH, Mittelweg 7-8, 38106 Braunschweig 1, Germany **** Matfem Partnerschaft Dr. Gese & Oberhofer, Nederlingerstr. 1, 80638 Mnchen, Germany

Email: Christian.lange@alcan.com

Abstract: In recent years, significant effort has been invested in improving the accuracy of the formability assessment of aluminum car body panels by numerical deep-drawing simulations. Adequate modeling of the plastic deformation of the sheet and the friction between sheet and tools are both crucial for correct predictions of the final thickness and fracture. In this paper, three different yield constitutive models are investigated for the AA6016 T4 aluminum alloy car body sheet DR100, using the commercial software package MF GenYld + CrachFEM in combination with the explicit finite element code Ls-Dyna: the Barlat 2000 [Barlat et al., 2003], the Bron-Besson 2004 [Bron et al., 2004] and the Hill 48 model [Hill, 1948]. For the prediction of necking failure, the software package also includes a perturbation method along the lines of the original idea by Marciniak and Kuczynski [Marciniak et al., 1967], see [Gese et al., 2006]. Comprehensive characterization tests such as tensile tests in different orientations to rolling direction, shear tests, equi-biaxial tests are considered to identify the model parameters. The performance of the three different yield models is compared in deepdrawing tests, namely stretching with a hemispherical punch and stamping with a crossshaped punch (cross-die test). The sensitivity of results to the friction coefficient is analyzed to determine the most appropriate friction values. For an in depth validation, the numerical simulations are compared with test measurements that are performed with the optical strain measurement system ARGUS from GOM. Using the latest software feature developed by GOM, the distribution of the error between numerical results and tests is visualized and evaluated. As expected, the Barlat 2000 model shows superior performance compared to the Hill 48 model. However the Bron-Besson 2004 yield model shows a significant improvement of the thickness prediction, especially in the critical area where the thickness is minimal, and is also recommended for fracture prediction in sheet forming. Keywords: Automotive aluminum sheet, forming simulation, anisotropic yield model, optical strain measurement.

1. INTRODUCTION For a proper formability assessment of aluminum sheets for automotive body components, appropriate constitutive yield models, as well as fracture and friction models are crucial in the simulation. Some approaches have been published on the subject to handle complex strain states and failure phenomena in sheet metal forming. The focus of the present study is to assess the accuracy of different constitutive yield models in metal forming. A particular attention is paid on using coherent friction coefficients between metal sheet and tools. The study uses the modular software package MF GenYld + CrachFEM, which is available as a user material subroutine for Ls-Dyna and for other commercial nonlinear explicit FEA programs. To model the elasto-plastic deformation behavior of a wide range of metallic materials, this software package gives several options to combine different yield loci with different hardening models, including isotropic hardening, combined isotropic-kinematic hardening and general anisotropic hardening. The BronBesson 2004 yield model is now available in the software and has been validated. A full mechanical characterization of the 1.2mm AA6016 T4 aluminum alloy car body sheet DR100 is carried out to identify the parameters of the yield models. The accuracy assessment of each anisotropy model is evaluated based on deep-drawing with a hemispherical punch (Limiting Dome Height test, LDH) and with a cross-shaped punch (cross die test). The latest software feature in ARGUS developed by GOM is used to get a direct visualization of the error between numerical results and tests.

2. YIELD AND FRACTURE MODELS

2.1. Yield constitutive models The plastic deformation model is essential for correct predictions of thickness distribution and failure. Different anisotropic yield models are investigated here: the Hill 48 yield locus, the Barlat 2000 yield locus [Barlat et al., 2003] and the BronBesson 2004 yield model. The Barlat 2000 yield locus is restricted to model the plastic orthotropy of the material under plane stress conditions, whereas the Bron 2004 yield locus also includes the general 3D stress state (for shell and solid discretizetion). The Bron 2004 model is an extension of the Barlat 91 model [Barlat et al., 1991] where the anisotropy is represented by 12 parameters in the form of two fourth order symmetric tensors, see [Bron et al., 2004]. Experimental results from different characterization tests have been considered to fit the model parameters: yield strengths and plastic anisotropy coefficients r from tensile tests under 0, 45, 90 to rolling direction (RD); equi-biaxial yield strength and anisotropy coefficient from layered compression tests; yield strength from torsion tests in the plane of the sheet. The yield loci parameters identified from this experimental data are given in Table 1 for each yield model. A graphical representation of the anisotropy is presented in Figure 1.

Yield model Hill 48

r0
r45

Material Parameters
r90

0.8252 Barlat 2000 a 6 Bron 2004 a

0.5816
1

0.6909
2

0.9784

0.9724
b
1

0.9697
c
1 1

1.0421
c
1 2

1.0053
c
1 3

0.9948
c
1 4

0.9205
c
1 5

1.0488
c1 6
2 c6

b2

c12

2 c2

2 c3

2 c4

2 c5

1.6255

0.8523

11.066 7.6464

1.0222 1.0222

0.9374 1.2873

0.8522 1.7199

0.7887 1.9380

1 1

1 1

Table 1; Identified parameters of the investigated yield models for AA6016 T4 aluminum sheet DR100

TD vs. RD (MPa)
250
0.9

Yield locus

r values vs. orientation to RD (deg)

210

Yield strength (MPa) vs. orientation to RD (deg)

Hill 48 Tests
200

Hill 48 Tests
150

0.8

Hill 48 Tests

Hill 48

50

0.7 190

-250

-150

-50 -50

50

150

250

0.6 180 0.5

-150
0.4 170 0 0.9 15 30 45 60 75 90 210 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

-250
250

Barlat 2000 Tests

150 0.8

Barlat 2000 Tests

200 0.7 190

Barlat 2000 Tests

Barlat 2000

50

-250

-150

-50 -50

50

150

250

0.6 180 0.5

-150

0.4
-250
250

170 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 210 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

0.9

Bron 2004 Tests

150

Bron 2004
0.8

Bron 2004 Tests

200

Tests

Bron 2004

50

0.7 190

-250

-150

-50 -50

50

150

250

0.6 180 0.5

-150

0.4
-250

170 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Figure 1; Yield locus, r value and yield strength versus the orientation to RD of AA6016 T4 aluminum sheet DR100 Graphical representation for the investigated yield models

As Figure 1 shows, only the identified Bron 2004 constitutive model gives a perfect description of the measured sheet anisotropy. Based on tensile test results in combination with the layered compression tests for values of the yield stress at higher strains, material hardening is modeled by a HocketSherby approximation: (1) = a (a 0 ) exp( c p n ) with parameters a = 334.1MPa, 0 = 102.9MPa, c = 5.9641, n = 0.8689 . Figure 2 gives the representation of the hardening curve of the material.

400

equivalent stress [MPa]

300

tensile test (RD)

200

layered compression test (scaled) Hocket-Sherby approximation

100

0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

equivalent plastic strain [-]

Figure 2; Stress-strain curve of 1.2mm AA6016-T4 aluminum sheet DR100 tensile test in RD, layered compression tests and Hocket-Sherby approximation

Moreover, a combined isotropic-kinematic hardening model is used to take into account the Bauschinger effect. A modified Chaboche model is used which assumes an isotropic Bauschinger effect [Gese et al., 2009]. Parameters have been identified based on tension-compression reversal tests. Thus hardening and anisotropy of the sheet is fully modelled to describe the sheet behaviour during forming process under complex strain paths.

2.2. Fracture initiation model The software package MF GenYld + CrachFEM permits to combine the different material constitutive models with three types of fracture initiation models: localized necking due to membrane instability, ductile normal fracture due to void nucleation, void growth and void coalescence, as well as ductile shear fracture due to shear band

localization, as described in [Dell et al., 2007]. Localized necking is the most observed fracture initiation mode in classical stamping of automotive body sheets. The criterion for localized necking is especially used for shell discretizations. The limit strains for the initiation of necking are predicted according to the strain state and the strain paths during the deformation of the material. This model is based on a perturbation method utilized in combination with the orthotropic material model. The total hardening is used with a Swift approximation combined with a power law for the strain rate sensitivity, for a more realistic description of the hardening in necking areas. Kinematic hardening is also considered with the Backhaus model, as described in [Backhaus, 1979]. More details of the algorithm are given in [Gese et al., 2006].

3. TESTS MODELING AND COMPARISON WITH EXPERIMENT

3.1. Limit Dome High test (LDH) As a standard deep-drawing test for the formability characterization of metal sheets, the LDH test with a hemispherical punch is used for validation. A force of 320 kN is applied on the blank-holder. Failure is detected for a punch travel of around 32.2 mm. The test set-up is modeled in Ls-Dyna including the draw bead for more accuracy of the simulation, see Figure 3. Only one fourth of parts are considered for symmetry reasons and fully-integrated shell elements (Ls-Dyna shell element type 16) are utilized. All tools are considered to be rigid and the force applied on the blank-holder corresponds to that used in the tests. Coulomb friction was adjusted to the value of 0.15 for best agreement between experimental and calculated load-displacement curves.

Punch

Blank-holder Sheet

Die Figure 3; Ls-Dyna model of the LDH test with draw bead

Simulation results after a punch displacement of 28 mm are compared with the thickness of corresponding test samples measured along the RD cross section. As Figure 4 shows, the yield models Bron 2004 and Barlat 2000 both give results which are in a good agreement with the measurements. The difference between both constitutive models is of the same order of magnitude as the scatter of the measurements. A slightly better accuracy of the Bron 2004 model is especially observed in the area of minimal thickness.
1.10

1.05

Hill 48 Barlat 2000 Bron-Besson 2004 Experiment (average)

Thickness (mm)

1.00

0.95

0.90 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Position on RD section (mm)

Figure 4; Thickness profile along RD cross section of 1.2mm AA6016-T4 aluminum sheet DR100 after a punch stroke of 28 mm Comparison between measurements and predictions from investigated yield models

Predictions in terms of fracture and necking after 33 mm punch displacement are presented in Figure 5. At this displacement fracture due to necking is observed in the tests. Necking is well predicted with the algorithm Crach when using the strain distribution based on the Barlat 2000 and the Bron 2004 yield models. In accordance with the test observations, only the forming simulation using the Bron 2004 yield model leads to fracture along RD middle cross section.

Test

Hill 48

necking + fracture necking + fracture

no necking predicted no necking predicted

RD

instability risk
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7

Barlat 2000
necking predicted necking predicted

Bron 2004
necking + fracture predicted necking + fracture predicted

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

Figure 5; Fracture prediction in LDH test simulations with Hill 48, Barlat 2000 and Bron 2004 yield models and comparison with tests Overall instability risk

3.2. Cross die test Cross die tests are used due to a more comparable shape of samples to real automotive body components. Several deep-drawing tests with a cross die have been performed with an initial blank size of 300 mm x 260 mm and 310 mm x 260 mm respectfully. For these configurations, no failure is observed. As for the simulation of LDH tests, the problem is modeled with fully-integrated shell elements (Ls-Dyna shell element type 16). For computational efficiency, only one quarter of the problem is discretized in combination with corresponding symmetry conditions. The loaddisplacement curve of the punch has been considered as an experimental basis for the identification of the Coulomb friction coefficient between the blank and the tools. A value of 0.12 has been found to give best agreement between the tests and the simulations with the Hill 48, the Barlat 2000, as well as the Bron 2004 model. A grid was printed on the blanks for optical measurement of the strains with the ARGUS system developed by GOM [Friebe et al., 2006]. The thickness distribution is considered for the comparison with the numerical results. To assess the performance of yield models and to visualize the error between numerical results and tests, the latest software package from GOM has been used as described in [Schneider et al., 2008], see results presented in Figure 6. The predictions regarding fracture are shown in Figure 7.

Argus measurement

Hill 48

Barlat 2000

Bron-Besson 2004

error Hill 48 Argus measurement

Bron-Besson 2004 Barlat 2000 error Barlat 2000

300 x 260 blank

Hill 48

error Hill 48 error Barlat 2000 error Bron-Besson 2004

error Bron-Besson 2004

Argus measurement

Hill 48

Barlat 2000

Bron-Besson 2004

error Hill 48 Argus measurement

310 x 260 blank

error Hill 48 error Barlat 2000 error Bron-Besson 2004

Bron-Besson 2004 Barlat 2000 Hill 48

error Barlat 2000

error Bron-Besson 2004

Figure 6; Thickness distribution after cross die test of Al 6016 T4 aluminum automotive sheet DR100: comparison between ARGUS measurements and simulations with different constitutive yield models: Hill 48, Barlat 2000 and Bron-Besson 2004 Errors show difference between measurements and simulation

no fracture no fracture

no fracture no fracture

Test

Hill 48

fracture predicted fracture predicted

fracture predicted fracture predicted

instability risk
1.0 0.9 0.8

Barlat 2000

0.7

fracture predicted fracture predicted

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

Bron 2004

0.1 0.0

300 x 260 blank

310 x 260 blank

Figure 7; Fracture prediction in cross die test simulation with Hill 48, Barlat 2000 and Bron 2004 yield models and comparison with tests Overall instability risk predicted with each yield model

Predictions of the thickness distribution as well as fracture are improved by the Bron 2004 constitutive model. This constitutive model shows a considerable improvement of the thickness prediction especially in the critical area where the thickness is minimal. Here, the difference in minimal thickness between the Barlat 2000 and Bron 2004 prediction is significant compared to the experimental scatter and

measurement accuracy. The Hill 48 as well as the Barlat 2000 yield model give pessimistic results, whereas the Bron 2004 yield model shows superior performance regarding fracture prediction.

4. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, a full description of the anisotropy as well as the hardening of an aluminum body sheet has been investigated by using advanced yield models and fracture initiation models. The Barlat 2000 and Bron 2004 constitutive models show both good agreement regarding thickness and fracture prediction in the LDH test configuration. Due to a better description of sheet anisotropy, the Bron 2004 yield constitutive model shows superior performance in the more complex cross die deepdrawing test. This model is therefore recommended for stamping simulations of aluminum body panels. Compared to the 2D Barlat 2000 yield loci, the 3D Bron 2004 yield model has the advantage to be used with a shell as well as a solid element discretization. A solid element discretization can be useful in the simulation of hemming or high bending of metal sheets, as shown in [Leppin et al., 2007].

REFERENCES [Backhaus, 1979] Backhaus, G.; "Plastic Deformation in Form of Strain Trajectories of Constant Curvature Theory and Comparison with Experimental Results", Acta Mechanica, S.C. 34 (1979), pp. 193-204 [Barlat et al., 1991] Barlat, F.; Lege, D.J.; Brem, J.C.; "A six-component yield function for anisotropic materials", Int. J. Plasticity 7 (1991), pp. 693-712 [Barlat et al., 2003] Barlat, F.; Brem, J.C.; Yoon, J.W.; Chung, K.; Dick, R.E.; Lege, D.J.; Pourboghrat, F.; Choi, S.-H.; Chu, E.; "Plane stress yield function for aluminum alloy sheets part 1: theory", Int. J. Plasticity, 19 (2003), pp. 1297-1319 [Bron et al., 2004] Bron, F.; Besson, J.; "A yield function for anisotropic materials. Application to aluminum alloys", Int. J. Plasticity, 20 (2004) 937963 [Dell et al., 2007] Dell, H.; Gese, H.; Oberhofer, G.; "Crachfem a comprehensive approach for the prediction of sheet metal failure", Proceedings of Numiform 2007, Port. [Friebe et al, 2006] Friebe, H.; Galanulis, K.; Erne, O.; Mller, E.; "FLC Determination and Forming Analysis by Optical Measurement Systems", Proceedings of FLC Zurich 2006, 15th 16th March 2006, IVP, ETH Zurich, Switzerland

[Gese et al., 2006] Gese, H.; Dell, H.; "Numerical Prediction of FLC with the Program CRACH", Proceedings of FLC Zurich 2006, 15th 16th March 2006, IVP, ETH Zurich, Switzerland [Gese et al., 2009] Gese, H.; Dell, H.; Oberhofer, G.; "Models for isotropic-kinematic hardening and isotropic hardening in material model MF GenYld+CrachFEM", Proceedings of Forming Technology Forum, May 5-6 2009, IVP, ETH Zurich, Switzerland [Hill, 1948] Hill, R.; "A Theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of Anisotropic Metals", Proc. Roy. Soc., 1948, London [Leppin et al., 2007] Leppin, C.; Daniel, D.; Shahani, R.; Gese, H.; Dell, H.; "formability Prediction Of Aluminum Sheet in Automotive Applications", Proceedings of Numiform 2007, Port. [Marciniak et al., 1967] Marciniak, Z.; Kuczynski, K.; "Limit strains in the processes of stretch-forming sheet metal", Int. J. of Mechanical Sciences 9 (1967), pp. 609620 [Schneider et al, 2008] Schneider, M.; Friebe, H.; Galanulis, K.; "Validation and optimization of numerical simulations by optical measurements of tools and parts", Proceedings of IDDRG 2008, 16th 18th June 2008, Olofstrm, Sweden, pp. 373384, ISBN 978-91-633-2948-7

A Modification of Combined Kinematic/Isotropic Hardening Behavior at Elevated Temperature s for Magnesium Alloy Sheet
*

Nguyen Duc-Toan, Park Jin-Ge, Kim Young-Suk* Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyungpook National University, 1370 Sangyeok, Buk-ku, Daegu 702-701, Republic of Korea caekim@knu.ac.kr

Abstract: Magnesium alloys usually exhibit low ductility at the room temperature due to the unusual mechanical behavio ur of its hexagonal close-packed structure. Thus, press forming of magnesium alloy shee ts is performed at elevated temperatures of 200C to 250C. Therefore, in this paper a modification of combined kinematic/isotropic hardening model considering the unusual plastic behavio ur for magnesium alloy sheet at elevated temperature following Johnso n-Cook model was carried out via a user -material subroutine, using explicit finite element code. The simulation results at room temperature was presented and compared with measurements of tension/compression, compression/tension, and validated by bending/unbending simulation for the proposed hardening model. Furthermore, tension/compression and compression/tension curves at elevated temperature have been predicted. Keywords: Magnesium alloy sheet, Johnson -Cook model, Hardening model, FEM , tension/compression-compression/tension curves

1. INTRODUCTION As the lightest structural alloys, magnesium alloys have many advantages compared with steel, cast iron and even aluminum alloys [Busk, 1986]. However, the structural use of magnesium alloys is seriously restricted by their limited ductility at room temperature (RT) due to their hexagonal close -packed (HCP) crystal structure [Aghion et al., 2001] and [Perez-Prado and Ruano, 2002] To widen the application of the alloys, researches on sheet forming of magnesium alloys at elevated temperatures has been made in several papers [Doege and Droder, 2001] and [Kohzu et al., 2001]. [Won et al., 2004] investigated the mechanical properties of magnesium alloys at elevated temperatures, and discovered that the Lankford value(R) for an AZ31 magnesium sheet decreases as the temperature increases . It was revealed that an AZ31 magnesium sheet becomes isotropic and re-crystallizes above 200C. [Won et al. 2004] also studied the formability of magnesium alloy sheets at high temperature s, and concluded that a temperature over 200C was required to achieve the safe forming of magnesium alloy sheets.

As depict in Figure1, the schematic view of stress -strain curves of textured magnesium alloys was shown asymmetric yield stress in tension and compression, Bauschinger effect and asymmetry in flow curves with three deformation modes. To describe the reverse loading behavior in the continuum phenomenological plasticity, there are two main approach, the first one based on kinematic hardening involving shifting of a single -yield surface and the second one involving multiple yield surfaces [Boger et al., 2005]. Twosurface models independently proposed by [Krieg, 1972] and [Dafalias and Popov, 1976] define the continuous variation of hardening between two yield surfaces. [Lee et al., 2009] modified two-surface hardening model to include ability to model the three deformation modes: slip, twinning and untwining in order to developed constitut ive models for sheet magnesium alloys based upon the phenomenological continuum plasticity, which is capable of describing the yielding asymmetry and anisotropy in stressstrain response, and then applied this model to predict spring -back for the unconstrained cylindrical bending test and 2D the draw bend test using four node shell element with reduced integration (S4R) and nine integration points through the thickness. However, shell elements can not predict correctly the phenomenon of bending process due to the compression-tension and tension-compression elements occur at the same time for this kind of process.

Figure 1; The schematic view of stress -strain curves of textured magnesium alloys . In this study, a modification of combined kinematic/isotropic hardening, by describing the scalar parameter as a function of equivalent strain when compressive and reversed stress occurred, was proposed and implemented for tension/compression, compression/tension, and then investigated by bending/unbending magnesi um alloy sheet test using solid elements C3D8R at room temperature in order to validate the proposed hardening model. Finally, the prediction of stress -strain curves at elevated temperature following Johnson-Cook model was presented.

2. MATERIAL AND HARDENING MODEL 2.1. Materials Table 1 shows the mechanical properties of magnesium alloy sheet with a thickness of 3.2 mm. The parameters characterizing the uniaxial -stress-plastic-strain response of the

material at room temperature used in the FE simulations are also given in the table in terms of the parameters in Swifts work-hardening law, using the following expression: pl n
K( 0 1 eq ) Where K is the plastic coefficient, n is the work -hardening exponent, and
, the equivalent stress, equivalent strain, and yield strain, respectively. Table I. Mechanical properties of tested material (Ref [Lee et al., 2009]) Material Density ( ) Youngs modulus (E) Possions ratio T Tension yield stress (MPa) (
Y )
C Compression yield stress (MPa) (
Y ) 0 K (MPa) n-value

P , 0 are

AZ31B 1.77e-06 45000 0.35 220 120 0.005 365.09 0.124

2.2. Hardening models 2.2.1. Basic definitions The von Mises yield surface is defined as Eq. (2) 1 1 2 (2)  ij :  ij
f (
) 2 3 where
is the uni-axial equivalent yield stress. The von Mises yield surface is a cylinder in deviatoric stress space with a radius of Eq. (3) 2 R
(3) 3 If  and m are the current value of the stress and me an stress, respectively, the deviatoric part of the current stress is expressed in Eq. (4 ): S ij
ij
m I (4) The stress difference,  is the stress measured from the center of the yield surface , as is the back-stress: shown in Eq (5), where  ij S ij (5) ij The normal to the Mises yield surface can be written as Eq. (6): 3  ij (6) Qij 2
The plastic flow rule is calculated using Eq. (7): pl Qij ij where, is a scalar that must be determined
pl ij

(7) means the equivalent plastic strain .

2.2.2. Combined non-linear hardening The incremental forms of governing equations are Generalized Hooke's law is shown in Eq (8): el el

trace(
ij ) I 2
ij (8) The incremental analogs of the rate equation are shown by Eqs. (9), (10), and (11 ): tr
ij
ij 2
Qij (9)
n 1 n 1

Rn

Rn

2 H
3
ij n

(10)

2 (11) )
HQij 3 where H, the slope of the uni-axial yield stress versus the plastic strain curve, is calculated by Eq. (12), and the scalar parameter, is defined as ranging from 0 to 1. When = 0, only kinematic hardening occurs, and when =1, only isotropic hardening occurs. For isotropic/kinematic hardening , is determined by comparing cyclic tensile curves between experiment data and simulation data. d
pl n 1 (12) Kn 0 H eq pl d eq
ij n 1

(1

For nonlinear isotropic/kinematic hardening model, the size of yield surface was modified as a function of equivalent plastic strain P and has the relationship with pow er law following Eq. (13) pl pl pl
Y ( eq )
( eq ) H eq (13) During active plastic loading the stress must remain on the yield surface, so that (14) Qij : Qij 1 The equivalent plastic strain increment is related to
using Eq. (15)

2
(15) 3 Taking the tensor product of this equation with Q, using the yield condition at the end of the increment, and solving for
, as shown in Eq. (16): 1/ 2 1 trial   trial (16) Rn 
  ij n 1 :  ij n 1   H  2 1  3    

pl eq

3. FINITE ELMENT PROCEDURES AND MODEL CALIBRATION 3.1. Uni-axial cyclic tenile test at room temperature Above constitutive model is implemented into a commercial finite element program ABAQUS/Explicit via VUMAT user material for the uni -axial tension-compression and compression-tension tests with standard ASTM specimens which having rectangular cross-section of 13 mm width by 3.2 thickness and a gage length of 50 mm. in order to

prevent buckling occurrence, a test method developed by [Boger et al., 2005], which relies on through-thickness sheet stabilization to avoid buckling, was used to extend the attainable strain range of Mg sheet in compression to approximately 0.08. A schematic of the novel tension/compression test [Boger et al., 2005] and the sample dimensions are shown in Figure 2 (a) two flat steel plates and a hydraulic cylinder system were used to provide side force to support the exaggerated dog -bone specimen. Side forces of 12 kN were used to stabilize the sheet sample. Figure 2(b) shows the finite-element model of ABAQUS version 6.5 for test process. Here, the blank modeled using solid elements C3D8R, and the flat steel plate modeled using rigid surface -elements R3D4. The average element size of the solid elements was about 1mm in width, 2mm in length, and 1mm in height. Meanwhile, the average element size of the rigid surface -elements was about 2 mm in width, and 2 mm in length. The friction coefficientm at the blank/flat plate interface, =0.1, was assumed for all the simulations.

Figure 2; Schematic of the novel tension/compression test [ Boger et al., 2005] In FEM simulation, due to asymmetric yield surface, the uniaxial-stress-plastic-strain response of the material for the uni-axial compression-tension test is assumed as Eq. (17 ): C
Y C T pl n
K( 0 (17) eq ) T
Y
T C Where K is the plastic coefficient,
Y ,
Y are tension and compression yield stress, n is

pl the work-hardening exponent, and

C , eq , 0 are the equivalent stress in compression zone, equivalent strain, and yield strain, respectively, which were mentioned in table 1. In this paper, due to low avera ge R-value (Lankford value) at elevated temperature (R~1 at 2000C), the Von-Mises model was assumably applied in calculation. Figure 3 shows the comparisons between the FE simulation and experiment results. The best fit for uni-axial tensile test and Baus chinger effect was chosen with the scalar parameter of 0.5. However, there are discrepancies between theoretical models and the test data in others zone. Therefore, in this paper we have modified the hardening law to predict correctly behavior of magnesi um alloy.

3.2. A modification of combined non -linear hardening As shown in Figure 3, when changes from 0.0 to 1.0 the directions of cyclic tensile curves will be changed. It means that, if we can present as a function of equivalent strain then we can predict correctly the shapes of stress -strain curves at compression and

reversed stress. In this study, we proposed In compression stress, the scalar parameter C F ( pl (C ) ) m 0

as exponential function of equivalent strain. is expressed as below: (18)

is the initial direction of stress -strain curves when compression stress occur. where Here, = 1 is chosen follow isotropic hardening direction. F and m are determined by fitting the generated curve from simulation with experiment data and cho sen the best fit as F of 2.016e07 and m of 5. In case of reversed stress occurrence for compression -tension tests, as depict in Figure 3, the curve should be divided by three sections. The first section is formulated as Eq. (19 ) C T pl (19) F1 ( R ( C T ) ) m1 R1 0 = 1, F1 and m1 was estimated as 1.952e08 and 5, respectively. The second here, pl section is expressed as Eq. (20 ) when R (C T ) is greater than 0.04 mm.
pl (20) F2 ( R ( C T ) ) m 2 Similarly, F2 and m2 was estimated as 1.53e03 and 0.2, respectively. The third section is C generated when R 2 T reaches = 0.5 of fitting curve for uni -axial tensile test C T R2

then

C T R2

0 .5 .

Figure 3; The comparisons between the experiment result and FE simulation results of combined kinematic/isotropic hardening. Figure 4 (a) shows the comparison of the measured continuous uni -axial tensioncompression (T-C) and compression-tension (CT) tests to the results calculated from the finite element simulations with proposed models. The results of proposed model are in good agreement with measurements. Figure 4 (b) present the results of tension compression (T-C) and compression-tension (CT) FE simulation with various of pre strain. To investigate this hardening model, finite element ana lysis of three-point bendingunbending test for the magnesium alloy sheet modeled using solid elements C3D8R is validated. The simulation results are depicted and plotted in Figure 5. In FE simulation result of three-point bending-unbending for solid eleme nts, we can check tension -

compression and compression -tension curves for correlative elements at the same time. The proposed hardening law simulates forward bending -unbending quite well comparing with tension-compression and compression -tension test in Figure 4.

Figure 4; Uni-axial tension-compression (T-C) and compression-tension (CT) simulation results of proposed model comparing with experim ent data (a) and with various pre-strain (b)

Figure 5; FE simulation results for three -point bending-unbending process 3.3. JohnsonCook model at elevated temperatures The inelastic behavior of the investigated alloy is assumed to be describe d by Johnson Cook model [Johnson and Cook, 1983 ]. This material model is suited to describe the

mechanical behavior of materi al at high strain rates and various temperatures. It is generally used in adiabatic transient dynamic analysis. The hardening is a particular type of isotropic hardening in which the yield stress
is assumed to be of the form:

A B(

pl eq

  ) 1 C log    
n

pl eq 0

  1 T q  

(21)

where  0 for T Tr T T  r (22) T  for Tr T Tm Tm Tr   1 for T Tm  A, B, C, n and q are material parameters, to be identified. T is the current temperature, Tm is the melting temperature and Tr is a reference temperature. In this study, we verify the un usual plastic behavior for magnesium sheet at elevated temperatures without considering effect of strain rate. Beside, the stress -strain curve has been fitted as expressed in Eq. (1) So that Eq. (21 ) can be expressed as following reduced form   T T q  pl n  r   
K( 0 (23) eq ) 1    Tm Tr      To determine q quasi static experimental results at both room and higher temperatures are needed. If quasi static experiments, at the same strain rate, are carried out at two different temperatures denoted by the superscripts (21) an d (22), the ratio R between the stresses at a specific plastic strain can be expressed as: pl q
(1) ( eq ) 1 T (1) (24) R pl
( 2 ) ( eq ) 1 T ( 2 ) q If T ( 2) Tr then from Eq. (22) T ( 2) 0 and q is given by log(1 R ) (25) q log T (1) The stresses in experiments following solid curves shown in Figure 6 for temperatures 100C, 150C and 200C are divided by the stresses at 24C (room temperature) according to Eq. (24). The result was the average values in the range 0.05< pl<0.35. The averaged values are R=0.879, R=0.712 and R=0.444 for 100C, 150C and 200C respectively. Substituting these values into Eq. (25) results in q=1.027 for 100C, q = 0.802 for 100C, and q= 0.48 for 200C. An average value of q =0.77 was adopted . By adopting JohnsonCook model thought using Eq. (23) instead of Eq (1) in VUMAT subroutine for tensile test simulation at 100C, 150C and 200C we can obtain the FE simulation results as depicted by dashed curves in Figure 6. This model was also adopt ed to predict stress-strain curves for tension-compression and compression -tension tests at elevated temperature as shown in Fig. 7.

Figure 6; The stress-strain curves calculated using FE simulation and compared with the measured values.

Figure 7; Predictions of FE simulation for tension -compression and compression -tension tests at elevated temperature.

4. CONCLUSIONS In this study, in order to simulate and predict the stress-strain curves of tensioncompression and compression -tension tests for magnesium sheet alloy at room and elevated temperature, a modification of combined isotropic/kinematic hardening model was implemented using finite element simulations and combined with Johnson-Cook model through commercial software (ABAQUS version 6.5, explicit for mulation) with a user-defined subroutine (VUMAT) . The (FE) simulation results show that the proposed hardening model presented correctly stress -strain curves at room temp erature and then given the prediction of stress -strain curves at elevated temperatures . This model can be

applied and validated for spring -back simulation which will be done in the near future study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the final support from Brain Korea 21 project of Kyungpook National University sponsored from Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Also this work was partially supported by Grant of the Korean Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, The Regional Core Research Program/Medical Convergence Technology Development Consortium for Anti -aging and Well-being.

REFERENCES [Busk, 1986] Busk, R.S.; Magnesium Production Desig n; New York, Marcel Dekker Inc.; 1986, pp. 13. [Aghion et al., 2001] Aghion, E.; Bronfin, B.; Eliezer, D.; The role of the magnesium industry in protecting the environment ; In: Journal of Material Processing Technology, pp. 381385; 2001; 117 [Perez-Prado and Ruano, 2002] Perez-Prado, M.T.; Ruano, O.A; Texture evolution during annealing of magnesium AZ31 alloy ; In: Scripta Materialia, pp. 149155; 2002; 46 [Doege and Droder, 2001] Doege, E.; Droder, K.; Sheet metal forming of magnesium wrought alloys-formability and process technology;In: Journal of Material Processing Technology, pp. 1419; 2001; 115 [Kohzu et al., 2001] Kohzu, M.; Yoshida, F.; Somekawa, H.; Fracture mechanism and forming limit in deep-drawing of magnesium alloy AZ31 ; In: Mater. Trans., pp. 12731276; 2001; 42 [Won et al., 2004] Won, S.W.; Oh, S.G.; Osakada, K.; Park, J.G; Kim, Y.S; In: 2004 Proc. Spri. Confer. Korean Sco. Tech. Plas., pp. 53-56; 2004 [Boger et al., 2005] Boger, R.K.; Wagoner, R.H.; Barlat, F.; Lee, M.G.; Chung, K.; Continuous, large strain, tension/compre ssion testing of sheet material; In: Int. J. Plast.. pp. 23192343; 2005 (12); 21 [Krieg, 1972] Krieg, R.D.; A practical two surface plasticity theory; In: J. Appl. Mech. ASME, pp. 641; 1972; 45 [Dafalias and Popov, 1976 ] Dafalias Y.F.; Popov, E.P; Plastic internal variables formalism of cyclic plasticity; In: J. Appl. Mech. ASME, pp. 645; 1976; 98 [Lee et al., 2009] Lee, M.G; Kim, S.J.; Wagoner, R.H.; Chung, K.; Kim, H.Y.; Constitutive modeling for anisotropic/asymmetric hardening behavior of magnesium alloy sheets: Application to sheet springback ; In: Int. J. Plasticity, pp. 70-104; 2009; 25 [Johnson and Cook, 1983] Johnson, G.J.; Cook, W.H.; A constitutive model and data for metals subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures; In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Ballistics , The Hague, pp. 541547; 1983

Simulation of Titanium Alloys

P. Peters, P. Hora Institute of virtual manufacturing, 8092 Zrich, Switzerland peters@ivp.mavt.ethz.ch

Abstract: Although the usage of titanium alloys in high-performance applications has increased significantly in the last decade, the characterization of its deformation behavior is still not satisfying. Therefore it is still a topic of actual research activities. Due to the deformation twinning mechanism that occurs in compression, most titanium alloys show different behavior in tension and compression besides the initial anisotropy. Furthermore, during forming processes, a texture development can be observed which yields anisotropic hardening effects. To take these effects into account, an anisotropic elastic-plastic model to describe the quasi-static macroscopic response of high-purity titanium has been proposed recently. This model is suitable to describe the tensioncompression asymmetry due to twinning. The initial anisotropy can be described by a linear transformation of the stress tensor. Anisotropic hardening effects can be modeled by varying the model parameters with increasing accumulated plastic strain. The model is implemented in an in-house code as well as in LS-Dyna as a user-defined material. The constitutive equations are integrated using a convex cutting plane algorithm. The model as well as the implementation is described. The material investigated is titanium Grade 4 sheet material with a thickness of 1.7 mm. The model parameters are determined based on data obtained from tensile and in-plane compression tests. The experimental as well as the fitting procedure are described and the test results are discussed. Keywords: titanium, orthotropy, elastic-plastic constitutive model, FEM

1. INFTRODUCTION Because of their outstanding properties such as corrosion resistance and high strength, titanium and its alloys are more and more used in engineering applications. It is wellknown that pure titanium as well as commercial titanium Grade 1-4 exhibit a hexagonal closed packed (hcp) crystal structure at room temperature which yields a complex plastic deformation behavior. In comparison to fcc and bcc structures, hcp structures have a higher affinity to deformation twinning in compression. Due to this, the strainhardening rate in compression is higher than in tension which is the reason for a tension-compression asymmetry of the yield locus. In the last two decades, remarkable progress has been made concerning the characterization and modeling of the response of titanium. Numerous publications are devoted to description of the uniaxial response identified by experimental work (e.g. [Follansbee et al., 1989]). Also, crystal plasticity models were used to describe the multiaxial behavior (e.g. [Starolesky and Anand, 2003], [Tome and Lebensohn, 2004]). These models lately received much attention in academic fields. But because of their complexity and the large experimental effort to determine model parameters, crystal plasticity models are rather unsuitable for industrial applications. An alternative approach is the modeling on a macroscopic level in order to reproduce the behavior observed in experiments. The difficulty is to formulate analytic expressions that are able to describe the mentioned tension-compression asymmetry. [Cazacu and Barlat, 2004] proposed an isotropic criterion in terms of all invariants of the stress deviator. This model was extended to orthotropy by [Nixon et al., 2009] using a fourth-order symmetric tensor operating on the Cauchy stress deviator. In this study, the model of [Nixon et al., 2009] is used to describe the deformation behavior of cold rolled titanium Grade 4 sheet material with a thickness of 1.7 mm. The model has been implemented in LS-Dyna as a user defined material. To fit the model parameters, tension and compression tests have been carried out and stress-strain curves have been measured. The obtained data was used to determine the model parameters. In section 3.2 the experimental results are shown. The fitting procedure as well as the implementation in LS-Dyna is described. 2. THE CONSTITUTIVE MODEL 2.1. Model description The model proposed by [Nixon et al., 2009] is an extension of the model proposed by [Cazacu and Barlat, 2004], where the basic form of the yield criterion is given as 2 , 3 =
3 2 2

(1)

where, J2 = 1 tr( ) and J3 = 1 tr() are the second and the third invariant of the deviatoric 2 3 stress tensor . The constant depends on the uniaxial yield stress in tension and compression . 3 3 3 3 (2) = 3 3 2 + In case of being equal , is equal to zero and the isotropic criterion reduces to the von Mises yield criterion. Convexity is ensured by limiting the parameter c to the following range: [(3 3)/2, 3 3/4]. In case of c not being equal to 0, the yield criterion represents a triangle with rounded corners in principal stress space, as can be seen in Figure 1. The yield locus is shown for three different ratios of T /C .

Figure 1: Plane stress yield loci for different ratios of / [Nixon et al., 2009] In order to extend the isotropic criterion given by (1) to orthotropy, a linear transformation approach is used. In the expression of the isotropic criterion, the Cauchy stress, , is replaced by = , where is a fourth-order tensor. The second and the third invariants of the transformed stress tensor are defined as 2 = 1 tr( 2 ) and 3 = 2 1 tr( 3 ). Due to this extension, the criterion has the form 3
2 , 3 = 2 2 3 3

(3)

The associated equivalent stress is =

3 1 2 2

1 3

(4)

where 1 is a constant defined so that reduces to the tensile yield stress in rolling direction. 1 = 3
2 2

3 3

3 2 3 2

2 + 3 2 3

1 3

(5)

The tensor L is defined such, that it satisfies the symmetry conditions: = = = (, , , = 1, ,3). Also it is invariant with respect to the symmetry group of the material and 1 + 2 + 3 = 0 for = 1, 2 and 3, which ensures that is traceless and therefore the yield criterion is independent of hydrostatic pressure. 2.2. Anisotropic hardening Previous studies (e.g. [Salem et al., 2003], [Salem et al., 2005]) on hardening of hexagonal closed packed materials have shown that the hardening rate is dependent not only on the loading direction, but also on its sign (tension or compression). Since the anisotropic hardening behavior due to texture evolution cannot be described using classical isotropic or kinematic hardening laws, [Nixon et al., 2009] used a general methodology for the description of yielding anisotropy and its evolution with accumulated deformation proposed by [Plunkett et al., 2006]. A similar approach has been used by [Wang et al., 2009] and [Hora et al., 2009]. The anisotropy coefficients as well as the size of the elastic domain are assumed to be dependent on the equivalent plastic strain associated with the yield criterion. In order to fit the model parameters within the required range of equivalent plastic strain, the following procedure is applied: First, an arbitrary set (within the required 1 2 range) of m discrete levels of equivalent plastic strain is chosen ( : ( < < < ). Afterwards, the yield stresses and r-values in every direction are evaluated at every entry of the chosen set according to the equivalent work principle. Thereof, the model parameters are determined. Thus, parameters for every chosen level of equivalent plastic strain are determined. Between these plastic strain values, an interpolation technique is adopted. Figure 2 illustrates the described procedure: The plastic strain in rolling direction is equal to the equivalent strain. To find the equivalent plastic strain in another direction (e.g. 45 to the rolling direction), the plastic work is compared and the plastic strain is chosen at a strain level, for which the same amount of plastic work is reached. The yield stress as well as the r-value is taken at that particular strain. Equations (6) give the strain dependent yield function where is the function for the equivalent stress and is the uniaxial tensile yield curve in rolling direction. , = , ( ) (6)

760 735

Figure 2: Yield stresses at equivalent plastic strain = 0.1. Yield curves in 0 and 45 to rolling direction. The area under the curve is equal to the plastic work 2.3. User defined material in LS-Dyna LS-Dyna offers the possibility to the user to supply his/her own subroutines defining material models. The yield criterion as well as an integration algorithm for the constitutive equations have to be implemented. If the model is to be used in conjunction with an implicit finite element analysis, another subroutine which computes the material tangent modulus must be provided by the user. Both subroutines have to be written in fortran77. 2.4. Convex cutting plane algorithm For the integration of the constitutive equation, a convex cutting plane algorithm was adopted, as proposed in [Nixon et al., 2009]. This algorithm, documented in [Simo and Hughes, 1998], is described in the following: Given are the six components of the total strain increment + in the intervall [ti, ti+1], the stress state at time ti and the effective plastic strain at time ti. The users task is to update the stress state as well as the effective plastic strain by integrating the constitutive equations. This is done by performing the following steps: 1. Computation of an elastic trial state: = + + 2. Computation of the equivalent stress value: +1 = , ( ) +

(7)

(8)

If +1 0 accept stress state, 3. Linearization of the following equation:

else continue

+1 = + , + + = 0

(9)

with respect to under the condition + = : + (10)

4. Computation of the solution of the linearized equation for :

+ , = : : +

(11)

5. Update of the stress state and the effective plastic strain: + = : +

+1

= +1 +

(12)

6. Return to Point 2. (Yield condition check) The described scheme is an explicit integration algorithm. Its advantage is that it bypasses the need for computing the second derivative of the yield function with respect to the stress components. The cost is a little loss of accuracy, but since an explicit FEanalysis is adopted, the error is expected to be small. A geometrical interpretation of the integration algorithm can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Geometrical interpretation of the convex cutting plane algorithm [Simo and Hughes, 1998]

3. PARAMETER IDENTIFICATION 3.1. Experimental procedure The aim of this study was the characterization of titanium grade4 sheet material with a thickness of 1.7 mm. To find the yield curves for in-plane tension, tensile tests have been carried out in three different directions, namely 0, 45 and 90 to the rolling direction. Because a tension-compression asymmetry was anticipated, in-plane compression test were also carried out, but only in two directions (0 and 90 to RD). The tensile tests were carried out conforming to standards. For the compression tests, two rectangular specimens of dimension 3.4 mm * 4 mm were cut out of the sheet by wire-eroding. These two specimens were bonded together with conventional glue in order to get specimens with a quadratic cross-section. This was done to prevent buckling during the test. Afterwards, the specimen was compressed in a deformation dilatometer, where the change in length as well as the force acting on the punch can be measured. A picture of such a specimen in initial and compressed state can be seenion Figure 4. Every test configuration was performed three times.

Figure 4: Specimens for in-plane compression tests. Left: undeformed specimen, Right: deformed specimen 3.2. Experimental data Figure 5 shows the stress-strain curves and the r-values measured during the tensile tests. The stress-strain curves were extrapolated with a Swift approach. Figure 6 shows the yield curves in compression.

Figure 5: yield curves (a) and r-values (b) measured in tensile tests

Figure 6: yield curves measured in compression tests The data obtained by the mechanical tests was formatted so that it is suitable as input for the fitting. The tensile data has been averaged and extrapolated using a Swift approach. In 45 and 90-direction an upper yield point was reached as can be seen in Figure 5. Because such a curve is not suitable for the modeling, only the data after the lower yield point was used for the approximation (Figure 7). The compression data cannot be measured as good as the tensile data. Tests were carried out until three specimens without buckling or tilting in both directions were available. This data (Figure 6) was averaged and smoothed. Figure 7 shows the complete input data for the parameter fitting.

Figure 7: Input data for the parameter fitting 3.3. Fitting procedure The parameter fitting was done according to the publication of [Nixon et al., 2009]. The following error function was minimized using a simplex-algorithm-based minimization routine.

 16 , =

1 1

+
2

(13)

In Equation (13), is the number of tensile test directions, is the number of compression test directions, is the number of experimental Lankford coefficients and are the weighting factors. The resulting yield loci are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: yield loci and experimental points 4. CONCLUSIONS The applied model was able to reproduce the uniaxial responses of the tested material in tension and compression. Responses for complex strain paths have not been analyzed yet. Current work includes simulations of more complex geometries and stress-/strain states.

REFERENCES [Cazacu and Barlat, 2004] Cazacu, O.; Barlat, F.; "A criterion for description of anisotropy and yield differential effects in pressure-insensitive metals"; In: International Journal of Plasticity 20 (2004), pp. 20272045; ISSN 0749-6419 [Follansbee et al., 1989] Follansbee, P.S.; Gray, G.; Wu, P.D.; "An analysis of the low temperature, low and high strain-rate deformation of Ti-6Al-4V"; In: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 20 (1989), pp. 863-874; ISSN 1073-5623 [Hill, 1948] Hill, R; "A theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of Anisotropic Metals"; In: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Vol. 193 (1948), pp. 281-297 [Hora et al., 2008] Hora, P.; Hochholdinger B.; Mutrux, A.; Tong, L.; "Modeling of anisotropic hardening behavior based in Barlat 2000 yield locus description"; In: Proceedings of the Forming Technology Forum Zrich 2009, pp. 21-29 [Nixon et al., 2009] Nixon, M.E.; Cazacu, O.; Lebensohn, R.A.; "Anisotropic response of high-purity -titanium: Experimental characterization and constitutive modeling"; In: International Journal of Plasticity (2009); ISSN 0749-6419 [Peters and Leyens., 2002] Peters, M.; Leyens, L.; "Titan und Titanlegierungen"; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co; 2002; ISBN 3-527-30539-4 [Plunkett et al., 2006] Plunkett, B.; Lebensohn, R.A.; Cazacu, O.; Barlat, F.; "Evolving yield function of hexagonal materials taking into account texture development and anisotropic hardening"; In: Acta Materialia 54 (2006), pp. 41594169; ISSN 1359-6454 [Salem et al., 2003] Salem, A.A.; Kalidindi, S.R.; Doherty R.D.; "Strain hardening of titanium: role of deformation twinning"; In: Acta Materialia 51 (2003), pp. 4225 4237; ISSN 1359-6454 [Salem et al., 2005] Salem, A.A.; Kalidindi, S.R.; Semiatin, S.L.; "Strain hardening due to deformation twinning in -titanium: Constitutive relations and crystal-plasticity modeling"; In: Acta Materialia 53 (2005), pp. 3495 3502; ISSN 1359-6454 [Simo and Hughes, 1998] Simo, J.C.; Hughes, T.J.R.; "Computational Inelasticity"; Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. 1998; pp. 148-149; ISBN 0-387-97520-9 [Starolesky and Anand, 2003] Starolesky, A.; Anand, L.; "A constitutive model for hcp metals deforming by slip and twinning"; In: International Journal of Plasticity 19 (2003), pp. 1843-1864; ISSN [Tome and Lebensohn, 2004] Tome, C.N.; Lebensohn, R.A.; "Self-consistent homogenization for texture and anisotropy"; In: Continuum Scale Simulation of Engineering Materials; WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co; 2004; ISBN 3-52730760-5 [Wang et al., 2009] Wang, H.; Wan, M.; Wu, X.; Yan, Y.; "The equivalent plastic strain dependent Yld2000-2d yield function and the experimental verification"; In: Computational Materials Science 47 (2009), pp. 12-22; ISSN 0927-0256

Advantages & Limitations of Direct vs Indirect Finite Increment Technologies for Blank Size & Trim Line Development for MultiStage Stampings
V. Apanovitch, S. Huhn, D. Peeling, D. Medvedyev Forming Technologies Inc. 3370 South Service Road Burlington, Ontario, Canada shuhn@forming.com

Abstract. Numerical solutions are used to enable Part to Print for multistage formed stampings, through iterations on blank size, form(s), amount of trim, and boundary conditions. The solutions are generally computationally expensive, with the effort proportional to the number of trims. Two versions of the Finite Increment Technology (FIT) were developed to address a solution that could fit within the CAD process design lead times. The Direct FIT (DFIT) with the typical incremental workflow; start from a blank and step forward through the forming process(es) to obtain the final form; the resulting final form may not be to print. With the Indirect FIT (IFIT), the final as well as the intermediate forms are provided, and the solution results in the part to print, blank size and the trim line for the intermediate shapes. The advantages and limitations of each solver are reviewed. IFIT and DFIT are designed to cover different types of processes and workflows for parts ranging from net shape heavy gauge to typical Body-in-White (BIW) applications (form/trim/flange). When parts are formed to net shape, IFIT was found to be the most appropriate technology; DFIT would require multiple iterations as typical for forward incremental technologies. With typical BIW parts, DFIT would result in the most natural solution. When compared to LS-DYNA, the accuracy of the trim was found to depend on the sensitivity of part to the boundary conditions. Keywords: Direct and Indirect Finite Increment Technology (FIT), trim line development. 1. INTRODUCTION Multi-stage processing may include variants of drawing, re-strike, trimming, piercing, and flanging operations. Simulation of such a sequence with traditional incremental technologies may be challenging not only for its complicated simulation nature, but also because of the diversity and multiple design/formability issues addressed. Conventional finite element tools perform a virtual tryout of the stamping process, as soon as the

tooling geometry, boundary conditions, and blank shape are known. The simulation workflow is dictated by an analysis system which prescribes pre-processing tools as well as what has to be specified and done and in what order during the setup process. A critical examination of workflows indicated a disconnect between conventional simulation tools and intended engineering tasks, since the intent of conventional Incremental analysis is final validation, while the intent of engineering tasks is to design the process, the setup and the blank that will result in the desired product intent. With conventional incremental, the requirement to iterate on intermediate geometries, blank size, blank positioning, amount and location of trim, and boundary conditions at the different forming stages are only some of the challenges to be overcome. The simulation matrix may be large and requires as much discipline as a physical tryout, where a tryout person may repeat the same trial because of lack of discipline to converge to a solution. When conventional simulation tools are applied, the whole procedure becomes timing and resource demanding, and it is not uncommon that stamping analysts make an educated judgment to limit the number of iterations, and hence not a virtual tryout as they expected that the fine tuning of the solution be performed on the shop floor. The tools are mostly aimed towards highly skilled personnel; people who do not need close guidance throughout the simulation setup. In this case the simulation software industry focus towards speed up of the analysis setup to save time unnecessarily spent in repetitive actions during analysis. The paper introduces a new approach to sheet metal simulation; in essence a technology based workflow requirement. The strategy is based on interfacing several technologies; appropriate to the task at hand, and providing maximum effectiveness in performing the specific engineering process design tasks. Instead of using a general purpose incremental simulation tool to solve all design and formability issues, it is suggested that a set of tools is used in the framework of a unified, regenerative, and associative workflow analogical to CAD systems workflows. Using CAD analogy, it is also assumed that the engineer need not relate to the appropriate simulation tool to be invoked and its setup, but to focus only on the task at hand. Two novel implicit incremental formulations; the Direct Finite Increment Technology (DFIT) and Indirect Finite Increment Technology (IFIT) are introduced [Apanovitch et al., 2009] [Apanovitch et al., 2008] [Apanovitch et al., 2008(2)] [Huhn et al., 2008] to compliment the conventional Incremental tools and enable multi stage forming design and simulation workflows. The technologies were seamlessly integrated under the umbrella of CAD like associative and regenerative environment to ensure synchronized inputs with results, together with an updated process tree for ease of navigation. The LS-Dyna solver from LSTC, is another pillar for a best in class validation tool, and was seamlessly integrated into the environment. The paper will examine the advantages and limitations of DFIT and IFIT technologies within the Forming Suite environment. This environment provides the pre/post-processing for blank development, process design, intermediate geometry optimization, costing, and validation.

2. FINITE INCREMENT TECHNOLOGY - IFIT VS. DFIT Two variants of the Finite Increment Technology (FIT) were developed to simulate multistage stamping processes; the Indirect (IFIT) and Direct (DFIT). Both technologies employ shapes, thickness and boundaries of intermediate geometries and the final part geometry information to accelerate solution convergence and increase accuracy. The formulations utilize a co-rotational procedure for strain evaluation and Hills model for anisotropic work-hardening material. The non-linear iterations are performed in closed loop where information about intermediate and final shapes and blank thickness is imposed in form of constraints that are fulfilled with the solution convergence. The number of constraints with DFIT is reduced to enable more flexibility in handling engineering use cases, and in particular in intermediate trimming operations, at the expense of the computation time. The constraints used in IFIT and DFIT are listed in Figure 1, together with an overview of the known and the unknown parameters at each stage of a multistage forming simulation, as assumed in each formulation.

IFIT Data Relations DFIT Data Relations a. Part (n-th stage) a. Part (n-th stage) Shape and Boundary known, thickness Shape known. Boundary and thickness unknown unknown b. Intermediate configurations (n-1, n-2, b. Intermediate configurations , 1-st stages) (n-1, n-2, , 1-st stages) Shape known. Boundary and thickness Shape known. Boundary and thickness unknown unknown c. Blank (0-th stage) c. Blank (0-th stage) Shape and thickness known, boundary Shape, thickness, and boundary known unknown Figure 1; Data Relations in Multistage Process Simulation, IFIT vs. DFIT In a conventional incremental analysis, the part shape evolution is caused by an incremental tool movement. The complete process is simulated in small time increments and ends when the punch stroke is exhausted. The part shape and part boundaries are the result of the simulation; i.e. the form obtained at the end of punch

stroke. DFIT imposes some constraints on the incremental solution; it assumes that the material particles lie on the final and intermediate shapes. IFIT imposes even more constraints in addition to DFIT as it assumes that the boundary of the final part is also known. Seemingly small differences in DFIT and IFIT formulations result in a fundamental difference in the solution procedure: while DFIT convergence criterion and driver is the blank material volume preservation, IFIT convergence target is the achievement of a constant and prescribed blank thickness. DFIT and IFIT treat known design parameters as additional constraints imposed onto the incremental solution. During solving, iterations are performed in order to find a solution that can fulfill all the given constraints. The final result is a history of stresses, strains and boundaries evolving on the intermediate geometries. Another feature that differentiates DFIT and IFIT from conventional incremental technologies is a new virtual thick shell element formulation that incorporates the neutral surface shift in the areas of tight bending. The formulation allows for automatic 3D generalized bend allowance which is missing in the conventional systems, since practically a thin shell formulation is used in traditional systems. It was found that for parts formed with straight bends, the blank size estimates with IFIT are much more accurate compared to conventional simulation and perfectly match to blank sizes obtained through bend allowance settings in a CAD system. It could be argued that for straight bends, the blanks should be obtained from a CAD system, but the challenge is when a part exhibits a mixture of straight, non-straight bends and drawn areas. In such cases, straight bends are pre-unfold in a CAD system and then the part flattened to a blank, using a traditional One Step solution. This proved to be a complicated workflow that involves migration from CAD to simulation system. IFIT successfully addresses this issue, through a generalization of neutral surface shift on general 3D curvatures. The LS-Dyna solver is an integral part of the FormingSuite environment to enable high end final validation. LS-Dyna on the other hand would be too demanding for many process design and setup activities, e.g. blank size calculation, iteration on drawbead sizes, setup for blankholder forces and pressure pads, design of intermediate geometries (including binder and addendum) as well as development of trim lines, since the above design parameters are expected as input to a validation workflow, in addition for the need for tooling to be available. Experience indicated that during the part and process design, a design tool is needed to provide fast feedback as to the product forming feasibility without diving into details about process design; the accuracy of the tool would indicate levels of difficulty and not the exact value of strains. Ideally the tool should also guide the user to prevent problems and to enable some scenarios for an optimized part design or process layout. The example in Figures 2 illustrates the roles of IFIT, DFIT, and LS-Dyna solvers within the iterative stamping process design workflow. The process design always starts from final part geometry in Figure 2a. The part is 1 mm and made from a CRCQ material. The part has holes not shown in Figures 2.

Figure 2a Final part

Figure 2b Binder

Figure 2c First form

Figure 2d Second form with trim line

Figure 2e Final form

Figure 2; Product geometry and stamping process line up Starting from the product design, the process engineer would study the part for fit, function, quality and cost. The issues that a typical process engineer would consider in such a case include: Can the part be made from a net shape blank (developed) or from a sheared blank Sheared blanks require an additional trim operation Can the part be made with a crash forming die or die forming Are intermediate forming operations required? How many? Should the trim be an intermediate (after first form) or a final after second form Tolerance on the trim line Die radius for first form to provide stability and least thinning during first form Values for blank holder force and pressure pad How to locate from one operation to the following without distorting holes What the best strategy to spot dies Blank shape, size, location Should holes be pierced on the blank or in a separate operation The process plan for the structural member includes a binder wrap, a draw, an intermediate trim and a final wipe as seen in Figure 2. The trim operation is carried out just before the last operation. IFIT is best suited for the required blank estimate as well as for the trim line development. By its definition, IFIT starts from final part geometry and gradually flattens it through the stages ending with a net shape blank. In result, strains and part boundary evolve together with the part shapes, and formability issues (if exist) can be detected at the very early stage. Short runtimes of IFIT provide great opportunity to do what if scenarios, optimizing geometry of intermediate shapes. If the shapes are created in a parametric CAD system, then geometry parameters change is easy to enable design studies targeting blank size reduction, less thinout, as well as possible elimination of some intermediate operations. Figure 3 shows the net shape blank obtained with IFIT as well as thinning results for intermediate and final

operations. IFIT also suggest the blank location on the curved binder to enable a part to print scenario.

Net shape blank

Trimmed first form

Final part to print

Figure 3; IFIT solution provides the net shape blank and trim line position. The process engineer may then decide whether it is more appropriate to use a net shape blank or in order to save the cost of the blank die a standard cutoff blank is more appropriate. In this case, a minimum rectangular blank is fitted to the minimum developed blank obtained from IFIT, and the process evaluation uses DFIT starting from the known blank size and location, and progresses through the stamping stages as seen in Figure 4. The simulation identifies the extent of first form deviation from print as well as any formability concerns resulting from the change of the blank from net shape to rectangular. To obtain a part to print there will be need for multiple iterations on the trim line, even without fine tuning the boundary conditions.

Minimum rectangular blank

Operation 10 - Draw

Operation 20 - Trim

Operation 30 - Draw Final part not to print

Figure 4; DFIT solution evolves from minimum rectangular blank to final part, which is not to print. 3. COMPARISON BETWEEN DIRECT FINITE INCREMENT TECHNOLOGY AND CONVENTIONAL EXPLICIT INCREMENTAL SOLUTIONS The workflow for DFIT and the conventional incremental solutions is the same; a pre-determined blank is provided as input along with the geometry of the forming stations and the formability and part boundary of the final part are determined by the respective solver. This similarity provides an opportunity for a direct comparison between the two technologies. A typical explicit incremental solution requires a complete set of tooling geometry including a punch, die and possibly blankholder geometry/mesh. The approach taken by the DFIT solver reduces this input geometry requirement to a single body representing the surface topology of the result of that operation, as illustrated in Figure 2. This comparative reduction in inputs enables the process engineer to iterate earlier in the design process; prior to the development of the full tool set. It also reduces the volume of data being passed to the solver through the elimination of two of the tooling meshes, thereby freeing up system resources.

It is during the solution process that the two approaches differ. An explicit incremental solution considers the contact surface interaction between the tooling surfaces and the material being formed. In addition, it produces a multitude of solutions at small intervals of press stroke; effectively simulating the actual movement of the tooling and the resulting deformation of the part. The DFIT approach does not produce the intermediate results but instead goes directly to the conclusion of the operation in one large step. Elimination of the intermediate results reduces the amount of data being handled and provides a corresponding increase in solution speed. Because it does not track the material movement throughout the press stroke, the development of physical wrinkling cannot be tracked and is therefore evaluated through an analysis of strain conditions and the forming limit diagram. Figures 5 provide a visual comparison between a DFIT solution in Figure 5a, and LS-Dyna in Figure 5b. It can be seen that both solutions highlight the same problem areas, while LS-Dyna would be more detailed and accurate, together with a detailed evalution of the contact between material and tooling during the stroke. LS-Dyna is used as part of the final validation of the process design in Forming Suite.

Figure 5a; Thickness strain results from DFIT solver.

Figure 5b; Thickness strain results from LS-Dyna. It should be mentioned that due to the accounting for neutral surface shift at tight bends, in many cases blanks obtained through IFIT or DFIT are more accurate than those from LS-Dyna solutions.

4. CONCLUSIONS Two complementary technologies are introduced to assist a process engineer in optimizing the process plan for multistage processing. The technologies are well suited in the areas of part design and process layout and allow for the evaluation of the forming feasibility considering intermediate forming operations. The application of the Direct and Indirect Finite Increment Technologies only requires a minimum of geometrical input and is very stable and fast compared to conventional incremental solutions. The IFIT and DFIT performance makes them invaluable tools in what if scenarios workflows, and early detection of hot spots with formability issues. The technologies are best suited in process optimization and design studies, as well as in intermediate forms development. The technologies are complimentary to the conventional incremental solutions. REFERENCES [Apanovitch et al., 2009] Apanovitch, V. ; Huhn, S. : "On a Methodology for the development of intermediate forms for stampings processed in multi-stages"; IDDRG 2009 International Conference, June 1-3 2009, Golden, Colorado, USA [Apanovitch et al., 2008] Apanovitch, V. ; Huhn, S. : "Design optimization and validation based on a combination of multistage technology and incremental process simulation"; IDDRG 2008 International Conference, June 16-18 2008, Olofstroem, Sweden [Huhn et al., 2008] Huhn, S. ; Menke, T. ; Stuehmeyer, A. : " Simulation mehrstufiger Umformprozesse mit der Finite Increment Technology (FIT) "; MEFORM 2008 [Apanovitch et al., 2008(2)] Apanovitch, V. ; Huhn, S. : "A parametric and user friendly approach to incremental process simulation of sheet metal forming"; Numisheet September 1-5 2008, Interlaken, Switzerland

Finite Element Simulation of Electro Hydraulic Forming

Arne Melander #1,2*, Aldin Delic #1*, Anders Bjrkblad #1*, Pasi Juntunen #3*, Ludovic Samek #4* and Leire Vadillo#5* *1 Swerea KIMAB, Box55970, 102 16 Stockholm, Sweden, *2 KTH, Industrial Production, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden, *3 University Oulu, Institute for Electron Microscopy,PL8000, 900 14 Oulu, Finland, *4 voestalpine Stahl GmbH, voestalpineStrasse 3, 4020 Linz, Austria and *5 Labein-Tecnalia, Edificio 700, ES-481 60 Derio, Spain. arne.melander@swerea.se

Abstract. Electro hydraulic forming of a sheet was studied experimentally and with finite element methods. A number of carbon and stainless sheet materials were studied. In this paper we present results on an IF steel and an ultra high strength steel with 800MPa tensile strength. The flow properties of the materials were evaluated at a range of strain rates up to 1000/sec. These were typical strain rates in the FE simulations. The flow properties were characterized with the Johnson Cook model. Electro hydraulic forming trails were performed with a chamber of water with a pair of electrodes on one side of the sheet. In one case free forming was performed and in the other case forming was performed into a truncated conical die. Geometrical shapes and strain distributions were evaluated after forming. A finite element model was formulated in ABAQUS explicit. The model takes the chamber filled with water into account and the effect of the electrical discharge is modeled as a pressure wave originating form the location of the electrodes. The sheet is given the properties given by the Johnson Cook model and stiff tools are used. It is assumed that a certain fraction of the electric energy from the discharge goes into the pressure wave. The forming of the sheet is described including re-bounce effects at the tools. The model shows satisfactory results in relation to the experimental trials. Keywords: Electro hydraulic forming, steels, finite element, strain distribution, rebounce effects

1.

ELECTRO HYDRAULIC FORMING

Sheet metal forming is normally performed at a low rate with one pressing typically with a duration of tenths of seconds. New techniques are however under development where significantly faster forming rates are used. Electro hydraulic forming is one such technique where the sheet is positioned as one wall of a chamber filled with water, Fig 1. Two electrodes are situated inside the water chamber. The electrodes are connected to a capacitor pack which generates an electric spark which creates a pressure wave through the water and which forms the sheet into a die. The duration of the process is of the order of milliseconds. The die is situated on the other side of the sheet opposite to the water chamber. The process thus only involves one tool part. In this project a study was performed on electro hydraulic forming, EHF, operations for a number of steels. In this paper we present results on a mild steel, IF210, and on an ultra high strength steel, DPX800, for free forming without a die and for forming into a truncated conical die. Finite element simulations are compared with experimental trials, which were carried out to check the simulations with the given experimental parameters.

Figure 1; Electro hydraulic forming. 2. MATERIAL MODELS

The mechanical characteristics of the two studied sheet steels are presented in Table 1. Steel IF210 DPX800 Rp0.2 MPa 232 724 Rm MPa 372 882 Thickness A mm MPa 0.90 0.78 300 698 B MPa 344 970 n 0.53 0.52 C 0.03 0.01

Table 1; Material strength and Johnson Cook parameters

In the case of high speed forming processes it is important to use material data obtained under similar strain rates as in the forming process. For flow data this means that high strain rates should be applied. The flow data for the steels was determined at a range of strain rates up to 1000/s [Samek et al, 2009], as shown in Figures 2. A number of different testing techniques were used including, mechanical, hydraulic and Split Hopkinson bar techniques. A simple constitutive model was used to reproduce the data namely the Johnson Cook model [Johnson et al, 1983].

Y = A + B ( p )n 1 + C ln p 1

T T0 Tm T0

Many of the investigated materials show a more complex behaviour than the Johnson Cook model. But in most cases the standard deviation between experimental data and fitted equations was of the order of 20MPa. This is illustrated for the steels IF210 and DPX800 in Figure 2. The black lines are the experimental data for different strain rates and the red lines the fitted curves. The Johnson Cook model gives a reasonable description of the curve shapes and levels but has some difficulty to grasp the strain rate effect especially for the highest strain rates, see e.g. DPX800. The Johnson Cook parameters are given in Table 1.
Model vs. True stress IF 210
600

500

True Strain [MPa]

400

300

Experimental Johnson Cook

200

100 0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35

Plastic Strain

Figure 2a; Flow curves for IF210. Black lines are experimental data for different strain rates and red is fitted Johnson Cook curves.

Model vs. True stress DPX 800

1100

1000

True stress [MPa]

900

800

Experimental Johnson Cook

700

600 0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 Plastic strain

Figure 2b; Flow curves for DPX800

3.

FE MODEL FOR FREE EHF FORMING

Figure 3 illustrates a typical EHF experimental set up. A FE model was designed in Abaqus Explicit consisting of a chamber with water, a sheet described with shell elements and a die. The effect of the electrical discharge at the electrodes was simulated with a spherical pressure wave originating inside the chamber at the same location as the electrode. A pressure pulse with the shape of Figure 4 was used with the duration 1 millisecond. The shape of the pulse was estimated from [Bocksteiner, 1996]. The energy contents of the pulse in each simulation was scaled to the energy registered in each experimental. Energies around 20kJ were used. The walls of the chamber were assumed to have 80% reflection to the pressure waves.

Figure 3; Typical EHF set up.

Figure 4; Model of pressure pulse The model of the chamber , the die and the sheet is illustrated in Figures 5. The sheet is modelled with 2560 shell elements of the Abaqus S4R type. The tool is rigid and friction between tool and sheet is modelled with the Coulomb model with the coefficient of friction 0.1.

Fig 5a; Model of EHF chamber

Fig 5b; Model of die

Fig 5c; Model of sheet

The shape of the sheet after forming of IF210 is illustrated in Figure 6 which also shows the distribution of major principal strain.

Figure 6; Major principal strain in EHF formed sheet of IF210.

The dome heights obtained for the two steels are presented in Figure 7. The simulations show a fair agreement with the experimental trials. The experimentally measured strain distributions are compared to the numerical distribution for the two steels in Figures 8. It can be seen that the experimental major strains are slightly larger for IF210 than in the simulations and that the agreement between experiments and simulation is better for DPX800.

50

Dome height

Experimental distance (mm)

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

DPX800 IF210

Simulated distance (mm)

Figure 7 Experimental versus simulated dome height.

0,25

0,20

IF210
0,18 0,16 0,14

DPX800

0,20

0,15 Major starin

Major strain 0,12 0,10 0,08 0,06 Experimental

0,10

0,05 Experimental Simulation 0,00 0,00

0,04 0,02 0,00 0,00

Simulation

-0,05

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

-0,05 Minor strain

-0,10

-0,05

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

Minor strain

Figure 8a; Principal strains in simulation Figure 8b; Principal strains in simulation and in experiments for IF210 and in experiments for DPX800 corresponding to specific case in Figure 7. corresponding to specific case in Figure 7.

4.

FE MODEL FOR EHF FORMING INTO A DIE

In the electro hydraulic tests mentioned so far free forming was used i.e. the sheet is allowed to expand freely into a cavity. In a subsequent series of trials and simulations forming was performed into a truncated conical die. The geometry is illustrated in the model of Figure 9.

Figure 9; Model for EHF into a cone shaped die. In Figure 10 it can be observed that the sheet fills the die and that the forming is ended with a slight re-bounce when the centre of the sheet hits the die.

Figure 10; Gradual development of sheet shape during EHF.

Figure 11a; Simulated shape

Figure 11b; Measurement of shape accuracy.

The shape accuracy at the flat bottom surface was compared between the trials and the simulations by measuring the vertical distances between sheet and die as in Fig 11b. Figure 12 shows the degree of correlation between experiments and simulations. The simulations underestimate the out of flatness of the sheet for both steels. The agreement is best for DPX800.
7

Experimental distance (mm)

DPX800 IF210

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Simulated distance (mm)

Figure 12; Experimental versus simulated shape accuracy measurements for two specific trials.

The filling out of the die edge of the truncated cone is illustrated by Figures 13. It can be seen that the mild steel fills out the edge better than the ultra high strength steel. A satisfactory agreement is obtained between experiments and simulations.

Fig 13a; Filling out of edges for IF210 for the specific case of Figure 12.

Fig 13b; filling out of edges for DPX800 for the specific case of Figure 12.

The strain distributions after forming into a die are illustrated in Figures 14. A satisfactory agreement is obtained between experimental trials and simulations.

Fig 14a; Strain distribution in trials and simulation for IF210 in the specific case of Figure 12.

Fig 14b; Strain distribution in trials and simulation for DPX800 in the specific case of Figure 12.

5.

CONCLUSIONS

Experimental trials and simulations were performed of electro hydraulic forming with and without a die. Two sheet steels were evaluated in the paper namely the mild IF210 steel and the ultra high strength DPX800. 1. It was possible to give a reasonable description of the flow data for a wide range of strain rates up to 1000 per second with the Johnson Cook model. 2. A model was formulated for the pressure wave from the electrodes in the water chamber and its effects on forming. The model gave satisfactory predictions both for free forming and forming into a truncated conical die. 3. In the case of forming into a die rebounce effects were observed both in the experimental trials and in the simulations. 6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present research was financed within the European Coal and Steel Research Programme RFCS under contract RFSR-CT2006-00027 which is gratefully acknowledged. 7. REFERENCES

[Samek et. al., 2009] Samek, L.; Bjrkstrm, D.; Melander, A.; Arenholz,E. and Vadillo, L."Characterisation and modelling of the influence of the strain rate on the mechanical behaviour of high-strength steels and stainless steels"; In: Proceedings International Deep Drawing Reserach Group International Conference 2009, pp. 219-230; Golden CO, USA, 2009; [Johnson et. al., 1983] Johnson, G.R. ; Cook, W.H.;."A constitutive model and data for metals subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures"; In: Proceedings 7th International Symposium on Ballistics 1983, pp. 541-547; The Hague, Netherlands, 1983; [Bocksteiner, 1996] Bocksteiner, G.; "Evaluation of Underwater Explosive Performance of PBXW-115"; Department of Defence, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Australia, 1996;

Virtual Sensitivity Analysis of the Cooling Process within the Press Hardening Process
M. Medricky1, R. Struck1, J. Poelmeyer1, P. Olle2, B.-A. Behrens2 1 Volkswagen AG, Letterbox 1499, 38436 Wolfsburg, Germany miloslav.medricky@volkswagen.de 2 Leibniz University Hanover Institute of Metal Forming and Metal-Forming Machines, An der Universitt 2, 30823 Garbsen, Germany

Abstract: Press hardening represents an important manufacturing process in automobile industry. It serves, among others, to improve safety while keeping or even decreasing the car body weight. This process is affected through many parameters and thus it is difficult to design the manufacturing tools with respect to the requested final properties of the workpiece. This paper focuses on important parameters in the press hardening process taking the cooling channels into account. The mutual dependence of these parameters and their effect on the blank temperature is determined through two sensitivity analysis done on a simplified 2D simulation model in Abaqus. Within these simulations, observations concerning the effect of local tool deformations above the channel on the temperature of a workpiece and definition of optimal heat transfer coefficient in channels were done. Keywords: press hardening, cooling process, simulation, sensitivity analysis

1. INTRODUCTION Increasing demand for weight reduction of cars due to requirements for decreasing emissions, while keeping the same degree of safety, induces pressure on the car body manufacturers [Ferkel, 2007]. Aside from the more expensive solution of using alternative lightweight materials exists a less expensive possibility, hot forming of the crash relevant parts. These parts, with the strength up to 1500MPa, enable to conceive thinner structure with considerably lower weight while the strength is being maintained or increased (fig.1) [Germann et al., 2009]. Since the process of hot forming is very complex, it is hard to precisely predict tailored properties of the final part [Paar et al., 2009]. One way to control the manufacturing process and the resultant properties of the crash relevant parts is the numerical simulation with help of CAE software, considering not only the forming process with heat transfer between the parts and forming tools, like the conventional software as for example Autoform or DynaForm do, but also with heat transfer to the cooling channels within the tools. Todays simulations do not consider the cooling and the elastic deformations of the tools during the forming, therefore the prediction loses precision [Medricky et al., 2009].

Figure 1; Light weight body structure of the new VW Polo [Germann et al., 2009] For designing purposes and cooling improvement, the simulation should be able to: 1. reveal the places of a small contact pressure or gaps between tool & blank restricting the heat transfer 2. find the best combination of tool material, cooling channel distribution and properties to maximize/optimize the speed of cooling. 3. reveal the real properties of the part structure after the forming and cooling [Behrens et al., 2007] The points 1 and 3 serve mainly to enable the correct simulation with consideration of the cooling channels. For this purpose, it is necessary to create an experimental tool. Point 2 serves to optimize the cycle time of high strength parts The first part of this report will show through a 2D simulation in Abaqus how the most important parameters of the system like heat transfer coefficient at the blank-tool interface, tool material conduction, and convection coefficient in cooling medium influence the speed of cooling of the blank and thereby resultant material properties of the part. The second part will take the cyclic heating of the system into consideration and will scrutinize the influence of local deformation of the tool above the channel on the cooling. Within the given parameters also the optimal convection coefficient will be sought. By this opportunity the influence of cooling channel distance from the surface will be scrutinized as well. The influence of other important parameters like size of a channel, material and thickness of the blank, and steady state temperature and size of the tool as well as explanation of their mutual dependency will be mentioned in the outlook of this paper.

2. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS - TO DETERMINE THE DEPENDENCE OF SEVERAL INFLUENCING FACTORS: The three influencing factors mentioned in the previous section, their details, functionality, characteristics, and potential improvement can be described as follows: 1) Contact pressure between the blank and the tools is one of the most important factors for assuring the smooth heat transfer from the blank to the tools. The gap between the tool and the blank can even insulate and thus decrease the cooling at this position to its minimum. The places with a danger of gaps or insufficient pressure can be revealed through a simulation and a design of tools can be corrected correspondingly. 2) Heat conductance of a material together with heat capacity and material density represents thermal diffusivity of the heat. The thermal diffusivity represents the speed of temperature propagation through the tool and influences the ideal position of the cooling system with respect to the surface as well as the final temperature of the tools near the interface. For this reason the optimized cooling system has to be designed with consideration of tool material properties. 3) The heat transfer coefficient (HTC) in the channels is dependent on geometrical as well as hydrodynamical parameters. Concerning the geometry, a curvature of the channel can increase the HTC through reduction of the wall boundary layer and thus increase of Nusselt number. Similar effect can be also achieved through increasing of a Reynolds number which can be realized through fluid temperature increase (decrease of viscosity), increase of speed of flow, or increase of diameter of the channel. Hydrodynamicaly influenced HTC in channels will be considered in a 2D simulation in Abaqus. The geometrically influenced HTC will be investigated through experiments in order to determine the distribution of HTC on the walls of the channel.

3. 2D SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS I All three influencing factors need to be exploited either simultaneously or it is necessary to find which of these three factors is a bottleneck, which means, has the highest heat resistance of the cooling and exploit at least this one. In the Figure 2 the results of combination of these three parameters in the simplified 2D simulation in Abaqus are presented. Simulations have been processed and evaluated on the 2D model represented by blank and tool with cooling channels. The parameters were taken within the boundaries corresponding to the reality. Each surface on the graph represents a constant pressure (constant heat transfer coefficient on the blank-tool interface). The x-axis represents the thermal conductivity, the y-axis the heat transfer coefficient, and z-axis represents the temperature in the middle of the blank after 20s of cooling.

From the results can be seen that the most influencing factor of the blank cooling comes from the pressure on the interface between the tool and blank. The thermal conductivity and heat transfer in the channels both mutually influence the cooling. This effect comes from the fact that each of these thermal interfaces has a different heat resistance and thus transmits only as much heat as its characteristics permit. The heat flow causing the blank to cool down corresponds to the sum of heat resistances. It means the higher the sum of heat resistances the lower the cooling of the blank.

low pressure
temperature ( C)
pressure increase

convection increase

high conductivity pressure

increase

convectio

n (W /mK)

ity uctiv cond K) (W/m

Figure 2; Cyclic heating of blank until the steady state for different HTC in channels

4. 2D SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS II The graph in Figure 2 describes the dependence of the three important factors while all other parameters being constant. Of these parameters size of the cooling channel, its distance from the surface, thermal conductivity and thickness of the blank, size, shape and temperature of the tool should be named. In order to determine how far these parameters influence the cooling a second parameter study has been done. For this purpose, a simulation model containing a tool with a cooling channel as well as the process parameters like blank heating, stamping, and transfer with heat dissipation into the surrounding until the next blank is inserted was created. The parameters were always chosen with respect to the reality. The temperature evolution until the steady state for different HTC in channels is shown in figure 3. We can see that the temperature differences at the beginning of the process are negligible compared to the differences at the steady state and thus consideration of cyclic heating is in a cooling process very important. In order to achieve an optimized cooling, provided that a pressure on the tool-blank interface cannot or is difficult to be predefined during designing, the ideal combination

of parameters has to be achieved. This means that a channels distance from a surface, its size, and HTC has to be chosen with respect to a given contact HTC on the toolblank interface, thermal characteristics of the tool and blank (thermal diffusivity), tool geometry, and rate of heat transferred into the system.
90 0

80 0

70 0

(C )

60 0

H C_ 0 T 13 0 H C_ 0 T 26 0

T m era e p ture (C)

50 0

H C_ 0 T 52 0 H C_ 0 T 10 00

40 0

H C_ 0 T 20 00 H C_ 0 0 T 32 00

30 0

H C_ 0 cycles T 13 0_

20 0

10 0

0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

T e (s im )

Figure 3; Cyclic heating of blank until the steady state for different HTC in channels For this parameter study we have taken two today available and mostly used thermal conductivities of the tools as well as the mostly achieved contact pressure and combined them with different HTC and channel distances. The temperature distribution in the blank was observed and the heating as well as the steady state was considered From the simulation, following observations can be mentioned. 1) Optimal cooling (HTC) in channels for given parameters. 2) Lower contact HTC above channel due to lower contact pressure caused by tool deformation. 1) Optimal cooling (HTC) in channels for given parameters To find the optimal cooling in channels for given parameters (in this case of convection) we have run several simulations on the 2D experimental model. Each simulation simulates cyclic heating of the whole system until the steady state is reached. Changes in temperature distribution along the blank with different HTC in channels for first cycle state and steady state are shown in figure 4 and figure 5 respectively. For the first cycle state and convection lower than 2000W/m2K, the temperature above the channel is even higher than when no cooling is considered. This effect is caused by tool deformation and is explained in the second part of this section. With further increase of convection the blank temperature decreases with an unequal rate. This can be observed

on the temperature/position dependence graph in figure 4 and figure 5. The single channel is positioned in the middle of blank, 50mm from blanks edge.
80 75 70 H C_ T 10000 65 60 H C_ T 80000 55 50 0 20 40 60 80 100 H C_ T 160000 H C_ T 320000 Path N _ olin _ o Co g H C_ T 20000 H C_ T 40000 H C_ T 1300 H C_ T 2600 H C_ T 5200

T p tu C) em era re(

(C )

D nc (m ) ista e m

Figure 4; Temperature distribution along the blank after 1st cycle for different HTC in channels
230 (C ) 210 190 170 T p tu (C) em era re 150 130 110 90 70 50 0 20 40 60 80 100 H C 80000 T_ H C 160000 T_ H C 320000 T_ H C 1300 T_ H C 2600 T_ H C 5200 T_ H C 10000 T_ H C 20000 T_ H C 40000 T_

D n (m ) ista ce m

Figure 5; Temperature distribution along the blank at steady state for different HTC in channels In the first cycle, the temperature difference between the lowest and highest peak is only 15C, in the steady state on the other hand, the difference is 100C, and the maximal temperature for our chosen HTC is about 180 C above the channel, which is more than twice higher than 75C after first cycle. Considering that a temperature in the blank without cooling equals the cooling with HTC 2600 after first cycle (see fig.4), and that in steady state reaches the temperature up to 500 C (not shown) depending on the process and material parameter, it can be derived, that the cooling is important mainly when considering a steady state. When only the first cycle is considered, material parameters of the tool are more important than the cooling system. We can see that as the convection increases the temperature approaches a certain value. Because the optimal combination of parameters leads to the optimal cooling under the least costly conditions, it is necessary to find the breaking point. For this reason the temperatures from each 0.5s step of the steady state cooling cycle were added and put in the relation with the convection of three different channel distances from a surface in the figure 6.

Figure 6; HTC for optimal cooling It can be seen that a temperature in the blank decreases with an exponential increase of the convection. Further increase of the convection causes the approaching of a certain final temperature which in actual parameter combination, will not be crossed. To find a relationship between the system parameters and the minimal temperature, series of simulations for channel distances 10, 15, and 20 mm from the surface and channel diameter 15 mm have been done. Most efficient improvement of the parameters, it means the point where a marginal change of cooling is lower than a marginal change in expenses, takes place when its thermal resistance reaches certain value. This value must be neglectable with respect to the rest of thermal resistances in the cooling system. This point is shown in Figure 6 and for the given parameters it is at 20 000 W/m2 K of HTC in the channels. On the other hand, when considering first cycle cooling only, we get very inconsistent results showing even higher temperatures for closer distances of the channel to the surface than for a larger distances, both by low HTC. This effect can be explained through the local tool deformation introduced in the next section and underlines the importance of taking a steady state into account when simulating with cooling system. 2) Effect of tool deformation above the channel on the cooling. The cooling channels under the surface cause a tool deformation and thus decrease of the surface contact pressure. This results in uneven temperature distribution in a blank and thus uneven cooling (see figure 4). Figure 7 shows the contact pressure drop on the interface for two different diameters of the cooling channel. The applied pressure of 10MPa results through a deformation in a maximum of 15% of pressure decrease for channels diameter 30 mm and 7% for channels diameter of 15 mm. It means that there is a minimal pressure 8.5 MPa for 30 mm and 9.3 MPa for 15 mm just above the channel.

(k)

12 11,5

Te p ture m era (C)

11 10,5 10 9,5 9 8,5 8 0 20 40 60 80 100

Co tact P ssu n re re d istan = 0m ce 1 m d e 1 m iam ter= 5m Co tact P ssu n re re d istan = 0m ce 1 m d e 3 m iam ter= 0m

D istan (m ) ce m

Figure 7; Pressure distribution on a blank tool interface for surface-channel distance of 10mm and channel diameter 15mm and 30mm This contact pressure jump causes a decrease of heat transfer between the blank and the tool and results in uneven temperature distribution in the blank. Local temperature increase caused by tool deformation above the channel after first cycle for channel diameter equal to 30 mm can be seen in Figure 8. The red curve in the same figure represents the same case without elastic deformation of the tool. We can see that there is a few degrees higher temperature above the channel when considering tool elasticity after first cycle.
80 (K ) T p tu (C em era re ) 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70 0 50 D n e (m ) ista c m 100 rig _ id first_ cycle e lastic_ first_ cycle

Figure 8; Temperature distribution in blank for elastic and rigid tool after first cycle The temperature distribution in steady state is shown in Figure 9. We can see that for a long run, the effect of higher temperature on the interface above the channel disappears, the temperatures equalize and the temperature distribution above the channel is for both rigid and elastic cases with negligible difference (max 3C). The same works for all sizes of cooling channels as for example for channel diameter of 30mm presented here as well (Fig.9). We can conclude that even though the local tool deformation lowers the

heat transfer between the two faces, the effect of increase of wall area of the channel easily overcomes the effect of HT decrease caused by tool deformation. Therefore, when the strength of tool structure allows it, it holds that the bigger the channel diameter, the better the cooling.

()

290 270 e lastic D 15m = m rigid D 15m = m e lastic D 30m = m rigid D 30m = m 0 50 D n e (m ) ista c m 100

T p tu (C) em era re

250 230 210 190 170 150

Figure 9; Temperature distribution in blank for elastic and rigid tool in steady state for different diameters of channel

5. OUTLOOK Complexity of cooling systems used in hot forming tools leads to difficulties in deriving the correct HTC. To determine the real heat removal through such a system an experimental tool has been designed. The tool will be first heated on a constant steady state temperature and than through the introduced cooling channels cooled down again to the steady state. During and after this experiment, the temperature will be measured. Afterwards, the inverse simulation method will be used to determine the real convection in the channels. The result will be compared to the CFD simulation as well as to the simulation using convection boundary condition. The properties and flow speed of the cooling medium will be varied to reveal the effect on HTC distribution in the channels. The results will be used to control the cooling by the means of the cooling medium with respect to the system parameters and used cooling channels geometry (curvature, length etc). At first, an effect of a channels curvature on the cooling will be experimentally examined to demonstrate the influence of turbulent removal of a viscous boundary layer on a cooling efficiency with respect to pumping power. Next experiments will be focusing on heat removal through an exact shape of channels represented by mostly repeated segments in real hot formed parts.

As described in this paper, the steady state plays a very important role when considering a cooling system and should not be neglected. In order to determine the final temperature in the blank after achieving the steady state while considering certain system parameters, many simulations need to be done. It is the aim to find a dependence of final steady state temperature in the blank just above the cooling channel on all available parameters appearing in the cooling system. Using this dependence it should be clear within relative small calculation time what steady state temperature under what conditions will be in the blank right above the channel. The temperature distribution from this point to the adjacent places in the blank would be determined with help of correction factors. Similar will be done also for various numbers of channels in a row, various tool geometries, and heat input to output ratio of the system. Within this heat flow ratio, also the cycle time will be included, which delivers the possibility of the cycle time optimization. Such a tool would be used for construction of cooling channels in preliminary design stages. The functionality of such a tool will be checked on the experimental tools. REFERENCES

[Behrens et al., 2007] Behrens, B.-A.; Olle, P.; Consideration of Phase Transformations in Numerical Simulation of Press Hardening; In: Steel Research, 78 (2007) No. 10-11, pp. 784-790, DOI: 10.2374/SRI07SP067-78-2007-784 [Ferkel, 2007] Ferkel, H.; Hochfeste Strukturen im Automobilbau; 6. Industriekolloquium - Hochfeste Strukturen, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, 2007 In:

[Germann et al., 2009] Germann, V.; Eichhorn, O.; Volkswagen der neue Polo; In: EuroCarBody 2009 11th International Car Body Benchmark Platform, Bad Nauheim; 2009 [Medricky et al., 2009] Medricky, M.; Struck, R.; Lorenz, D.; Olle, P.; Behrens, B.-A.; Thermo-mechanical coupled simulation of hot forming processes considering die cooling; In: LS-DYNA Forum, Filderstadt, 2009 [Paar et al., 2009] Paar, U.; Prokoph, S.; Sunderktter, C.; Jttner, S.; Gradierte Eigenschaftseinstellung im Bauteil; In: ICAFT, 2009, 3rd International Conference on Accuracy in Forming Technology, Chemnitz, 2009

MECHANICS OF FORMING RING DISKS

Nazaryan E.A. 1, Avakyan R. M.1, Arakelyan M. M.1, Kahrizi M. A.2 Faculty of Physics Yerevan State University 1 Alex Manoogian, Yerevan, Armenia e-mail: marakelyan@ysu.am, Web page:http://www.ysu.am
2 1

Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics Yerevan State University 1 Alex Manoogian, Yerevan, Armenia e-mail: marakelyan@ysu.am, Web page:http://www.ysu.am

Abstract: The analysis of forming ring disk of constant thickness in conditions of large plastic de formations t aking i nto a ccount t he i nterconnected c hange of e ffective s train and deformation hardening is carried out. The analytical dependences characterizing the relative size of plastic area are obtained. The interrelation between the initial and final form of a product is established at maximum possible size of internal pressure. Keywords: mechanics of forming, sheet metal, strain, stress. 1. INTRODUCTION When w orking out applied a nd t echnological pr oblems of a xi-symmetric f orming metals results of the solution of the problems on definition of stress-strain state of a ring disk and a thick-walled pipe at large plastic deformations are used. These issues include the definition of the final shape and size of products and mechanical properties of the material changes due to deformation at a given magnitude and patterns of change in the external load. Existing methods of the analysis of similar problems are based on f orming process schematization, a t w hich t he pr oblem i s r educed t o gi ving t o the e quations characterizing a plast ic condi tion, a f orm w hich is con venient f or mathematical calculations i n o rder t o obt ain c losed a nalytical de cisions. For t his pu rpose s tatically definable problems are considered as a result of which the definition of stress without considering t he de pendence e quations b etween s tress a nd s train ( speeds of deformations) becomes possible. The m odern condition of t he a nalysis of a xi-symmetric problems i s ba sed on pioneer w orks [ 1,2,3] i n w hich t he plastic c ondition of a t hick-walled p ipe of i nfinite length unde r t he influence of uni form i nternal s tress i s c onsidered. In t hese w orks

certain assumptions are accepted according to which cross-section of a pipe at forming remains f lat w hich in its tur n enables to define s tress f rom the joi nt s olution of t he balance equation and plasticity condition for plane-stressed, or for plane-strained states. From the obt ained s olutions it f ollows tha t at limiting value of int ernal s tress r elative diameter of the pipe, which is in plastic state, in the first case tends to 2,963, and in the second to 2,72. Actually in both cases plane problem in polar coordinates is solved at different f orms of w riting of pl asticity c ondition. T he re sults are som ewhat contradictory, because of t he dif ficulties t hat a rise due t o the assum ption that at t he same va lue of i nternal s tress the ab sence of an axial com pressive l oad st imulates t he increase of the relative s ize of the pl asticity r egion. Besides, in accord with t hese solutions i t is di fficult to establish interrelation between c o-ordinates of cons idered elements in the initial and deformed states, therefore definition of the final form and the sizes of a product becomes an insoluble problem. In another group of works [4,5,6] the elastic-plastic state of thin plates with circular cut unde r the inf luence of int ernal stress is c onsidered. In p articular, in work [4] it is shown that in a limiting condition on an internal contour of a plate radial and circular stresses, accordingly, reach sizes = 2 s 3 , = s 3 , a nd on t he ba sis of the equations of dependences of stress and deformation increments it is concluded that speed (increment) of a xial de formation d z , and relative r adius of plast ic area tends to 1,7 5 a t u se of M ises f luidity c ondition, a nd t o 1,65 a t u se of T resca-Saint Venant f luidity c ondition . I n w orks [ 5,6] a n attempt i s m ade t o obt ain m ore r ealistic results for axial strain component. It is shown, that for limiting value of internal stress the r elative t hickness of a n i nternal c ontour t ends t o 3,6 1. U nreality of t he r esults, according to the authors, is due to the convention of schematization of forming process. While in the first gr oup of works discrepancy of t he obt ained r esults i s c onnected with consideration of plane-stress state on the basis of a hypothesis of plane sections, in the second case unr eality of r esults i s cau sed by an inaccuracy of assum ptions, connected with forming mechanics. Therefore mathematically correct statement of forming problems of a ring disk of a constant thickness from a m aterial with certain mechanical properties in the conditions of large plastic deformations seems appropriate and actual. In t he pr esent w ork t he f orming in limiting state taking into account the interconnected change of axial components of deformations and deformation hardening is considered and the following tasks are put forward: - Definition of the greatest relative diameter of the disk which is in a plastic state; - Establishment of interrelation between final and initial forms and the sizes of the product.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND THE INITIAL EQUATIONS

Let's c onsider a r ing di sk w ith t hickness H 0 , with internal radius r , a nd w ith external- R0 , loaded with internal pressure p . We will define the stress-strained state of the di sk, n ot i mposing r estrictions on sizes of st rains. Unlike w ell-known w orks [1,2,3,4] we will assume, that the disk consists of set of ring plates of the sizes 2r0 , 2 R0 and t hickness h0 which c an f reely be de formed i n r adial a nd a xial directions a t preservation of material continuity and absence of power interaction between plates. It is obvi ous, that s uch a model most r ealistically di splays the s tate of a di sk unde r the influence of internal stress and absence of axial compressing effort. Let's accep t cyl indrical sys tem of coordinates , , z , pl ane z = 0 which i s a n average p lane of plat es, and axis z is di rected pe rpendicularly to this pl ane. It i s supposed, that plates are loaded by the external forces parallel to an average plane, and the characteristic size of plates is h0 ( R0 r0 ) << 1 . In such conditions radial, axial and circular di rections w ill be m ain directions of st ress a nd strain, and the st ressed stress realized in such conditions, is defined as the generalized plane-stressed state [4]. Thus, the problem of deformation of a ring disk is reduced to the analysis of forming of set s of thin-walled r ing plates de formed in t he pl ane-stressed state under the influence of internal pressure. For the solution of tasks in view we will consider the initial equations characterizing a plastic condition. - Mises yield criterion 1 (1) s { [( ) 2 + ( z )2 + ( z )2 ]}1 2 , = 2 where , , z - the main pressure in radial, circular and axial directions. - Equivalent deformation 2 = { [( ) 2 + ( z ) 2 + ( z ) 2 ]}1 2 i 9 where , and z - the main strains in the same directions. - Volume consistency condition + + z = 0. - Parity between stress and strain increments d d d d z d z d 3 d i = = , = z 2 s z

(2)

(3) (4)

where d i - is intensity of strain increment, defined by the parity 2 (5) d= { [d d ) 2 + ( d d z ) 2 + ( d z d ) 2 ]}1 2 i 9 - Dependence be tween f luidity p ressure ( 1) a nd e quivalent de formation ( 2) presented in the form of sedate function [8]

 s = Ain ,

(6)

where A and n -are the parameters of deformation hardening depending on mechanical properties of the deformable material - The equation of balance of axi-symmetrically loaded ring plate element taking into account the presence of axial deformation [7]

dh (7) ) = 0. d h d Strain increments in circular d and a xial d z directions ar e connected with t he dependences of an increment of radius d and of axial displacement dh d dh = = d , d z . (8) h At plane-strained state ( z = 0 ) from (4) follow the dependences 2 2 + (9) = = d d ; d z d . 2 2
+ (1 +

Taking into account (8) and (9) equation of balance (7) becomes 2 + 2 d (10) + = 0. d 2 2 Integration (10) together with (1) is basically possible only for ideally rigid - plastic model of a de formable material, t herefore t he s olution of t asks i n v iew us ing a d irect method becomes impossible [7]. 3. FORMING OF THIN RING PLATES In our w orks [ 9,10] i t i s s hown, t hat, w hile representing c omponents of s train increment i n the tri gonometric f orm on de viator planes ( -planes ) of pl asticity cylinder, s atisfying pa rity ( 5) a nd vol ume c onstancy c ondition in di fferential f orm 0) ( d + d + d z = 2 4 d = d i cos , d = d i cos ( + ), d z = d i cos ( + ), 3 3

(11) on dependences (9) it is easy to obtain expressions for stress 2 2 (12) = s cos( + / 6), = s sin , 3 3 which satisfy Mises yield criterion at plane-strained state ( z = 0 ) . In dependences (11) and (12) parameter characterizes a k ind of the deformed condition and varies within 0 2 [9,10].

Taking into account (8), (11) and (12) it is possible to present balance equation (10) on deviator planes (-planes ) in quite a simple form [10]: (13) d= s d i . Thus, t he s ystem of e quations ( 1-7) leads t o the est ablishment o f di fferential proportional dependence between radial stress component and equivalent strain. In (13) proportionality c oefficient is fluidity stress of the m aterial, de pending on r eological models of the deformable material. At s edate de pendence o f fluidity s tress on e quivalent s train ( 6) e quation ( 13), taking into account (12), is easily integrated and gets the following form. 2 n in +1 0 +1 =1 + n ) in cos + , (14) ( 6 3 Where 0 - is equivalent strain of a boundary element. Limits of change of pa rameter in the considered problem i s e stablished depending on the value of enclosed loading. At a small value of internal pressure, ring plates are in an elastic state and the stresses are defined from the known solution to the elastic problem [3,4]. With increase in internal stress to the initial critical value, which is s / 3 , first plastic de formations a ppear on the internal c ontour, e quality

s / 3 is t hus car ried out. Together w ith stress i ncrease plast ic = =

deformations extend in a direction to an external contour and at limiting size of internal stress relative diameter of the disk captured by plastic deformations, reaches the greatest value. In the specified range of change of parameter vector-function , whose module is numerically e qual to e quivalent s train ( 2) [9,10], be comes pe rpendicular to c oordinate axes and z due to which the strain increment and components on these axes become equal to zero. From dependences (12) i t f ollows that b earing a bility of plates i s s ettled, w hen radial com pressing pressure on an internal co ntour on absolute si ze r each values 2 s 3 , a t w hich = 5 6 . O n t he bor der of e lastic-plastic ar ea a xial strain = = component becomes e qual t o z ero due t o w hich c ondition s / 3 is satisfied on t his bor der. H ence, a ll k inds of de formations w hich b asically can be realized in lim iting state set tle d own on deviator planes i n t he f orm o f s ector w ith central angle = 3 . If parameter coincides with a n egative direction of axis , then is compression strain in a radial direction, and and z are the stretch strains which num erically a re e qual 2 . If parameter coincides w ith direction 5 6 = 0 , a nd p and z are e qual in va lue and are oppos ite i n s ign, i .e. pur e s hear or plane strain in plane ( ; z ) takes place. If parameter coincides with direction 7 6

 z = 0 , and p are are equal in size and are opposite in sign, i.e. pure shear or plane strain in plane ( ; ) takes place. From dependence (14) components of deformations are easily defined at 0 = 0
1+ n 3 = (1 + cos 2 sin 2 ) 2 3 1+ n 3 (15) = (cos 2 + sin 2 ) 2 3 1+ n 2 3 = z (1 sin 2 ). 2 3 Thus, in parametrical form the general solution for stress-strain state of a r ing disk is obtained. Let's est ablish the interrelation between parameter and c o-ordinate of t he considered element i n s trained s tate. F or t his purpose, ha ving di fferentiated ( 14) a t ( 0 = 0) , taking into account (8) and (11), we have

3 2 3 sin + cos2 )d . (16) 2 6 After integration of (16) it acquires the following form: 3 1 3 (17) ln = (1 + n )( cos 2 sin 2 ) + C. 3 4 12 The integration constant in (17) is found from the boundary condition according to 7 which at = R ( R - external radius of plastic area). = ; 6 Taking into account the boundary condition, expression (17) becomes: 1 3 7 1 3 (18) = exp{(1 + n )[ + ( ) + cos 2 + sin 2 ]} R 4 3 6 4 12 At drawing out dependence (18) it is considered, that effective strain (14) is always a positive scalar value. Substituting in (18) va lue of pa rameter = 5 6 at w hich internal stress r eaches limiting value, we will receive relatively maximum diameter of plastic area R 1 3 (19) = exp[(1 + n )( + )] exp[(1 + n ) ( 0,854 )], 0 4 9 where 0 is the radius of an internal contour in strained state. At n = 0 , limiting value R 0 tends t o 2,35, that i s essentially smaller t han t he results de scribed in works [1,2,3]. Dependences ( 12), ( 14), (15) a nd ( 18), being t he p arametrical solution to t he problem, c ompletely define t he s tress-strained state of r ing pl ates taking i nto a ccount the interconnected change of axial strain components and deformation of hardening. = (1 + n )(sin cos +

For de finition of t he f inal f orm a nd t he p roduct s izes a t l imiting va lue of i nternal pressure we will consider distribution of circular and axial deformations. In de pendences ( 4) a nd (5) strain c omponent i ncrements are r elated to the current strained c ondition, a nd t heir s ummation l eads to the loga rithmic deformations, satisfying to volume constancy (3): d h , (20) = ln = ln ; z ln ; = dr r h0 where , h and r, h0 are cur rent co -ordinates a nd t hickness of t he c onsidered pl ate element in the deformed and initial conditions, accordingly. From e quality ( 15) a nd ( 20) de pendences be tween c o-ordinates and t hickness i n current and initial states are easily established. 1 + n 3 sin 2 ; = exp r cos 2 + 3 2 (21) 1 + n 2 3 h h0 sin 2 . = exp 1 2 3 In particular, for internal contour, at = s from (21) follows = ;

1 (1 + n ) ; 2 For ideally rigi d-plastic model of de formable m aterial

0= h= exp r0 h0

(22)

( n = 0) ,

the re lative

thickening of internal edge is 1,648. 4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Comparing t he r eceived s olution w ith t he s econd de pendence ( 9), i t i s e asy to notice, that at limiting value of internal stress, which equals 2 s 3 , d z cannot tend to infinity as at the very same time the numerator of the given dependence also becomes equal to z ero. O n t he ot her ha nd, f rom f orming mechanics it f ollows t hat at the value of s of t he i nternal s tress, t he ve ctor f unction module c annot be more t han one , t hus = . H ence, t he maximum va lue of a xial s train c omponents t ends t o 0,5, a nd t he relative thickness of plate - to 1,648, which fully corresponds to the values realized in the experiments.

Figure 1. Figure 1. pr esents the i nitial (on the le ft) a nd t he f inal (on the righ t) f orms of the product and its sizes as well as stress distribution at initial and limiting value of internal pressure. For the estimation of the maximum size of relative thickening of internal edge of ring di sk (H / H 0 ) , by e quating s hifted volumes a t t he a ssumption of l inear dependence H from current radius , we will receive:
2 H r02 ( 0 / r02 1) . (23) = 2 2 H 0 R (1 0 / R 2 ) Numerical calculation, a t pa rameters 0 r0 = 1,648 and R 0 = 2,35 , s hows t hat axial relative thickening of internal edge is H / H 0 0,14 , which is comparable to the results of experimental research.

4. CONCLUSION 1. The analytical solution of forming problem of a ring disk of constant thickness is obtained a t large pl astic de formations ta king into account the i nterconnected change of effective strains and deformation hardening. 2. It i s established that t he r elative si ze of pla stic area d epends on the va lue of internal pressure and on its border, for ideally rigid-plastic model of deformable material, tends to 2,35. 3. It is shown that the relative thickening of internal contour of a disk in an axial direction does not exceed 15 %. REFERENCES 1. Nadai A., Theory of Flow and Fracture Solids; Vol. 2; McGraw Hill; N ew York; 1963. 2. Unksov E.P., Johnson W., Kolmogorov V.L., Theory of Plastic Deformation; p.598; Moscow 1983. 3. Malinin N.N., Application Theory of Plasticity and Creeping; p.400; Moscow 1975. 4. Kachanov L.M., Foundations of Plasticity Theory; p.420; Moscow 1969. 5. Sokolovsky V.V., Theory of Plasticity ; p. 608; Moscow 1969. 6. Hill R. The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, p.362; Oxford 1998. 7. Popov E.A.; Foundations of Sheet Metal F orming T heory; p.278; M oscow 1977. 8. Marciniak Z ., D unkan J ., H u S., Mechanics of Sheet M etal F orming; p.228; Published by Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002. 9. Nazaryan E.A.,Konstantinov V.F. Kinematics of S training in Deformation Operations of S heet S tamping; pp.35 -41; B ulletin of M achine-building 2; Moscow 1999. 10. Nazaryan E ., A rab N ., A rakelyan M., M arkosyan A ., M echanics of F orming Thin Ring Plates; pp. 7 15-723; International Deep Drawing Research Group 2009 Conference, 1-3 June, Golden, Colorado, USA.

Numerical investigations in microhydroforming and design of an experimental set-up for material characterization of micro tubes
Yanxia Lu, Sbastien Thibaud, Nathalie Boudeau ENSMM, FEMTO-ST/Department of Applied Mechanics, 26 rue de lEpitaphe 25000 Besanon - France nboudeau@ens2m.fr

Abstract: The paper focuses on the miniaturization of the bulging test for material characterization of micro tubes. For the design of the experimental device, numerical simulations are conducted first. Even if no scale effect is taking into account in the material modeling, the numerical results give some information before performing experimental works and the design of the set-up: level of pressure inside the tube, volume of fluid necessary to create such a level of pressure and bulge height to measure. The main results are a design for an experimental device and choices for its instrumentation. Keywords: micro tubes, bulging test, set-up design, instrumentation

1. INTRODUCTION Tube hydroforming is still considered as an advanced technique. It presents several advantages [Abmetoglu et al., 2000] such as: - part consolidation with the improvement of the structural strength and stiffness; - lower tooling cost due to the diminution of the number of parts and of secondary operations; - weight reduction through more efficient section design and wall thickness tailoring; - narrow dimensional tolerances with low springback. Nowadays components miniaturization concerns a lot of sectors of activity: aerospace, automotive, biomedical, etc. It is therefore legitimate to study the miniaturization of traditional forming processes [Eichenhller et al., 2008][Barbier et al., 2008]. They could present the advantages of less environmental impact than micro manufacturing processes derived from microelectronics. Moreover these micro forming processes canl inherit all the methodology and knowledge from traditional forming processes in simulations, material modeling, etc. The main difficulty identified at the present time is the material characterization in small dimensions and it is proposed to develop a specific device for micro tube bulging test (Table I).

Numerical simulations will be conducted in order to evaluate the interesting dimensions to be changed for a future study of the scale factor influence. The results will give some orientations for the design of the experimental device and its instrumentation. Half-length of free bulge zone (mm) Diameter (mm) Thickness (mm) Ratio diameter/thickness 6 12 mm 2.5 5 mm 0.05 0.25 mm 25 50 - 100

Table I; Typical dimensions for micro tubes

2. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS The following simulations presented thereafter will permit to make estimations for designing an experimental device dedicated to material characterization of micro tubes. 1.1. General considerations For performing finite element simulations of the micro tube bulging test, assumptions based on experimental works done on macro tubes [Velasco et al., 2008] are done: - the tube is fixed to the die at its two ends; - the tube can bulge only in its central zone named the free bulge zone. So the real test presents a cylindrical and mirror symmetry. Only the mirror symmetry is considered in Figure 1.

Figure 1; Configuration of the simulations of micro tube bulging

Numerical simulations are conducted with LS-Dyna using an explicit dynamics algorithm. The geometries are meshed with fully integrated Belytschko-Tsa shell elements with a mean size of 0.025mm. Friction between the die and the tube is modeled with a Coulombs law where the friction coefficient equals 0.1. The material is considered isotropic without rate effect and its plastic behavior is represented by a power law hardening rule:

( )=
p
p

+ K.

( )

p n

where is the plastic equivalent strain, Y the yield stress, K the consistency and n an exponent representing the hardening of the material. The von Misesplasticity criterion is considered at this level of the study. For the FE simulations, the material data of Table II are used. Density Youngs modulus Poissons coefficient Yield stress Consistency Hardening exponent 7 800 kg/mm3 210 000 MPa 0.3 285 MPa 1 250 MPa 0.4

Table II; Material data used for the FE simulations performed

1.2. Loading conditions modeling In bulging test, the tube is loaded with an internal pressure. During experiments, this pressure results in filling the tube with an increasing volume of fluid. With LS-Dyna code, two ways are proposed for modeling the increasing internal pressure in the tube: - an internal pressure is applied on each element representing the tube; - the airbag function is used which corresponds to a volume control. The volume control corresponds to a mass flow of liquid or gas inside a closed surface. dM The material feed rate (where M is the mass of water inside the tube and t the feed dt time) is constant. The pressure generated by the mass flow and the current volume are calculated by the following equation: V (t ) P(t ) = K (t ). ln 0 + L(t ) V (t ) where P (t ) is the current pressure, K (t ) the bulk modulus of the fluid, L(t ) an additional pressure, V0 (t ) and V (t ) the volumes of fluid in uncompressed and compressed state respectively. In Figure 2.a bulge height evolution during simulation is represented for FE model based on pressure control and volume control. With pressure control, the deformation of the tube is quite inexistent during half the simulation and increase exponentially after. With volume control, the bulge height has a regular evolution which will lead to a more

regular bulged tube. In consequence the homogeneous measurement zone will be larger with volume control.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2; Evolution of (a) bulge height and (b) pressure in case of simulation with pressure loading and of mass feeding loading for bulging a tube of dimensions (half length = 6 mm ; diameter = 4 mm ; thickness = 0.3 mm)

Figure 2.b represents the evolution of the pressure inside the tube during simulations based on pressure or volume control. The evolution of the pressure is linear in case of pressure control which corresponds to the loading law used for the simulation. In case of volume control, pressure is a result of calculation. From these results, it can be concluded that it will be important to control the volume during experiments. 1.3. Consideration of scale effects In this subsection, pressure loading is modeled by mass feeding. The study of the scale effects will concern: - different lengths for the free bulged zone; - different diameters for the tube; - different thicknesses for the tube. For an efficient usage of the future experimental measurements, it is necessary to order the different tests to be performed and it is chosen to impose the ratio diameter/thickness as described in Table I. It will permit to pilot variations in number of grains in the thickness and to study scale effects. In Figure 3, the influence of the tube length on the pressure vs. bulge height curve is studied, the others dimensions staying constant. It can be observed that for half free length higher than twice the tube radius the stabilized pressure is the same. For very small half free length compared to tube radius, this pressure is slightly higher.

Figure 3; Influence of the tube half free length on the pressure vs. bulge height curve (initial diameter: 4 mm ; initial thickness: 0.3 mm)

Figure 4; Influence of ratio diameter/thickness on the pressure vs. bulge height curve
In Figure 4, the influence of the ratio diameter/thickness on the pressure vs. bulge height curve is illustrated. It can be seen that the pressure is higher at the beginning of the bulging test and tends to a smaller stabilized value. Important pressure is needed at the beginning for the material to yield. After yielding the tube is easier to form. The main result here is a diminution of the ratio
Pyielding Pstabilized

with an increasing ratio

Diameter Thickness

3. DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTATION

3.1. Design of the experimental set-up for micro tube bulging test The different numerical simulations presented in section 2 give indication on the forces the tool will have to resist to, on the pressure to apply and on the volume of fluid necessary to bulge the micro tube. The tool consists in two half die where the guidance for the tube positioning and the free bulging zone are machined (Figure 5). This configuration has been chosen to insure the coaxial positioning of the tube and to avoid any risk of shearing of the specimen. The main drawback is that such a die is devoted to test a tube with a unique free bulge length and diameter. The tightness is assured by the combination of conical machining in the die and conical plunger which clamp the tube at its two ends. One of the plungers possesses a lateral drilling passage to evacuate imprisoned air in the tube during fluid filling. The other presents a central drilling passage for fluid feeling and then for pressure increasing inside the micro tube.

The tool is associated with a pressure plunger which is designed in two parts (Figure 6). One is a small diameter plunger whose role is to generate the internal pressure. Its small dimensions allow the evaluation with a good precision of the fluid volume injected in the tube by following its displacement. It is associated to a secondary plunger with larger dimensions which acts as linear guidance. This last one is connected to the servo cell of a traction machine. It permits to have access to the displacement and the reaction force during the experiments.

Figure 5; Opened die with tube in place. Conical machining for clamping conditions is marked by circles. The dimensions of the die are 45x50x15 mm.

Figure 6; Design of the double plunger and interface with the die

3.2. Choices for instrumentation For material characterization, the micro tube bulging test designed in section 3.1 must be associated with specific instrumentation. By analogy with traditional tube bulging test, the measurements to be done are essentially the bulging height and the pressure [Velasco et al., 2008]. The pressure will be measured through the force cell of the traction machine. Because some leak can exist in the system, a displacement sensor will be implemented to measure the movement of the small dimension pressure plunger. The comparison of the temporal evolution of the traction machine ram and the pressure plunger displacements, and the one of the pressure will permit to do adequate corrections to take into account the existing leak of fluid. For measuring the bulge height, it isnt possible to use a contact sensor such the one used for macro tubes [Velasco et al., 2008]. Moreover a single point measurement could lead to important errors [Ben Ouirane et al., 2010]. So a laser line scan sensor has been chosen. It permits to measure the profile of the bulging zone without contact. Thus the pole point can be found even if the sensor positioning isnt perfect. In addition, the number of data is higher and the precision is better actually (640 points, precision 2m). An example of a shaped micro tube profile measurement is illustrated in Figure 7. The alone difficulty is to machine a large enough window in the die for measurements (Figure 8); an angle of 45 is necessary between the incident and the reflected rays.

Figure 7; Example of profile measurement with laser scan sensor of a shaped micro tube. The experiment is illustrated on the left and the resulting 2D profile on the right.

Figure 8; Complete tool with plunger (upper part) and die with measurement window (down part)

4. CONCLUSIONS Miniaturization of processes is a necessity for a lot of industries. Microhydroforming could present interests for microfluidics or as an alternative to micro deep drawing. One of the difficulties is the material behavior which becomes sensitive to the microstructure. In order to study tube material behavior in the micro world, it is essential to develop an experimental set-up for micro tube bulging test. First, classical numerical simulations of the micro tube bulging test are conducted ; classical means that no scale effects are taking into account in the material or in the friction laws. These basic FE calculations give some indications on the internal pressure in the micro tube, the volume of fluid to be controlled for deforming the tube and the bulge height to measure. One major result is that a volume control feeding will certainly give a more regular deformation of the tube during the experiments. The FE calculations permit also to

dimension the die and the plunger. The originality in the design is the two parts plunger: the primary plunger generates the pressure and the secondary plunger assures the translation guidance. In order to obtain the effort necessary to create the pressure, the set-up will be interfaced to a traction machine. Finally, by analogy with other experimental works done on macro tubes, adapted instrumentation is proposed. A laser scan sensor will measure the bulge profile without contact. A displacement sensor will be implemented in the plunger for controlling the volume of fluid feeding.

REFERENCES [Abmetoglu et al., 2000] Abmetoglu, M.; Altan, T.;Tube hydroforming: state-of-theart and future trends; In: Journal of Material Processing Technology,98(1), pp. 2533;2000 [Eichenhller et al., 2008] Eichenhller, B.; Engel, U.; Gei8drfer, S.; Process parameter interaction in microforming; In: International Journal of Material Forming,1(1960-6214), pp. 451-454;2008 [Barbier et al., 2008] Barbier, C.; Thibaud, S.; Picart, P.; Size effects on material behaviour in microforming; In: International Journal of Material Forming,1(1), pp. 439-442;2008 [Velasco et al., 2008] Velasco, R.; Boudeau, N.; Tube bulging test: theoretical analysis and numerical validation; In: Journal of Material Processing Technology,205(13), pp. 51-59;2008 [Ben Ouirane et al., 2010] Ben Ouirane, A.H.; Boudeau, N.; Michel, G.; Tube bulging test: evaluation of errors on material characterization, IDDRG 2010

Simulation Based Process Optimization of Aluminium Sheet Metal Deep Drawing at Elevated Temperatures
Johannes Winklhofer*, Gernot Trattnig, Christoph Lind, Christof Sommitsch and Hannes Feuerhuber *Virtual Vehicle Kompetenzzentrum Das Virtuelle Fahrzeug Forschungsgesellschaft mbH (vif) Inffeldgasse 21/A/I 8010 Graz Austria johannes.winklhofer@v2c2.at

Abstract: A disadvantage of aluminium is that it is less formable than steel. One method for overcoming this disadvantage is deep drawing at elevated temperatures. In this way the formability of aluminium sheet metal can be improved significantly. This paper introduces deep drawing of aluminium sheet metal at elevated temperatures, a corresponding simulation method, a characteristic process and its optimization. The temperature and strain rate dependent material properties of a 5xxx series alloy and their modelling are discussed. A three dimensional thermomechanically coupled finite element deep drawing simulation model and its validation are presented. Based on the validated simulation model the process is optimized regarding formability and cycle time. The optimization focuses on the temperature distribution of the tooling and the blank, the punch velocity and the blank holder force. Keywords: aluminium sheet metal, deep drawing, warm forming, thermo-mechanical finite element simulation, process design

1.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change, energy saving and emission reduction have never been discussed more lively than nowadays. Part of this discussion is the future way of individual mobility. Researchers and engineers are looking for the most efficient way to power automotive vehicles. Independently of the future drivetrain technology, lightweight construction will play a key role for the design of an energy efficient vehicle. Regarding this, aluminium sheet metal is well known for its potential to improve the strength to weight ratio of thin-walled lightweight structures. Intelligent lightweight construction integrates multiple functions within one structural part and therefore requires complex shapes. Due to its low formability in comparison to steel, aluminium often cannot fulfil these demands. To overcome this problem methods like hydroforming or superplastic forming have been developed to improve the formability of aluminium sheet metal. The ductility of common aluminium alloys increases with temperature. Thus forming at elevated temperatures close to the recrystallization temperature of about 300 C, also called warm forming, is another promising method to improve

formability1. Warm forming of aluminium is investigated since the 1950s and has become more interesting for researchers during the oil crises in the 1970s. [Ayres and Wenner, 1979] were amongst the first to investigate warm forming of AlMg alloys scientifically and described the changing of material properties with increasing temperature. They investigated that flow stress is significantly reduced and stated that the improvement in formability is due to increased strain rate hardening and increased limit strains. In the 1990s [Schmoeckel, 1994] showed the positive effects of elevated temperature for deep drawing of AlMg4.5Mn0.4 sheet metal. It was demonstrated that the formability can be improved by a uniform temperature increase, but the best results were obtained by heating the flange area and keeping the punch at a lower temperature. In this way, the resistance against deformation in the flange, where the material is highly deformed, is reduced. As a result the drawing force decreases. The potential failure area near the punch radius, which has to withstand the drawing force, is cooled and thus relatively strong. Therefore the ratio of transmittable force and drawing force can be increased and higher drawing depths can be achieved. [Li and Ghosh, 2004] proofed these observations for additional AlMg alloys. For more information [Toros et al., 2008] published a detailed review of the state of the art in warm forming of aluminium sheet metal. The major disadvantage of warm forming of aluminium sheet metal is that there is very little experience with this process technology available. Thus engineers rely on expensive trial and error development. Therefore numerical simulation using the Finite Element Method (FEM), which is nowadays almost indispensable for the design of a cold sheet metal forming process, is even more important for warm forming. As mentioned above, it has been proofed that in warm forming it is preferable to set the flange temperature higher than the punch temperature. That means that there are time dependent temperature gradients in the sheet metal. Therefore an accurate warm forming simulation has to be thermomechanically coupled and has to incorporate flow stress and strain rate dependency on temperature [van den Boogaard, 2002]. So far researchers often had to focus on simulation of simplified isothermal and/or twodimensional forming processes with very small deformation rates. Since hot forming of boron steel sheet metal becomes more important, the corresponding simulation techniques have been improved as well. One finite element solver that offers adequate methods for advanced simulation of thermomechnically coupled processes is LS-Dyna [Lorenz and Haufe, 2008]. So far these methods have not been used to investigate deep drawing of aluminium sheet metal at elevated temperatures. The aim of this work is to show the application of state of the art thermomechanically coupled simulation methods and their validation for warm forming of a 5xxx series aluminium sheet metal alloy. Based on a validated simulation model a warm forming process simulation is set up and optimised. The simulation results of the warm forming process are compared with the corresponding cold forming results.

1 Forming above the recrystallization temperature can have negative effects on the material properties caused by coarsening of grain structure and should therefore be avoided.

2.

METHOD

A cup deep drawing example from literature is used for the validation of the simulation methods available in LS-Dyna. [van den Boogaard, 2002] provides a cup deep drawing geometry, material data for the drawn AA 5754-O aluminium sheet metal alloy as well as process parameters like tool temperatures, punch velocity, blank holder force and friction coefficients. The results for thickness distributions determined with the LSDyna simulation model are compared with the corresponding experimental and numerical results from [van den Boogaard, 2002]. The following assumptions were made for the simulation with LS-Dyna: Temperature independent Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, temperature independent thermal properties like heat capacity and heat conduction coefficient, constant heat transfer coefficient between blank and tooling (i.e. independent of gap distance and contact pressure), no heat transfer caused by convection or radiation, no conversion from plastic work to heat, constant friction coefficients, constant tool temperature and rigid tooling. [van den Boogaard, 2002] describes the strain-rate and temperature dependent flow behaviour using two different models, the Bergstroem model and an extended Nadai model. In LS-Dyna measured flow curves for different temperatures can be defined directly in tabular form using material model 106 [LSTC, 2007]. For temperatures lying between the defined ones, the corresponding flow curves are determined through linear interpolation. The strain-rate dependency is described with the Cowper-Symonds model [LSTC, 2007]. This model determines the yield stress y depending on the effective
p &p plastic strain eff and the effective plastic strain rate eff by scaling the quasistatic yield s stress y with the following equation:
p s p &p y ( eff , eff ) = y ( eff )

&p 1 + eff C

1 p .

(1)

C and p are fit-parameters, determined for several temperatures. In order to validate the material definition, results of tension test simulations are compared with experimental results from literature. Material model 106, which is used in this investigation, is an isotropic material model with v. Mises plasticity. [Abedrabbo et al., 2007] have developed a temperature dependent anisotropic material model for LS-Dyna. Unfortunately this model has so far not been implemented in the latest version. The coupling of the mechanical and thermal models follows a sequential approach. The mechanical and the thermal part of the problem are solved independently using different solvers. The mechanical part uses a dynamic explicit solution scheme, whereas the thermal part uses an implicit conjugate gradient solver.

The bottleneck in computation time is the explicit mechanical time step tmech which is limited by l E t mech with c = . (2) c (1 2 ) l is the element length, c the sound velocity, E the Youngs modulus, the density and the Poissons ratio. A common technique to speed up the simulation is the application of both mass and time scaling. The default approach for mass scaling is to prescribe the mechanical time step for the entire simulation. In order to meet the desired time step, the mass of elements with a time step lower than the prescribed one is artificially increased. Time scaling is applied by an artificial increase of tool velocities. In cold forming simulation the strain-rate sensitivity, which is a time dependent material property, is usually neglected. Thats why time scaling can be applied without any modification of the material model. In warm forming the material is dependent on temperature and strain-rate. Therefore all time dependent material and process parameters like strain-rate sensitivity, thermal conductivity and heat transfer coefficients have to be scaled according to the increase of tool velocity. Care must be taken when mass and time scaling are used extensively. Erroneous results can occur due to artificially appearing inertia forces [Lorenz and Haufe, 2008]. As mentioned in the introduction, in the past, researchers often focused on the simulation of deep drawing examples with very small deformation rates. These examples have little relevance for industrial forming processes because the resulting cycle times are not applicable in serial production. For that reason the punch velocity of the validated LS-Dyna simulation model is increased to ten times of the original value. This accelerated process inheres disadvantages in formability. In order to overcome this disadvantages, optimized process strategies regarding the temperature distribution of the tooling, the heating of the blank and the blank holder pressure are introduced.

3.

RESULTS

At first the results of the tension test simulations with the material model set up for LSDyna are compared with the corresponding experimental results from [van den Boogaard, 2002]. In order to make the validation results comparable, the temperature and strain-rate dependent flow curves were determined using the Nadai model with the according model parameters from [van den Boogaard, 2002]. Flow curves for temperatures of 25, 100, 175 and 250 C were defined in tabular form. The Cowper-Symonds strain rate parameters were fitted for these temperatures (Table I). Additional mechanical and thermal material properties are given in Table II. Reduced integration Belytschko-Tsay shell elements with three integration points over the thickness were used. The element size was approximately 1 mm.

TABLE I; Temperature dependent Cowper Symonds strain-rate parameters

Temperature [C] 25 100 175 250 C [s-1] 237300.00 6419.4396 156.11445 3.0806286 p [-] 3.030405 3.015913 2.969855 2.826168

As shown in Figure 1, the material model set up for LS-Dyna can describe the temperature dependent material behaviour satisfactorily. For higher strain rates the experimental results are modelled quite well, for the lower strain rate the differences are larger. This is in accordance with the simulation results of [van den Boogaard, 2002]. Based on the validated material data, a three-dimensional LS-Dyna deep drawing simulation model of an example given in literature is set up. The process parameters of the cylindrical cup deep drawing example are given in Table III. The punch is kept at room temperature whereas the die and the blank holder are heated up to 250 C. Before deep drawing the blank is in contact with the die and the binder and is heated until the desired temperature is distributed homogeneously. Default deep drawing simulation settings, like reduced integration Belytschko-Tsay shell elements with three integration points over the thickness, a mesh size of approximately 2.5 mm and a penalty contact algorithm were used. For symmetry reasons the simulation model represents only one quarter of the original geometry. The simulation time on a standard HP workstation with two CPUs was about 15 min. The determined results for thinning along the cross section are compared with the experimental and numerical results from literature. Figure 2 shows the thickness distribution along the cross section after deep drawing with flange temperatures of 25, 175 and 250 C. As it can be seen, the LS-Dyna simulation results are in quite good agreement with the simulation results of [van den Boogaard, 2002]. Nevertheless, in comparison to the experimental results, both simulation models overestimate thinning especially in the cup bottom area. As explained in the introduction, a punch velocity of 2 mm/s, which was used for the validation of the deep drawing simulation at elevated temperatures, is not applicable in serial production. Therefore the punch velocity is increased to 20 mm/s, which is still quite slow but more significant for industrial application. TABLE II; Mechanical and thermal material properties
Density Youngs modulus Poissons ratio Sheet metal thickness Thermal expansion coefficient Heat capacity [Takuda et al., 2002] Heat conduction [Takuda et al., 2002] 2700 kg/m 71000 N/mm 0.33 1.2 mm 2.4 10-5 1/K 920 J/kgK 121 W/mK

& & & (a) = 0.002 s 1 (b) = 0.02 s 1 (c) = 0.1 s 1 Figure 1; Experimental [van den Boogaard, 2002] and LS-Dyna simulation results of the uniaxial tension test

TABLE III; Process parameters [van den Boogaard, 2002]

Drawing depth Punch diameter Die inner diameter Blank diameter Punch radius Die radius Punch velocity Blank holder pressure Friction < 110 C Friction > 110 C Heat transfer coefficient [Takuda et al., 2002] 80 mm 110 mm 113 mm 230 mm 10 mm 15 mm 2 mm/s 1 N/mm 0.06 0.12 1400 W/mK

The thickness distribution results with increased punch velocity and a flange temperature of 250 C were determined using the LS-Dyna simulation model and are shown in Figure 3. Due to significant strain rate hardening at elevated temperatures, the resistance against deformation in the flange and therefore the drawing force increase with forming speed. As a result, thinning in the cup bottom area is more pronounced in comparison to smaller deformation rates.

(a) Experimental[van den Boogaard, 2002]

(b) Simulation with Nadai model [van den Boogaard, 2002]

(c) LS-Dyna simulation

Figure 2; Experimentally and numerically determined thickness distributions

Two possibilities to reduce thinning are highlighted in Figure 3. The first one is to avoid heating up the blank homogenously. By heating up the flange quickly within about 5 s, the temperature in the blank centre remains low. Therefore the strength is relatively high and thinning in the cup bottom can be reduced. The second possibility is to keep the die radius at a low temperature [Huber, 2003]. In this way the material is cooled before it is drawn into the cavity. The strength in the cup wall is increased and extensive thinning in this area can be avoided.

115 mm

60 mm 0 mm 45 mm

Figure 3; Thickness distribution results for different process layouts at 250 C flange temperature and 20 mm/s punch velocity Another advantage of deep drawing at elevated temperatures is, that the wrinkling tendency in the flange area decreases with increasing temperature [Szacinski and Thomson, 1991]. Therefore the binder force and hence the drawing force can be reduced in comparison to cold forming. As a result, thinning in the cup bottom and wall area decreases. In order to proof these statements a corresponding investigation using the validated LS-Dyna simulation model is presented. It has been shown that FEM simulations can be used to predict wrinkling in sheet metal deep drawing [de Magalhaes Correira and Ferron, 2004]. Nevertheless the obtained results should be treated cautiously because the onset of wrinkling and its mode are very sensitive to details of the analysis, like blank mesh and the FEM code used [Kawka et al., 2001]. In the current investigation wrinkling has been detected by measuring the maximum blank holder displacement dependent on initial blank holder pressure. A significant jump in the displacement curve indicates that the minimum blank holder pressure has been reached. The minimum blank holder pressure at 25 C flange temperature is 0.37, whereas at 250 C it is 0.27 MPa (see Figure 4a). As shown in Figure 4b, a decrease in thickness reduction can be reached by reducing the blank holder pressure from 1 MPa to the determined minimum values. Nevertheless there is almost no difference between the determined minimum values for 25 and 250 C.

(a) Maximum blankholder displacement dependent on initial blank holder pressure

(b) Thickness distribution results for the determined minimum blank holder pressure values at 250 C flange temperature and 20 mm/s punch velocity

Figure 4; Minimum blankholder pressure and corresponding thickness distribution

4.

DISCUSSION

Experimental tension test data has to be used with care, because temperature increase due to plastic deformation was neglected. Correction methods for the determination of isothermal flow curves are not trivial to apply and isothermal testing in particular at higher strain rates is a demanding task. Additionally, extrapolation of tension test data is still an uncertain task to do, especially at elevated temperatures. The deep drawing simulation results deviate from the experiments in particular at lower temperatures. The results can be improved by adapting the friction coefficients. So far friction has not been investigated in detail for warm forming of aluminium sheet metal and is therefore responsible for major uncertainty when simulation results are analysed. Furthermore a lubricant which is temperature resistant up to 300 C and which can easily be removed in a press shop is so far not available off the shelf. Anisotropy is a characteristic material property of aluminium sheet metal. Nevertheless it was neglected in this investigation. [van den Boogaard, 2002] considered measured R-values of about 0.72 by using an anisotropic yield function [Vegter et al., 1995]. He showed that in the analyzed deep drawing example, the significance of anisotropy is small and not responsible for the erroneous simulation results. Experimental and simulation results proofed that thinning decreases with increasing flange temperature especially in the cup bottom area. This advantage diminishes with increasing forming speed due to significant strain rate hardening. The evaluation of the feasibility of deep drawing geometries is usually not based on thinning results but on forming limit diagrams. For a reliable prediction of the

feasibility of aluminium sheet metal warm forming processes, appropriate forming limit curves should be temperature and strain rate dependent. This recent field of research should be intensified in the future. Assumptions that were made in this investigation, like constant tool temperature, constant heat transfer coefficient, no heat transfer caused by convection and neglecting the influence of deformation work to heat, are at least uncertain and have to be proofed in further research. By heating only the flange area and keeping the drawing radius at room temperature the deep drawing results could be improved. It has been shown that exclusive heating of the flange area is easy to realise. This is not the case for cooling the drawing radius. So far there is no appropriate tooling technology available off the shelf which fulfils demands on thermal stability, mechanical strength and cost. Furthermore it has been proofed that, in comparison to cold forming, lower blank holder pressure can be applied in warm forming. Nevertheless the difference of the determined minimum values for room temperature and for 250 C flange temperature is negligible. Therefore the impact of lower blank holder pressure in warm forming on thinning could not been reproduced with FEM simulation in this investigation.

5.

CONCLUSIONS

LS-Dyna can be used conveniently for the simulation of aluminium sheet metal deep drawing processes at elevated temperatures, although there is still the lack of a temperature dependent anisotropic material model. Process parameters and their dependence on temperature, in particular the friction coefficients, have to be investigated and described for the process simulation of warm forming of aluminium sheet metal. Increasing the tool velocity in warm forming of aluminium sheet metal is practical for industrial application, but has a negative influence on formability. Optimised process strategies and advanced tailor made tooling technology can improve warm forming properties of aluminium sheet metal. Tailor made tooling for warm forming of complex geometries is a future field of research and engineering.

6.

ACKNOLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the COMET K2 Forschungsfrderungs-Programm of the Austrian Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology (BMVIT), the Austrian Federal Ministry of Economy, Family and Youth (BMWFJ), sterreichische Forschungsfrderungsgesellschaft mbH (FFG), Das Land Steiermark, and Steirische Wirtschaftsfrderung (SFG) for their financial support. Additionally, we would like to thank the supporting companies and project partners SAG Alutech GmbH and weba Werkzeugbau Betriebs GmbH as well as the Institute for Materials Science and Welding/Graz University of Technology.

REFERENCES [Ayres and Wenner, 1979] Ayres, R.A.; Wenner, M.L.; "Strain and Strain-Rate Hardening Effects in Punch Stretching of 5182-0 Aluminum at Elevated Temperatures"; In: Metallurgical Transactions A 10A, pp. 41-46 [Schmoeckel, 1994] Schmoeckel, D.; "Temperaturgefhrte Prozesssteuerung beim Umformen von Aluminiumblechen"; EFB-Forschungsbericht Nr. 55 [Li and Ghosh., 2004] Li, D.; Ghosh, A.K.; "Biaxial warm forming behavior of aluminum sheet alloys"; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 145, pp. 281-293 [Toros et al., 2008] Toros, S.; Ozturk F.; Kacar, I.; "Review of warm forming of aluminummagnesium alloys"; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 207, pp. 1-12 [van den Boogaard, 2002] van den Boogaard, A.H.; "Thermally Enhanced Forming of Aluminium Sheet"; Ph.D. Thesis, University of Twente [Lorenz and Haufe, 2008] Lorenz, D.; Haufe, A.; "Recent Advances and New Developments in Hot Forming with LS-Dyna"; In: 7th German LS-Dyna Forum 08 Conference Proceedings, pp. C-II-21 - C-II-30; Bamberg [LSTC, 2007] LS-Dyna Keyword Users Manual Volume I Version 971, Livermore Software Technology Corporation (LSTC) [Abedrabbo et al., 2007] Abedrabbo, N.; Pourboghrat, F.; Carsley, J.; "Forming of AA5182-O and AA5754-O at elevated temperatures using coupled thermomechanical finite element models"; In: International Journal of Plasticity 23, pp. 841-875 [Takuda et al., 2002] Takuda, H.; Mori, K.; Masuda, I.; Abe, Y.; Matsuo, M.; "Finite element simulation of warm deep drawing of aluminium alloy sheet when accounting for heat conduction"; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 120, pp. 412-418 [Huber, 2003] Huber, R.; "Hydromechanisches Tiefziehen von Aluminium-Blechen mit thermischer Untersttzung", Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universitt Darmstadt [Szacinski and Thomson, 1991] Szacinski, A. M.; Thomson, P. F.; "Wrinkling behavior of aluminium sheet during forming at elevated temperature"; In: Materials Science and Technology 7, pp. 37-41 [de Magalhaes Correira and Ferron, 2004] De Magalhaes Correia, J.P.; Ferron, G.; "Wrinkling of anisotropic metal sheets under deep-drawing: analytical and numerical study"; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 155-156, pp. 1604-1610 [Kawka et al., 2001] Kawka, M.; Olejnik, L.; Rosochowski, A.; Sunaga, H.; Makinouchi, A.; "Simulation of wrinkling in sheet metal forming"; In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 109, pp. 283-289 [Vegter et al., 1995] Vegter, H.; Drent, P.; Hutink, J.; "A planar isotropic yield criterion based on mechanical testing at multi-axial stress states"; In: Simulation of Materials Processing: Theory, Methods and Applications, pp. 345350; Rotterdam, 1995

Metamodelling based Planning and Control of Sheet Metal Forming Processes

C. Annen*, P.Pillatsch**, P. Hora** *AUDI AG Sparte Werkzeugbau I/PW-I D-85045 Ingolstadt christoph.annen@audi.de **Institute of Virtual Manufacturing, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich

Abstract: Although control parameters of the stamping process are kept constant, remarkable variations in the quality of the stamped parts can be observed during the fabrication of car body parts. This is due to random variations in the material properties as well as instabilities in the stamping process itself. The present paper about metamodel based procedures used for planning and controlling sheet metal forming processes aims to show how results from stochastic simulations [Hora 2007] and empirical knowledge about tryout, can be combined in order to develop a progressive process control that helps to prevent scrap production. The experimental validation on stamped parts shows the capability of the outlined method. Keywords: sheet metal forming, FEM, process planning, process control, experimental validation

1. INTRODUCTION The major requests in modern sheet metal forming processes are the saving of material by a minimized blank outline as well as the continuous enhancement of process robustness. These two requirements are in fact conflicting because of the tendency towards instability exhibited by optimized systems. In daily business, the companies are challenged by unexpected variations in the quality of manufactured parts. This means that the operator in the press shop has to control the quality of the drawn parts based on visible alterations whose causes are not fully known at this moment. While producing stamped car body parts, process parameters have to be continuously adjusted in order to counteract scrap production. The decision about which parameter has to be altered is based on the experience and implicit knowledge of tool-makers, who try to optimize the ongoing production process in iterative steps. A shortcoming of this procedure is a decreased exploitation of modern manufacturing lines. Furthermore, there is no

certainty that the more and more challenging processes that will arise in the future through ever increasing part complexity and quality requirements, can be handled in this way. With regard to the material, the fluctuations in the outcome result from mechanical properties changing over individual batches [Schleich et al. 2008] and further from the varying material properties along one single coil [Held et al. 2009], [Mercedes-Benz1]. The non-constant temperature and its distribution over the press and the stamping tools, specifically within the forming surface, are known as common causes of process instabilities. Another factor can be the relocation of tools to other press shops, causing an unpredictable change in the stiffness of the machine-tool-system. In the field of sheet metal forming, most of the research performed on enhanced process control is based on methods of online measuring during the forming stage and qualifying the status quo through a comparison of the measurement results with a so called optimal process. The monitored process parameters are the following: flange draw-in, stamping forces, strains in tools and solid-borne sound from the formed sheet [Mercedes-Benz1], [Mercedes-Benz2], [DaimlerChrysler1], [Mercedes-Benz3]. In addition, mechanical properties of every single blank can be indirectly determined via the non-destructive eddy-current method [Manopulo et al. 2008]. The measurement of sheet thickness, surface topology and lubricating film properties are state-of-the-art methods [Mercedes-Benz1], [Mercedes-Benz3]. The die design and the appropriate drawing parameters for the press shop are determined by using simulation methods. The Forming Limit Curve (FLC), indicating the necking occurrence depicted in the space of major strains, is widely used as a failure criterion for the evaluation of the resulting part quality. The risk of wrinkling is assessed in the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD), which not only displays the FLC but also the different strain conditions a drawn part can encounter. Part areas mainly formed under conditions represented by the sector on the left hand side of the tensile test in the FLD are considered to be prone to wrinkling. Even further to the left, in the sector of thickening in the FLD, wrinkles are almost sure to appear on the workpiece, which is to avoid. The drawback of this failure criterion is that currently available experimental methods for the analysis and evaluation of real world parts are to expensive and to slow to meet the expectations of mass production, which means up to twelve produced parts per minute. The following procedure aims at a practicability alongside the production process as a whole, thus using and comparing the knowledge gained through: finite element simulation tool tryout / start-up and serial production

2. METHODOLOGY OF PROCESS-VALIDATION 2.1 Motivation In the scope of this paper, the process, and accordingly the quality of the drawed parts will be quantitatively analysed based on the material movement within selected areas of the workpiece. The determination of the material flow is carried out by placing discrete markers onto the blank surface. By comparing the positions of these markers before and after the drawing step it is possible to calculate the norm of each displacement vector over the whole process. The positions of the markers are identified using optical measurement techniques. The goal of this procedure is to supply the possibility to evaluate the part quality already during the production in the press shop thus providing a good feedback to the control loop and reducing reaction time to a minimum. A drift of the process away from the optimal conditions occurs employing the least possible measurement resources, is to be recognized even before actual failure. Instead of focussing on adjusting actions during the stroke the presented method aims at an early detection of instabilities allowing to take preventive action between strokes. Compared to continuous in-strokecontrol this strategy considerably reduces the amount of required sensors and actuators.
Measured difference to the optimal process Influence of part quality

Influence of friction Influence of material properties (blank) Influence of process forces

Direct coherence with the process and drawn parts quality

Indirect Method

Phenomenological Method

Figure 1 Elements of measured process deviation Furthermore the intended methodology is not only capable to evaluate if the process is in or out of bounds but also to distinguish between different levels and the direction necking or wrinkling of process deterioration in terms of workpiece quality. The advantage of this approach is its phenomenological, workpiece related character. This means that the realisation of a surveillance system as well as the metamodel founding the control system do not have to be tuned according to changes in external parameters like they occur for example when moving the tool to another press. By directly monitoring the resulting quality (see Figure 1) it is no longer necessary to

identify the exact causes (or the cross-couplings between them) of a variation in the outcoming parts, to be able to counteract them. 2.2 Procedure As previously mentioned the evaluation of the marker method is to go beyond a simple classification of a process compared to a reference value. The measurement results will not just be interpreted in the sense of binary criteria. The method allows for an unambiguous prediction of the part quality concerning the appearance of necking or wrinkles respectively. This comes down to the diagnosis of the current state in a predefined process window. Together with the knowledge about the process response in function of the input variables and the various disturbance sources, the marker method builds up a solid foundation for an effective control strategy in mass production. The main prerequisite for a successful implementation is the ability of the procedure to recognize a drift of the outcome away from the setpoint in a very early stage even before defects are visible on the produced part. The following steps have to be taken in order to achieve this goal: 1. Determination of the critical part areas and their associated process windows, 2. Decision about the number and position of applied markers, 3. Investigation of the most effective adjustment actions.

3. SIMULATION The simulative investigation on the outlined method is conducted on the geometry of the experimental cross die (see Figure 2). The deep drawing simulations were performed with the LS-Dyna software. The whole process (die closing and deep drawing) was calculated in one single step. Fully integrated shell elements (type 16) are used to mesh the blank, while the material is modelled with *MAT_3_PARAMETER_BARLAT (material type 36). The tools are assumed to be rigid bodies [Livermore]. Rp0,2 153 MPa Rm 277 MPa r0 2,0 r45 1,9 r90 2,8 n90 0,2

Table I Material properties of DX57D The assumed material properties of DX57D are summarized in Table I according to [Gdel et al. 2010]. The integration of a failure model into the calculations was left aside, which means that the evaluation of the part quality is done later on during the postprocessing according to the computed FLC at a drawing depth of 63 mm. Tests have shown that it is possible to manufacture the experimental geometry without defects at this drawing depth. Furthermore, for the material qualities considered in this research,

63 mm is in a range where fluctuations in the material properties can already cause failures.

Thickness Reduction [%] 28.3 14.1 4.7 -4.7 -18.8

Figure 2 Cross Die, geometrical specifications and simulated thickness reduction on the stamped part The examples, shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively illustrate the task of identifying the areas which have to be observed. Measuring the flange draw in does not lead to a prediction of the condition in the necking endangered area (Figure 4). This effect is even stronger, when geometries are more complex or holes are cut in the blank geometry. By contrast, observing the movement of a marker which is influenced by the conditions in the endangered area, a statement about the quality of the drawn part can be derived. In Figure 3, the failure value with regard to the forming limit curve is drawn versus the displacement of a nearby marker. For this constellation, a strong correlation can be assumed.

(1/FLDC)max 0.53

21.4 Marker-Displacement [mm]

Figure 3 Marker displacement versus risk of necking

(1/FLDC)max 0.53

72.2

72.3 Flange Displacement [mm]

Figure 4 Flange draw-in versus risk of necking

4. EXPERIMENTS 4.1 The experimental die Lackfrosch The so-called Lackfrosch is an experimental die which has been developed for the investigation of new technologies. The name stems from a convex-concave deep drawing geometry originally used for inspecting the optical impression of new lacquers. The prototype of this intelligent tool has first been introduced in [Waltl 2009]. The geometry, designed as a stylised automobile, contains all the main challenges faced in modern car body production, those being characterised by design edges and convexconcave transitions on the surface. The design and set-up of the tool is as close as possible to a serial production tool.

Figure 5 Experimental die "Lackfrosch"

The layout of the die consciously leans towards the critical side to ensure that the effects of process variations are exhibited in the crucial areas of the part. The known fact that geometries that are laid out close to failure tend to be very sensitive to small changes in the boundary conditions helped to achieve the final design. This basically leads to three critical regions in the Lackfrosch-geometry: 1. small radius prone to necking at the rear part, 2. wrinkle in the concave middle of the car and 3. necking in the front mud wing area. Optionally the formation of wrinkles in the flange area of the part can be useful for the characterisation of drawn parts quality. For surveillance and documentation of the drawing process the tool is equipped with sensors that measure the flange draw-in of the blank as well as the force distributions and gradients over the die and blankholder in real-time. The experimental data of a displacement measurement system is used to define a common reference. 4.2 Motivation Figure 6 shows the flange draw-in of 150 simulations conducted in AutoForm with varying input. The cases where necking occurred in simulation are marked red. This simulative investigation of the Lackfrosch-die shows, that the flange draw-in cannot be used as a single criterion to determine the quality of a drawn part. The prediction of the part failure based on the flange draw-in might be possible generally, but the number and position of the flange draw-ins which have to be measured to identify this correlation is unpredictable.
Flange draw-in [mm]
84,2 84 83,8 83,6 83,4 83,2 1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141

Necking

Simulation Nr.

Figure 6 Simulated flange draw-in for various load cases 4.3 Experimental results In the conducted experiments markers have been applied on the blank in the corner area. The used material DX57D with the mechanical specifications shown in Table I is the same as used in the simulations.

Figure 7 shows the displacement of the marks for two special cases, whereupon one leads to a wrinkled part and the second to a part were necking occurred. It can be seen that only markers number 1-4 and 19-27 show a correlation with the quality of the workpiece. Figure 8 compares two parts with good quality which are drawn with identically set process parameters. This means, that lubrication and blankholder force where identically. The only difference is, that the first one is drawn while the press was manually operated. For the second part, automatic operation was applied. The chart shows, that the manually operated part tends to wrinkles, while the automatic operated part is seems to be near necking. This circumstance can be explained by the
100 90 80

Displacement [mm]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Wrinkling Necking

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Pointnr. [-]

Figure 7 Phenomenological process window measurements in the tool structure, which show a decay of the blankholder force during the punch stroke if the press is manually operated. Figure 8 shows the comparison of two parts which are drawn with totally different process specifications. The second part is drawn with 200% blankholderforce and special lubrication. The measured curves
70

60

Displacement [mm]

50

Wrinkling Necking Manually Operated Automatic Operation

40

30

20

10

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

Pointnr. [-]

Figure 8 Influence of operation mode

show that the two parts are phenomenologically spoken the same. Thus, whithout knowing the exact interaction of friction and blankholder force concerning risk of necking and wrinkling in the process respectively, parts can be quantitatively described in the phenomenological process window.

70

60

Displacement [mm]

50

40

Wrinkling Necking Bhf: 50t Bhf: 105t, special lubrication

30

20

10

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

Pointnr. [-]

Figure 9 Influence of process-specifications

5. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK A method of quantitatively describing deep drawing processes through the phenomenological approach of measuring displacements of material marks has been outlined. Preliminary simulative investigations as well as the conducted experiments on a experimental die showed the practicability of the method. In future work, the implementation into deep drawing tools which are equipped with sensors and actuators has to be conducted. This would open the possibility to evaluate the phenomenological process condition during the punch stroke. This requires a time dependent formulation and interpretation of the process conditions.

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank Prof. Dr. M. Merklein from LFT Erlangen for the occasion to use the cross die. A special thank goes to the team of Intelligentes Werkzeug for the numerous helpful discussions and support while conducting the experiments with the experimental die Lackfrosch.

7. REFERENCES [DaimlerChrysler1] DaimlerChrysler AG, 70567 Stuttgart, Verfahren zum schnellen Regeln von Ziehvorgngen in Pressen und hierzu geeignete Ziehpresse, Offenlegungsschrift DE 199 54 310 A1 [Gdel et al. 2010] Gdel V., Merklein M., Wahl M.: Effiziente Bewertung von Blechumformprozessen durch die Reduzierung kritischer Einflussgren in der stochastischen Simulation, Tagungsband T31, EFB Hannover 2010, ISBN: 978-3-86776-343-1, 2010 [Held et al 2009] Held C., Liewald M., Sindel M.: Untersuchungen zum Einfluss werkstofflicher Schwankungen innerhalb eines Coils auf die Umformbarkeit. wt Werkstattstechnik online Jahrgang 99 H.10, S. 732-739, ISSN: 1436-4980, 2009 [Hora 2007] Hora P.: Einfhrung in die Stochastik und Robustheit von Prozessen, Computational Methods in Stochastics and Optimization, Vorlesungsunterlagen, ETH Zrich, 2007 [Livermore] Livermore Software Technology Corporation: LS-DYNA, Keyword Users Manual, Version 971. ISBN: 0-9778540-2-7, 2007. [Manopulo et al. 2008] Manopulo N., Heingrtner J., Hora. P., Numerical methods and hardware components for an adaptive robust control during the production of stamped parts, Numisheet 2008, Interlaken, Switzerland [Mercedes-Benz1] Mercedes-Benz Aktiengesellschaft, 70327 Stuttgart, Verfahren zur selbstttigen, iterativen Prozessoptimierung von Ziehvorgngen in Pressen, Patentschrift, DE 42 29 155 C2 [Mercedes-Benz2] Mercedes-Benz Aktiengesellschaft, 70327 Stuttgart, Verfahren zum selbstttigen prozeoptimalen Regeln von Ziehvorgngen in Pressen und hierzu geeignete Ziehpresse, Offenlegungsschrift; DE 43 38 828 A1 [Mercedes-Benz3] Mercedes-Benz Aktiengesellschaft, 70327 Stuttgart, Verfahren zum Einstellen der Klemmkraft des Niederhalters von Ziehpressen, Patentschrift DE 42 42 442 C2 [Schleich et al. 2008] Schleich R., Sindel M., Liewald M.: Reverse engineered quality limitations of material batches for sheet metal forming processes. IDDRG Congress 2008, Olofstrm, Schweden [Waltl 2009] Waltl, H.: Werkzeugsysteme der Zukunft Anforderungen und Lsungsanstze aus Sicht der Marke Volkswagen, ISBN: 978-3-937524-93-1; 3rd International Conference on Accuracy in Forming Technology (ICAFT 2009), 2009, Chemnitz, Deutschland

Fracture and damage behaviour of advanced high strength steels under difference loading conditions
P. Schberle1 , K. Roll1 , R. Kawalla2 , M. Stilz3 Daimler AG, Mercedes-Benz Bela-Barenyi-Str. 1, HPC B512, 71059 Sindelingen, Germany e-mail: patrick.schaeberle@daimler.com
2 1

TU BA Freiberg, Head of Institute of Metal Forming Bernhard von Cotta Str. 4, 09596 Freiberg, Germany e-mail: rudolf.kawalla@imf.tu-freiberg.de HS Esslingen, Head of Laboratory of Metal Forming Kanalstr. 33, 73728 Esslingen a.N., Germany e-mail: manfred.stilz@hs-esslingen.de

Abstract: Specically in the case of high-strength and super high-strength steels, it is apparent that failure assessments based on conventional material models using data from tensile tests and forming limit curves are no longer adequate. In addition to highlighting points on a component where failure rst occurs, neither point in time nor the achievable drawing depth have yet been properly claried. In this context, it is of fundamental importance to closely examine and evaluate the individual stress states that exist in the components. The aim of this investigation is to obtain more information on how the various loads that arise during the forming process inuence the fracture and failure behavior of modern high-tensile steels. Three different multiphase steels were analyzed alongside a conventional micro-alloyed steel selected for comparative purposes. In order to enforce various stress states, a range of experimental tests were used. These were reproduced during the simulation and the inuence of the stress state on formability was examined. Keywords: AHSS; loading conditions; triaxiality

1. INTRODUCTION

In view of the current theme of lightweight construction, there is strong demand for highstrength and super high-strength steel grades in the automobile industry. Stricter crash requirements, reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and lower fuel consumption are just some of the reasons for using high-strength and super high-strength steels.

To ensure the feasibility of using high-tensile and super high-strength steel to manufacture these kinds of components, signicant efforts are already undertaken during the initial phase of development. In this respect, it is now impossible to congure the process sequence in advance without using the latest forming simulation tools. Although the results of todays forming simulations are certainly acceptable, there is continuing demand for ongoing advancements to the simulation process to ensure that optimum process specications can be achieved. Specically in the case of high-strength and super high-strength steels, it is becoming apparent that failure assessments based on conventional material models using data from tensile tests and forming limit curves are no longer adequate [Gerlach et al., 2007]. In addition to highlighting points on a component where failure rst occurs, neither point in time nor the achievable drawing depth has yet been properly claried. In this context, it is of fundamental importance to closely examine and evaluate the individual stress states that exist in the components.

2. Triaxiality

During the metal forming process, it can be shown that the stress state not only determines the required input of force and work, but also exerts a decisive inuence on the formability and the material ow [Stenger, 1965; Frobin, 1995]. Conversely, the nature of the stress state that exists in the forming zone is largely determined by the design of the forming tools. In order to characterize individual stress states, the concept of triaxiality is dened as a parameter below. Triaxiality is calculated as follows from the hydrostatic stress m and the equivalent stress according to von Mises vonM ises :
= =
1 2

m vonM ises
1 3

(1 + 2 + 3 )
2 2 2

(1)

(1 2 ) + (2 3 ) + (3 1 )

For clarication purposes, triaxiality is schematically transferred to a yield locus, see Figure 1. Based on this gure, three important conclusions can be drawn: 1. At a triaxiality of +/ compressive loading. 2. At a triaxiality of +/ compressive loading.
1 3 2 3

it is a matter of uniaxial tensile load respectively uniaxial it is a matter of biaxial tensile load respectively biaxial

3. At a triaxiality of 0 it is a matter of a pure shear loading. 4. At a triaxiality of +/

1 3

it is a matter of plain strain.

=1/3

=1 /

=2

/3
3 =1/

=0

=-1/3
=-1/ 3
/ -2 3

=1/3
1

=0
/ 3 =-1

Figure 1: Triaxiality at the yield locus (scheme) 3. INVESTIGATED MATERIALS

Three different sheets of lightweight steel are investigated, a transform induced plasticity steel (HCT780T), a dual-phase steel (HCT980X) and a martensitic steel (HDT1200M). The investigation also includes a micro-alloyed steel (HC260LA), which is used as a comparative material. The sheet thickness is 1.4 mm for the martensitic-phase steel and 1.5 mm for all other grades. 3.1 Chemical composition The chemical composition of the four different steels is listed in Table I.

Steels HC260LA HCT780T HCT980X HDT1200M

C 0.052 0.020 0.076 0.150

Mn 0.217 1.692 2.561 1.934

Si 0.009 1.650 0.256 0.200

Cr 0.015 0.270 0.310 0.188

=-1/3

Al 0.04662 0.03400 0.15200 0.02900

P 0.012 0.018 0.015 0.018

Ni 0.013 0.021 0.023 0.017

Cu 0.012 0.016 0.012 0.015

Mo 0.008 0.006 0.094 0.005

S 0.0078 0.0038 0.0067 0.0050

Table I: Chemical composition of the investigated steels in weight percent

3.2 Mechanical properties Figure 2 shows a multi-axis diagram indicating the mechanical properties of the four steels investigated. The diagram is divided into two areas: On the one hand, the strength properties in the upper left half and the ductility properties in the lower right half. The descriptions for determining the values are outlined in Chapter 4. Experimental procedure.

Figure 2: mechanical properties of the investigated materials The parameters used to evaluate ductility and strength are listed below. ductility parameters breaking elongation A80 uniform elongation Ag avg. perpendicular anisotropy rm planar anisotropy r strain hardening exponent n strength parameters yield strength Rp0,2 or Re tensile strength Rm ratio of yield strength Rp0,2 or Re to tensile strength Rm

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

4.1 Uniaxial tensile test This study determines the conventional material characteristics as per [DIN10002-1] on the basis of the quasistatical uniaxial tensile test. Sampling is conducted at 0 , 45 and 90 to the rolling direction of the sheet, whereby the cut edges in the measurement area are smoothed. The changes in length and width of the samples are recorded using a video extensometer and

evaluated using a computer-based processing program. In addition, the perpendicular anisotropy r, the intermediate perpendicular anisotropy rm and the plane (planar) anisotropy r as well as the strain hardening exponent n are calculated. 4.2 Experiments with the demonstrator part cross tool In order to gain an initial insight into how the technical aspects of forming relate to the ultimate automotive engineering applications planned for the high-strength and super highstrength steels presented here, a demonstrator component is used for comparison. The experiment involves using the cross tool to form a blank. The maximum drawing depth for the particular material is determined by varying the blank and the holding-down force.

5. SIMULATION

The simulation is based on the Barlat89 material model, which is used to model anisotropic sheet materials under planar stress states [Barlat and Lian, 1989]. A ow curve that was extrapolated from the tensile test and the layer compression test as per GOSH is used. The layer compression test is used to determine the actual stress-strain curve at higher degrees of forming in order to determine this curve more accurately when extrapolating the ow curves.

6. RESULTS

The results of simple pressings of demonstrator components are presented below. The problem relating to the stress state or triaxilality in the deformation zone is examined in detail. This serves, among other things, as a basis on which to make initial statements regarding the relationship between types of loads - such as uniaxial tension, biaxial tension, planar elongation, pressure and shear - and the forming procedure. Furthermore, the results of triaxiality from the simulation and the experiment involving the tensile test are presented. 6.1 Results of the cross tool test Table II below lists the maximum drawing depths achieved in the pressings using the cross tool.
Steels max. drawing depth HC260LA 55.70 HCT780T 55.20 HCT980X 32.69 HDT1200M 22.83

Table II: Max. reached drawing depth of the four investigated steels in mm

The fracture and damage behavior of the steels under investigation deviates very significantly from that of conventional steels. The failure pattern at the run-out of the draw ring radius and between two stamped edge radii of the TRIP steel HCT780T are shown in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Occuring points of failure during the cross tool test at HCT780T The HCT980X also fails at the transition of the draw ring radius to the notch and in the area of the llet of the cross tool, see Figure 4.

Figure 4: Occuring points of failure during the cross tool test at HCT980X The points of failure with the HDT1200M are identical to those of the HCT980X. Firstly, in the notch area of the cross tool and secondly on the run-out of the draw ring radius, see Figure 5.

Figure 5: Occuring points of failure during the cross tool test at HDT1200M 6.2 Triaxiality in the tensile test For all 4 materials, the equivalent strains in the necking area from the simulation were applied over the triaxiality and compared with the equivalent strains determined from the experiments. In this context, a distinction is made between the position of the samples relative to the direction of rolling in the simulation as well as in the experiment. For example, the plotted curves for the 4 materials are represented in the direction of rolling, see Figure 6.

0,7

0,7

0,6

0,6

equivalent strain

0,4

equivalent strain
0,31 0,32 0,33 0,34 0,35 0,36 0,37

0,5

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,3

0,2

0,2

0,1

0,1

0,0 0,30

0,0 0,30

0,31

0,32

0,33

0,34

0,35

0,36

0,37

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HC260LA_0

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HCT780T_0

(a)
0,7 0,20

(b)

0,6

0,15

equivalent strain

0,4

equivalent strain
0,31 0,32 0,33 0,34 0,35 0,36 0,37

0,5

0,10

0,3

0,2

0,05

0,1

0,0 0,30

0,00 0,30

0,31

0,32

0,33

0,34

0,35

0,36

0,37

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HCT980X_0

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HDT1200M_0

(c)

(d)

Figure 6: Representation of the triaxiality vs. equivalent strain at the tensile test in rolling direction at a) HC260LA, b) HCT780T, c)HCT980X and c) HDT1200M

7. DISCUSSION AND FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS

Based on the gures of the demonstrator components using the high-tensile and super highstrength steels, the critical points of failure can be shown to occur at the following positions: Run-out of the draw ring radius into the notch Area between two stamped edges Notch area of the cross tool The ange area exhibits a compressive stress in the normal direction, a compressive stress in the tangential direction and a tensile stress in the radial direction. However, there is a planar strain state in the notch, in other words, a tensile stress in the radial direction and a tensile stress in the tangential direction, which impedes the material ow, which thus comes from the normal direction, see Figure 7a. The area where two stamped edge radii meet one another typically exhibits a stretchleveled area. This area contains a biaxial tensile stress state in the tangential and radial directions; the material ow also comes from the normal direction in this case, see Figure 7b.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7: Representation of the stress state a) between the draw ring radius and the notch and b) at the edge of the cross tool A biaxial tensile stress state also exists in the notch area of the cross tool llet so that the material ow must also come from the sheet thickness in this case, see Figure 8.

Figure 8: Representation of the stress state in the llet of the cross tool From the simulation results, it is clear that triaxiality remains largely constant at a value of 1/3 up to the point at which necking starts. After this point, the triaxiality changes in the area of the necking area, see Figure 9.

(a)

(b)

Figure 9: Triaxiality in the necking zone at a) the beginning of necking and b) during the necking In accordance with the simulation, the experiment is conducted on the assumption that the triaxiality also remains at a constant value of 1/3 throughout the entire area of uniform elongation. It was not possible to use the previous experimental set-up to determine the triaxiality beyond the necking point. Based on the different curves showing the triaxiality over the equivalent strain, the simulation shows anisotropy also has a signicant impact on the triaxiality. Figure 10 shows a different behavior as a function of the rolling direction based on the example of HCT980X. In further planned investigations triaxiality in the Miyauchi-test and the Nakajima-test will be analysed by experiments and simulation.

0,7

0,7

0,6

0,6

equivalent strain

0,4

equivalent strain
0,31 0,32 0,33 0,34 0,35 0,36 0,37

0,5

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,3

0,2

0,2

0,1

0,1

0,0 0,30

0,0 0,30

0,31

0,32

0,33

0,34

0,35

0,36

0,37

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HCT980X_0

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HCT980X_45

(a)
0,7

(b)

0,6

equivalent strain

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0,0 0,30

0,31

0,32

0,33

0,34

0,35

0,36

0,37

triaxiality simulation: elements in the necking area experiment: tensile test HCT980X_90

(c)

Figure 10: Course of the triaxiality in difference rolling directions at the HCT980X a) 0 b) 45 c) 90 REFERENCES [Gerlach et al., 2007] Gerlach, J.; Keler, L.; Rsen, H.; "Weiterentwicklung der Umformsimulation fr Stahlwerkstoffe - Konsequenzen fr den Anwender"; In: 6. German LSDYNA Forum, Keynote Lectures A-II, pp. 3-12; Frankenthal 2007 [Stenger, 1965] Stenger, H.; "ber die Abhngigkeit des Formnderungsvermgens metallischer Stoffe vom Spannungszustand"; Dissertation; RWTH Aachen, Fakultt fr Bergbau und Httenwesen, Aachen 1965 [Frobin, 1995] Frobin, R.; "Abhngigkeit des Umformvermgens von Spannungszustand und Mglichkeiten zur Umformung sprder Werkstoffe"; In: 2. schsische Fachtagung Umformtechnik (SFU), pp. 11/1-11/24; Freiberg 1995 [DIN10002-1] Deutsche Norm / Europische Norm 10002-1; "Metallische Werkstoffe - Zug versuch - Teil 1: Prfverfahren bei Raumtemperatur"; In: Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V. (DIN), Normenausschuss Materialprfung (NMP); Berlin 2001 [Barlat und Lian, 1989] Barlat, F.; Lian, J.; "Plastic behavior and strechability of sheet metals"; In: International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 5, Part I: A yield function for orthotropic sheet under plane stress conditions, pp. 51-56; 1989

How to Accurately Model AHSS in Numerical Stamping Simulation

X. Lemoine* ArcelorMittal Global R&D, Voie Romaine, BP 30320, F-57283 Maizires-ls-Metz Cedex * Corresponding author: xavier.lemoine@arcelormittal.com Abstract: Nowadays, before any prototype is produced, every single part of a car goes through a fully numerical design and validation process, including formability assessment and in-use tests of the complete structure (stiffness, crash, fatigue performance). For this purpose, ArcelorMittal provide to customers accurate material models relevant for finite element codes. Before the wide market introduction of AHSS, the choice of the material model was not a predominant factor in the accuracy of numerical formability evaluations. For AHSS, the relatively low uniform elongation, the high Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and the low forming limit curve may cause difficulties in accurately predicting especially part formability and springback. This motivated the development and use of finer and more complex models, experimental tests and identification procedures. In this study, a particular attention is devoted to the extension of the stress-strain curve after uniform elongation and its impact on numerical predictions. Keywords: AHSS Steels identification yield loci isotropic hardening mixed hardening

1. INTRODUCTION ArcelorMittal continuously develops new steel grades (AHSS) with high performance for the automotive industry to improve the weight reduction and the passive safety. The wide market introduction of AHSS raises a new challenge for manufacturers in terms of material models in the prediction of forming especially formability and springback. The relatively low uniform elongation, the high UTS and the low forming limit curve of these AHSS may cause difficulties. Finite element codes require, among other input data, the use of a constitutive law: a plastic yield criterion and flow curves. Today, from the simplest isotropic hardening laws (e.g. Ludwig) and yield loci (von Mises) up to complex isotropic-kinematic hardening [Yoshida et al., 2003] and yield loci [Barlat et al., 2005] are available in FE codes. These complex models need more and more materials parameters. Due to these complex models and the specific features of AHSS, it is necessary to update the identification procedures and sometime to set up new experimental tests. The motivation of ArcelorMittal in this topic is to have the means to perform quick and robust identification, with few experimental tests, and the smallest surface of sheet.

2. SPECIFIC FEATURES OF AHSS In discussing the constitutive equations used in numerical simulation, the formulation of the laws must be considered in conjunction with the method used to identify the parameters. This point requires careful attention specifically for AHSS steels. For example, AHSS steels need the evolution of stress-strain beyond uniform elongation (in uniaxial tensile test) to be properly take into account. For steel grades with UTS beyond 800 MPa (except for TRIP steels), the uniform elongation is less than 15% (Figure 1).
30

25 Uniform Elongation (%) TRiP Steels 20

15

10

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 UTS (MPa)

Figure 1; Uniform elongation (UE) as a function of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) Although plastic anisotropy (or Lankford) coefficients of AHSS are close of 1, they range between 0.75 and 1.25 (Figure 2). The yield criteria and their identification procedure cannot be neglected.
3.5

2.5

Lankford r

1.5

0.5

0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 UTS (MPa)

Figure 2; Lankford coefficient (r) as function of ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

Unlike the previous features, the last specificity of AHSS cannot be shown in uniaxial tensile test. This is the Bauschinger effect. This effect is revealed during reversible tests (tension-compression, compression-tension, reversible shear or bending-unbending tests).

+
Offset 0.2 %

Figure 3; Description of different stages of Bauschinger effect on Stress-strain curve in a tension-compression test [Yoshida et al., 2003] The Bauschinger effect (Figure 3) is characterized by two stages. The first stage is transient. It is characterized by early yielding strength and workhardening stagnation. This stagnation appears after a certain prestrain level. Greater the tensile strength of the material is, greater the delay is. The second stage is permanent softening characterized by stress offset observed in a region after the transient stage. To quantify the Bauschinger effect, we have got several possibilities [Lemoine et al., 2008]. The following parameter quantifies the Bauschinger effect independently of loading path (Figure 4):
X 1 =

+
2

(1)

where + denotes the flow stress at prestrain and the yield strength of second path defined at a given offset (Figure 3). The mechanisms for increasing the ultimate tensile strength are size of grain, precipitation (HSLA), presence of hard phase (Dual-phase, Multiphase, TRIP,). The same mechanisms increase the Bauschinger effect (Figure 4).

! ""

! ""

# $

Figure 4; Bauschinger effect as a function of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) (Tension-compression (TC) [Sadagopan et al., 2003], [Lee et al., 2005], compressiontension (CT), reversible shear (BS))

3. RELEVANTS MODELS AND IDENTIFICATION METHODS BASED ON RHEOLOGICAL TESTS

3.1. Yield loci

The Yield loci relate the yield stress of the uniaxial tensile test in the direction of reference (usually the rolling direction for sheets) to the yield stress for any solicitation (expansion, compression, shrinkage). Only for the von Mises and Hill1948 criteria, does everyone use the same identification procedures. For other yield criteria, each user develops his own identification procedure according to his experimental tests. For example, for the identification of yield criteria like Hill1990 [Hill, 1990] and Barlat1991 [Barlat et al., 1991], one frequently uses the yield strength in equibiaxial expansion [Banabic, 2000]. Alternatively, Pamstamp2G FE code proposes to identify theirs parameters with yield strength and Lankford coefficients of uniaxial tension test performed every 15 from rolling direction. But these identifications do not always lead to accurate predictions, especially for uniaxial tensile test at 45/RD and Equi-Biaxial Expansion (Figure 5).

UT at 45/RD
600

EEB
500 400

500

DX56+Z

Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

400

300

300

200

200

100
100

0 0 0.05 0.1 Plastic strain 0.15 0.2

0 0 0.01 0.02 Plastic strain

1000

0.03

0.04

1000

800

800

Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

DP780

600

600

400

400

200

200

0 0 0.05 Plastic strain 0.1 0.15

0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 Plastic strain

1000

1200

1000

800

800 Stress (MPa)

TRIP780

Stress (MPa)

600

600

400

400
200

200

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 Plastic strain

0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 Plastic strain

Exp

ESI

D.Banabic

Figure 5; The identification procedure for Hill1990 proposed by D.Banabic or Pamstamp2G (ESI) does not always lead to accurate prediction for two loading pathes: Uniaxial tensile test in 45/RD and Equi-Biaxial Expansion (EEB). Based on our experimental devices, an identification procedure based on three tensile tests (0, 45, 90), plane strain tension test and shear tests is established for Hill1990 [Hill, 1990] and Barlat1991 [Barlat et al., 1991]. With this identification, a comparative study of the yield surfaces currently implemented in the FE Codes shows that the Hill1990 is the best compromise for different steel grades (Figure 6).

DX56+Z
500
1200

DP780
1200
900

TRIP780
900

Stress11-Stress22

400

Stress 22 (MPa)

300

Stress 22 (MPa)

Stress 22 (MPa)

600

600

200 OFFSET : 2%

OFFSET : 2%
300

OFFSET : 2%
300

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1000 800 OFFSET : 10% Lankford 800 700 600 500 OFFSET : 0.2% 400 400 300 200 200 0 15 30 45 Angle () 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 Lankford 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 15 30 45 Angle () 60 75 90 0 60 75 90 0

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H48

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Exp. TP

Figure 6; Comparison study (experimental and prediction of yield loci) shows that the Hill 1990 is the best compromise for different steel grades (VM: von Mises; H48: Hill1948; H90: Hill1990; B91: Barlat1991).

3.2. Isotropic hardening

In stamping predictions, particularly formability analysis (comparison with the Forming Limit Diagram), equivalent strain levels beyond the uniform elongation of the uniaxial tensile test are regularly reached. The extrapolation of the hardening law beyond this point becomes crucial for the formability. In this regard, we established an identification procedure for material parameters, improving the data from the stress-strain curve of the uniaxial tensile test. This identification procedure is based on different conditions, in particular the respect of the Considres criterion. The choice of the hardening law is done using experimental tests where large plastic strain levels can be reached [uniaxial tensile test with local strain measurement (~0.3), simple shear tests (~0.4) or hydraulic bulge test (~0.7)]. In the whole set of isotropic hardening laws, figure 7 shows the comparison between Swift, Voce and their combination (Combined S-V):
= (1 )K ( + 0 )n + ( 0 + Rsat (1 exp( C R )))
Swift Voce

(2)

where , K , , 0 , n, 0 , Rsat , C R are material coefficients.

1600 1400 DP980HY 1200 Stress (MPa) 1000 DP780HHE 800 600 400 DP450

DC05 ArcelorMittal05
200 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Plastic Strain Swift UT with strain grid Voce Shear test linear combination UT exp Bulge test

Figure 7; Prediction/experience comparison of extend curves after uniform elongation defining the choice of isotropic hardening model The model combined S-V in conjunction with our identification method offers the best extrapolation of the stress-strain curve beyond uniform elongation, for the majority of steels.

3.3. Mixed hardening

To take into account the Bauschinger effect, it is necessary to introduce the kinematic hardening law. Until ~2007, the commercial stamping FE codes were limited to mixed hardening models, generally Lemaitre-Chaboche model with only one backstress tensor X. This 1 X model is insufficient to represent the Bauschinger effect of AHSS (Figure 8). A second backstress tensor has been added to obtain an accurate prediction; in combination with Swift isotropic hardening, this improves the overall prediction also beyond uniform elongation. An identification procedure is established with reversible shear tests for Lemaitre-Chaboche kinematic hardening model with 1 X and 2 X and different isotropic models (Swift, Voce). When the mixed hardening is taken into account, it is not always necessary to use complex isotropic hardening law. Note that recently, the Yoshida-Uemori model has been implemented in various FE codes.
1500 L&C (1X) L&C (2X) exp. 1000

Uniaxial tensile test

Stress (MPa)

500

Shear test

0 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

-500 Bauschinger Shear tests -1000 plastic strain

Figure 8; For TRIP780 steel, the Lemaitre-Chaboche hardening model with 2X is better than Lemaitre-Chaboche hardening model with 1X (here, Swift isotropic hardening).

4. MODEL COMPARISON CROSS-SHAPED PART

THROUGHT

STAMPING

APPLICATION:

Four yield loci combined with three hardening laws for different steel grades used: - Yield loci: von Mises (VM), Hill1948 (H48), Hill1990 (H90) and Barlat1991 (B91) - Isotropic hardening: Swift, Voce, Combined S-V (SV) The comparison between experimental measurements and numerical predictions covered punch force, drawn-in, thickness and strain distribution. The best compromise is obtained for Hill1990 yield loci and Combined S-V for isotropic hardening. Figure 9 illustrates the punch force prediction response for different cases.

300 Voce_Hill48 250 Punch force (kN) 200 150 Exp. (1.5mm) 100 50 0 0 10 20 Stroke (mm) 30 40 Swift_Hill48 SV_Hill48 Swift_Hill90 SV_Hill90

Figure 9; Punch force prediction of stamping cross part, illustrating the need to couple isotropic hardening models with yield loci.

5. CONCLUSIONS At present, for yield loci, the Hill1990 model is recommended for all steel grades. This yield criterion needs few experimental tests for identification and shows better stressstrain curve prediction for rheological tests and better prediction for stamping cross part. Concerning isotropic hardening models, combined S-V law is recommended. It offers good prediction beyond uniform elongation (UE) for different experimental tests as bulge test, V-bending. This isotropic hardening model coupled with Hill1990 yield loci improves slightly punch force prediction for the stamping of the cross part. Obviously, these recommendations are highly dependent on the parameter identification procedures. Commercial FE codes providers continuously implement new laws and these recommendations are therefore constantly being updated especially for mixed hardening laws.

REFERENCES

[Banabic, 2000] Banabic, D.;"Anisotropy of sheet metal"; In: Formability of metallic materials: Plastic Anisotropy, Formability Testing, Forming Limits, pp. 119-172; 2000; ISBN 3-540-67906-5 [Barlat et al., 1991] Barlat, F.; Lege, D.J.; Brem, J.C.; "A six-component yield function for anisotropic materials"; In: Int. J. Plasticity 7, pp. 693-712; 1991

[Barlat et al., 2005] Barlat, F.; Aretz, H.; Yoon, J.W.; Karabin, M.E.; Brem, J.C.; Dick, R.E.; " Linear transformation-based anisotropic yield functions "; In: Int. J. Plasticity 21, pp. 1009-1039; 2005 [Hill, 1990] Hill, R.; "Constitutive Modelling of Orthotropic plasticity in sheet metals"; In: Journal Mech. Phys. Solids 38/3, pp. 405-417; 1990 [Lee et al., 2005] Lee, M.G.; Kim, D.; Kim, C.; Wenner, M.L.; Wagoner, R.H.; Chung, K.; "Spring-back evaluation of automotive sheets based on isotropic-kinematic hardening laws and non-quadratic anisotropic yield functions Part II: characterization of material properties"; In: International Journal of Plasticity 21, pp. 883914; 2005 [Lemoine et al., 2008] Lemoine, X.; Aoufi, A.; " Bauschinger effect correspondence of experimental tests "; In: Int J Mater Form Suppl, pp. 241244, 2008 [Sadagopan et al., 2003] Sadagopan, S.; Urban, D.; "Formability Characterization Of A New Generation Of High Strength Steels"; In: Final report of AISI/DOE Technology Roadmap Program, March 2003 [Yoshida et al., 2003] Yoshida, F.; Uemori, T.; "A model of large-strain cyclic plasticity and its application to springback simulation"; In: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 45, pp. 1687-1702; 2003

Numerical Simulation of Rope Roller Hemming in the case of Aluminum Alloys

Xing Hu*, S.H. Li*, Y.X. Zhao*, and Z.Q. Lin* * Autobody Manufacturing Technology Center, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China lishuhui@sjtu.edu.cn

Abstract: This study focuses on the finite element simulation of the rope roller hemming process of a 6000 series Al-Mg alloy, in which the flanged length is progressively bent over the inner part by a cylindrical roller along a given trajectory and finally a rope along the hemline is produced. Combined isotropic and kinematic hardening rule is used for roller hemming numerical analysis. Forming limit based on ductile damage criterion is used to predict fracture of roller hemming. Numerical simulation of flat roller hemming and rope roller hemming are accomplished to assess hemmability for the aluminum alloy. It is demonstrated that rope roller hemming could alleviate tensile strains on the outer fibers of the material by changing the strain state in the vicinity of the bending area compared with flat roller hemming. Key words: Finite element, Aluminum alloy, Rope roller hemming, Forming limit. 1. INTRODUCTION Hemming is used to attach one sheet metal part to another especially in automotive panels such as doors, hoods and deck-lids [Y Hishida et al.,1986]. Roller hemming is a relatively new joining process. In place of traditional tabletop hemming, a roller is guided by a robot along the hemmed line progressively bending the flanged height along the part. However, a highly localized severe plastic deformation along the exterior surface of the outer panel appears during roller hemming. The deformation may be associated with damage occurrence during hemming operations, especially for those weak ductility material compared with steel.

(a) Flat hemming (b) Rope hemming Fig.1. Different hemming types. Aluminum alloy, which is a substitute of steel for light-weight design, has been used for the production of vehicle outer panels. It has a weakness of low formability,

which results in the severity of roller hemming fracture. The decreasing of bendability in aluminum alloy often requires the use of rope roller hemming (versus flat roller hemming for steel), which could be described in Fig.1. Flat hemming (Fig.1(a)) always refers to a kind of 3 times of thickness hemming, while rope hemming (Fig.1(b)) means a more than 3 times of thickness hemming characterized by a rope producing during final hemming process. Roller hemming simulation can be applied in the process development when prototype parts are available and engineers are working on the hemming of actual panels. Simultaneous engineering in this stage can save on prototype panels, increase efficiency and productivity, and provide valuable process information. Previous studies are mostly focused on tabletop hemming. H Livatyali et al. (2000, 2002, 2003) studied the effects of flanging and hemming parameters on tabletop hemming quality through simulation and experiments. Zhang et al. (2000) investigated the mechanism of tabletop hemming warp and recoil. A Muderrisoglu et al. (1996) analyzed influences of flanging parameters on roll-in/out of 1050 aluminum alloy tabletop hemming. Guosong Lin et al. (2007) presented maximum surface strain as a hemming fracture criterion. For roller hemming process, S. Thuillier et al. (2008) focused on the finite element simulation of roller hemming process of an Al-Mg alloy on roll-in/out. However, the studies assumed roller hemming as a kind of symmetric process, which is not quite the truth, and only highlighted the importance on hardening rules. Moreover, the fracture behavior of the aluminum alloy was not studied yet. This paper presents a study on rope roller hemming simulation of a kind of aluminum alloy. The non-linear kinematic hardening rule is used. Based on the finite element model, flat roller hemming and rope roller hemming is compared with each other to investigate the stress state changes. Finally, the parameters affecting rope roller hemming fracture behavior is studied.

2. MATERIAL PARAMETERS IDENTIFICATION The aluminum alloy sheet 6061-T6 (Chemical composition in wt%, see Tab.1) is considered in the present investigation. Table 1. Chemical composition of the aluminum alloy 6061-T6. Mg Si Cu Cr Fe Mn Zn Ti 0.8-1.2 0.4-0.8 0.15-0.40 0.04-0.35 0.7 0.15 0.25 0.15 The yield criterion f = ( 0 + R ) 0 is used to define the elastic domain, where

0 is the initial yielding stress before plastic straining, and is the effective stress,
which is defined by the Mises yielding = flow stresses and back stresses accordingly.
3 ( ij ij ) 2 , where ij and ij are the 2

A combined isotropic Voce and the nonlinear Lemaitre and Chaboche kinematic hardening model was introduced for roller hemming. The evolution equation for R is the isotropic hardening rule with saturation as dR = b(Q R)d , R=0 when =0, where is accumulated effective plastic strain, Q and b are material parameters. Non-linear kinematic hardening part is based on the Armstrong and Frederik 1 ( ij )d ij d , where is material parameter. model by d ij = C 0 + R ij Material parameters (0, Q, b, C, ) of 6061-T6 aluminum alloy must be identified from uniaxial tension and compression tests, the procedure showed as below. Case 1: A single full cycle tension and compression test (Fig.2 (a)) starting at tension, and then at plastic strain of about 0.045, reversing to compression at plastic strain of about zero. Case 2: A uniaxial test (Fig.2 (b)) starting from tension until plastic strain of about 0.08, and then unloading to stress of zero, reloading at tension to a whole plastic strain of about 0.09, reversing to compression at plastic strain of about 0.08.

(a) Case 1 (b) Case 2 Fig.2. Typical uniaxial tension and compression test studies. The parameters determined from these two cases are list in Table 2. Table 2. Combined hardening parameters. 0 (MPa) Q (MPa) C (MPa) b 209.2 38.9 21.1 3529.3 65.16

3. DUCTILE FRACTURE To describe ductile failure of the material, the simple phenomenological criterion proposed by Cockcroft and Latham is employed [Cockcroft et al., 1986] which assumes ductile fracture happens when W = max( 1 , 0)d WC , where 1 is the maximum
0

principal stress and Wc is the critical value of the integral W. The Cockcroft-Latham

fracture criterion has only one parameter, Wc. An FE-based technique is adopted to identify the fracture parameter Wc. This Technique relies on an acceptable correlation between the experimental and simulated load-displacement curve. Wc could be determined from uniaxial tensile experiment with the steps presented below: A tensile test is performed and the minimum thickness of the neck after fracture is measured. This minimum thickness of the neck determines the moment of ductile fracture initiation. Then, the tensile test is simulated; using an FEM model and the loaddisplacement curve is obtained, check if the curve is in agreement with the experimental load-displacement curve. If this check is satisfied, we could decide Wc. When the experimentally determined minimum thickness of the neck is reached in the simulation, Wc is determined to be the maximum value of 1d over the entire FEM mesh.
0

(a) Simulation verification (b) Wc calculation Fig.3. Ductile fracture initiation calculation [10]. Through the combination of simulation and experiment, the critical energy for 6061-T6 aluminum alloy could be obtained (Fig.3). Finally, 134.4 MPa is the critical value when roller hemming ductile fracture initiates [Xing Hu et al., 2010].

Fig.4. Fracture limit based on ductile damage criterion. Considering only the exterior surface is concerned for fracture, a plane-stress condition is assumed throughout roller hemming. Considering ductile fracture, a fracture strain-stress triaxiality relationship is used to predict fracture limit of aluminum alloy during roller hemming. Consequently, fracture limit under different stress

triaxialities could be calculated from the stated assumptions including stress strain curve, plane-stress condition, linear strain path, Deformation Theory of Constitutive Equation, Cockcroft-Latham fracture criterion, etc., which is shown in Fig.4.

4. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL Rope roller hemming simulation could be classified as four steps, including flanging, pre-hemming, flat final-hemming and rope final-hemming (Fig.5). Firstly, a flat outer panel is bended with a 90 flanging angle. Then the outer panel is hemmed to 0. Finally, a rope along the hemline is produced.

(b)Pre-hemming (c) Flat final-hemming (d) Rope final-hemming Fig.5. Rope roller hemming process. A flat panel with straight edge is used in this simulation. The flat surface-straight edge sample has a length of 200mm and width equal to 70 mm before the flanging process. The inner blank of 200mm length and 58mm width is defined as deformable. Inner and outer blank are made of the same 1.0 mm thickness aluminum alloy steel panel. ABAQUS/EXPLICIT is utilized to simulate the roller hemming process. Element type for inner and outer panels is S4R.

(a) Flanging

(a) Flanging tools setup (b) Flanging parameters Fig.6. Flanging process establishment. Flanging process (Fig.6 (a)) is modeled with three tools: a flat holder, a flanging die and a flanging punch. The flanging parameters could be seen in Fig.6 (b). The flange length (L) is equal to 10 mm. The flanging die radius(R) is set to be 1.5 mm. The outer blank is placed between the holder and flanging die. Clamping force of 10 KN is applied through the holder. The flat holder, flanging die and flanging punch are defined to be analytical rigid, while flanging outer blank is deformable.

Fig.7. Pre-hemming process establishment. During pre-hemming (Fig.7), the inner and outer panels are clamped between a blankholder and a die through which a constant force of 10 KN is applied. The prehemming angle is kept to be 45. A coordinate system (CSYS) is set on the roller. The center point of the CSYS is on the central axis line. The roller which moves along z axis of the set CSYS is a cylinder. It rotates with its own axis by friction force produced between the outer blank and the roller. The pre-hemming roller is a cylinder with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 34 mm.

(a) Flat roller hemming (b) Rope roller hemming Fig.8. Flat final-hemming for different hemming types. The difference between flat hemming and rope hemming concentrates on the shape of the final deformed sheet which is defined by the position of the roller along the thickness direction that could be defined as flat hemming height (H in Fig.1). For flat hemming (Fig.8 (a)), flat final-hemming is the last forming process. The flat hemming height is set to be 3 times of thickness. The same setup and constraints of tools are used for pre-hemming is applied to flat final-hemming. The only difference refers to posture of the roller. Pre-hemming roller is set to be 45 of the inner blank surface while flat final-hemming is set to be 0. For rope hemming (Fig.8 (b)), flat final-hemming is the previous process before rope final-hemming. The flat hemming height is set to be more than 3 times of thickness which is determined by the radius of the final rope. Here, the flat hemming height is set to be 4 mm. The constraints are the same with flat hemming.

Fig.9. Rope final-hemming process establishment. The roller of rope final-hemming is another cylinder with a diameter of 20 mm and a height of 10 mm. The final position of rope roller is set to be 3 times of thickness without flat hemming the bending center to assure a rope in Fig. 9. A Coulomb friction coefficient is defined to 0.125 for all contact pairs. Combined hardening constitutive theory is used in the simulation.

5. RESULTS AND DASCUSSION DUCTCRT is a parameter for ABAQUS to determine whether the deformation of an element exceeds its forming limit based on ductile fracture criterion. If the value of DUCTCRT reaches 1, the element is damaged.

(a) Flat roller hemming (b) Rope roller hemming Fig.10. Fracture behavior predictions for different roller hemming types. Fig.10 (a) shows the overall DUCTCRT of flat roller hemming over the whole outer panel. The simulation results make clear that outer panel is damaged over the hemline. The DUCTCRT values along the width direction of the hemline illustrates that fracture happens near the free edges. Fig.10 (b) shows the overall DUCTCRT of rope roller hemming over the whole outer panel. Different from flat roller hemming, the maximum deformation happens in the conjunctions of rope and flat hemmed flange. Moreover, DUCTCRT values along the width direction of the conjunctions dont reach 1. Then outer panel is not damaged for rope roller hemming. Consequently, fracture of rope roller hemming is a competition between the hemline and conjunctions of rope and flat hemmed flange wherever the fracture limit has met.

The reason for rope roller hemming of alleviating fracture behavior must rely on the strain state changes in the vicinity of hemming-effected area of the bend which could be illustrated by Fig.11. Fig.11 shows the stress over the flange direction (Fig.10(a)) for both flat hemming and rope hemming at the free edge as its the most dangerous section for roller hemming. The curves could be divided into the little plastic deformation area and hemming-effected area based on the stress magnitude.

Fig.11. Stress distribution along flange direction. The stress magnitude over the hemming-effected area is much higher than the little plastic deformation area. For flat roller hemming, the maximum stress of the hemmingeffected area is as high as 254.5 MPa at the bending center at hemline, while the minimum stress is 25.7 MPa. The difference of Mises stress over the hemming-effected area of flat roller hemming comes to as high as 228.8 MPa. Then for rope roller hemming, the maximum stress tends to be 212.6 MPa at conjunction of rope and flat hemmed edge, while the minimum stress is just 43.2 MPa. The difference between the maximum and minimum Mise stress is 169.4 MPa. Hence, flat roller hemming concerns to a greater stress difference over the hemming-effected area compared with rope roller hemming, which brings out the severity of fracture behavior during flat roller hemming.

Fig.14. Fracture behavior at different flanging die radius. Fig.14 illustrates the DUCTCRT values over the most dangerous area in the conjunctions of the rope and flat hemmed flange along the width direction under different flanging die radius. It is obvious that material is more severe to fracture at die radius of 1.0 mm with a maximum DUCTCRT of 0.972 than at die radius of 1.5 mm

with a maximum DUCTCRT of 0.928. As hemming is a kind of bending process at the bending center, the smaller the flanging die radius, the more severe the fracture behavior for rope roller hemming.

(a)DUCTCRT (b) Equivalent strain (c)Mises stress Fig.15. Fracture behavior at different flat hemming height. Fig.15 shows the fracture behavior of different flat hemming height. Aluminum alloy tends to fracture at hemming height of 6 mm in Fig.15 (a). Fracture of rope roller hemming is a competition between the hemline and conjunctions of rope and flat hemmed flange. In flat hemming height of 6 mm, the effect of straining propagation at the bending center at hemline produced by increasing hemming height becomes trivial. However, the straining at conjunction of rope flat hemmed flange becomes obvious. Flat hemming height increasing from 5 mm to 6 mm, the equivalent strain at conjunction of rope and flat hemmed flange increase from 0.54 to 0.68(Fig.15 (b)), while the Mises stress at conjunction of rope and flat hemmed flange increase from 212.6 MPa to 232.7 MPa (Fig.15 (c)).

6. CONCLUDING REMARKS Numerical simulation of rope roller hemming was presented for a flat plane with a straight edge 6061-T6 aluminum alloy in this paper. The mechanical behavior was described by a nonlinear kinematic hardening rule. Forming limit based on ductile damage criterion was used to predict fracture of rope roller hemming. Then the finite element model was accomplished for both flat roller hemming and rope roller hemming. Moreover, the simulation results of flat roller hemming and rope roller hemming were compared to study the fracture behavior of rope roller hemming. It is demonstrated that fracture of rope roller hemming was a competition between the hemline and conjunctions of rope and flat hemmed flange wherever the fracture limit has met. The smaller the flanging die radius, the more severe the fracture behavior for rope roller hemming. The effects of flat hemming height on fracture behavior was complex for its straining propagation at the bending center and strain hardening at conjunction of rope flat hemmed flange.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge the support from the National High-Tech Research and Development Plan (No.2007AA04Z145), SAIC foundation (No.0804) and State Key Laboratory Mechanical System and Vibration (Shanghai Jiao Tong University) Topic (No.MSV-MS-2008-12).

REFERENCES [Y Hishida et al.,1986] Y Hishida; Y Sato; Analysis of hemming processes by the finite element method for improving hemming quality; In: Proceedings of the 14th Biannial Congress of IDDRG; 1986 April 21-23; Koln, Germany. [H Livatyali et al.,2000] H Livatyali; A Muderrisoglu; M A Ahmetoglu; N Akgerman; G L Kinzel; T Altan; Improvement of hem quality by optimizing flanging and prehemming operations using computer-aided die design; J Mater Process Technol. 2000; 98:41-52. [H Livatyali et al.,2002] H Livatyali; H C Wu; T Altan ; Prediction and elimination of springback in straight flanging using computer aided design methods Part2: FEM predictions and tool design; J Mater Process Technol. 2002; 120:348-354. [H Livatyali et al.,2003] H Livatyali; S J Larris; Experimental investigation on forming defects in flat surfaceconvex edge hemming: roll, recoil and warp; J Mater Process Technol. 2003; 153-154: 913-919. [Zhang et al., 2000] Zhang G; Hao H; Wu X; Hu S; An experimental investigation of curved surface-straight edge forming; J Manuf Process. 2000; 24: 241246. [A Muderrisoglu et al.,1996] A Muderrisoglu; M Murata ; S Tufekci ; M Ahmetoglu ; G Kinzel ; T Altan ; Bending, flanging and hemming of sheetan experimental study; J Mater Process Technol. 1996; 59: 10-17. [Guosong Lin et al., 2007] Guosong Lin; Jing Li; S Jack Hu; Wayne Cai; A computational response surface study of three-Dimensional aluminum hemming using Solid-to-Shell mapping; Transactions of the ASME. 2007; 12: 360-368. [Thuillier S et al.,2008] Thuillier S ; Le Maout N ; Manach P ; Debois D; Numerical simulation of the roll hemming process; J Mater Process Technol. 2008; 98: 22633. [Cockcroft et al., 1986] Cockcroft MG; Latham DJ; Ductility and the workability of metals; J Inst Met.1986; 96:3339. [Xing Hu et al., 2010] Xing Hu; Z.Q. Lin; S.H. Li; Y.X. Zhao; Fracture limit prediction for roller hemming of aluminum alloy sheet; Materials and Design. 2010; 1:1410-1416.

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New approaches for validation of roller hemming process simulation

U. Eisele1, K. Roll1, M. Liewald2 Daimler AG, Mercedes-Benz Bela-Barenyi-Str. 1, HPC B512, 71059 Sindelfingen, Germany urs.eisele@daimler.com, karl.roll@daimler.com Institute for Metal Forming Technology Holzgartenstrae 17, 70174 Stuttgart, Germany
mathias.liewald@ifu.uni-stuttgart.de
2 1

Abstract: Today, the roller hemming process is becoming increasingly attractive for production applications due to its lower investment costs. Findings from FEM simulations support the planning and realization process during the run-up phase. The virtual prediction of the roll-in is particularly important for improving the roller hemming process regarding the optimization of gaps between vehicle body parts. To obtain a result concerning the accuracy of FEM simulation, it is necessary to validate the virtual data by means of experiments. Only a few comparisons with experimental data have been carried out by using the described trajectory of the hemming roller extracted from the robots offline program. A disadvantage of this approach is that it ignores certain boundary conditions that have an influence on the actual position of the roller during the roller hemming process: One of these influencing factors is the rigidity of the robot. The trajectory of the hemming roller differs according to the particular load. In practice, this is compensated by modifying the trajectory of the roller in the robot program. The rigidity of the robot is not normally taken into account during the simulation. Therefore, the position of the roller in the FEM simulation differs from the actual position if the trajectory of the robot program is used. This paper presents a new approach for validating the roller hemming process simulation. Results of external real-time measurements of the trajectory of the roller provided by an external measuring system during the roller hemming process will be discussed and implemented into an FEM simulation using the LS-Dyna explicit code to take the robot rigidity into account. A flat and straight geometry is used as the basis for this investigation. Key words: Roller, hemming, robot rigidity, FEA, simulation, LS-Dyna, roll-in

1. INTRODUCTION FEM results from simulations can support the planning process for the production of sheet metal parts. For this purpose, the objective is to carry out a complete simulation preview of all manufacturing processes involved. In order to obtain validated evidence of the accuracy of these results, it is extremely important to incorporate empirical evidence as a basis for comparison. Since a large number of boundary conditions are assumed to be ideal during the simulation, potential sources of errors that only exist in reality and that will significantly influence the result must be identified and, if possible, compensated for when FEA simulations are created.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE ROLLER HEMMING PROCESS Hemming is an operation used in the construction of vehicle body parts and follows on from deep drawing, trimming and folding the flange to produce a metal-formed joint between the outer skin part and the inner part of the vehicle body.

Figure 1; Simplified hemming process in automotive industry (hood) The sheets are joined by bending without the use of any additional fasteners and this operation is generally combined with a bonding process. The advantages of this joining process are the low weight of the joint, increased component rigidity and minimized risk of injury due to the elimination of sharp-edged end pieces. Parts of the vehicle body that are normally hemmed include engine hoods, doors, trunk lids and fenders. Two hemming processes are generally used to manufacture vehicle body parts: conventional press hemming and roller hemming. The roller hemming process is outlined below. In addition to conventional press hemming, the roller hemming process is used in the production of vehicle body parts based on economic and technological criteria. After the deep drawing and trimming of the vehicle body outer skin part, the flange is normally positioned using a folding tool. However, the hemming process is completed incrementally by means of a hemming roller operated by an industrial robot (Figure 2).

Figure 2; Roller hemming process Depending on the component and the robot positions, rollers of varying geometries and diameters can be used. Depending on the opening angle, the roller hemming process can be subdivided into the steps of prehemming and final hemming. During the first prehemming step (Figure 3), the flange initially opened at an angle of 90 is closed by 30 to create an opening angle of 60. During the second prehemming step, the flange is closed by a further 30.

Figure 3; Process steps of the roller hemming process [Eisele et al., 2010] After the third process step, final hemming, the flange is closed in a similar manner to the conventional press hemming process. Depending on the extent of the initial opening angle between the positioned flange and the outer part, the roller hemming process may incorporate additional prehemming steps. Depending on the boundary conditions, it is also possible to use one-off prehemming of 45 [Le Maot et al., 2006], which reduces the cycle time per vehicle body part. Of particular interest in this context is the ability to achieve an optimum gap dimension between the vehicle body parts. Along with the external radius, the optical gap

dimension is defined by a range of factors that includes the actual distance between the two outermost folded edges (Figure 4), which is influenced by the roll-in.

Figure 4; Optical gap dimension and roll-in The roll-in incurred depends largely on the rollers trajectory [Jonkers, 2006]. For this reason, it is important to ensure that the rollers actual trajectory is exactly reproduced within the simulation.

3. DISTURBING INFLUENCES ON THE POSITION OF THE ROLLER TRAJECTORY In the past, the offline program of the robot was chosen as a basis to determine the position of the roller trajectory, e.g. by [Ceretti et. al., 2007], [Arroyo, 2009]. The program stores trajectory points that the "Tool Center Point" (TCP, Figure 3) is supposed to follow during the hemming process. In order to transfer the actual position of the roller trajectory to the simulation, various sources of errors that could lead to a relative offset between the theoretical and actual position of the roller trajectory must be taken into account. When the offline/online robot program is used, the following issues must be theoretically ensured by means of suitable measurements: The relative position of the robot to the zero point of the program coordinate system must exactly match the values stored in the program. A deviation would cause the programmed trajectory points to be passed at an offset. The position of the Tool Center Point (TCP, Figure 3), a point on the line of contact between the roller and the sheet, must also be accurately stored in the program to ensure that the programmed trajectory points are passed with sufficient accuracy. Changes on the hemming bed, which influence the relative position of the components, must be taken into account during offline programming.

Even if this data is adequately recorded and taken into account within the validation, there still remains a deviation of the actual trajectory and the programmed trajectory due to the finite level of robot rigidity. During the hemming process, the hemming roller is subjected to a force of over 1200 N depending on the material and the particular sheet thickness. Depending on the rigidity of the robot, this load causes a deviation from the programmed trajectory. The internal robot control system cannot detect this and is therefore unable to compensate for it. In addition, the overall robot rigidity is dependent on the current deflection of the six robotic axes [Wulfsberg et al., 2005], and cannot therefore be regarded as constant. [Arroyo, 2009] took the robot rigidity into account within an FEM simulation by means of a spring model and defined its rigidity based on empirical data as being a constant 350 N/mm. In order to determine and take into account how the robots resilience influences the actual trajectory points of the TCP, external measuring equipment is to be used to record the position of the TCP during the hemming operation. The roller position recorded in this way is the result of the force acting on the robot and the robots overall rigidity.

4. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experimental investigations were conducted on a straight geometry with a length of 1000 mm. Test sheets made from the aluminum material AC170PX with a thickness of 1 mm were used. The flange radius was 1.25 mm and the flange length 13.5 mm. In order to record the spatial trajectory of the TCP, the Krypton K600 mobile optical real-time measurement system was used (Figure 5).

Robot

Figure 5; External measurement system during roller hemming process The measurement system (Figure 5) includes a camera unit equipped with three linear CCD cameras and three infrared LEDs, which are installed on the hemming head. The exact spatial position and alignment (angle) of the hemming roller can be calculated by

a process of triangulation at an accuracy of up to 0.06 mm. Using the measuring system, the coordinate origin on the hemming bed as well as the position of the TCP on the hemming roller were determined in advance. The hemming process was performed with two prehemming steps (Figure 3) with 30 steps. In order to determine the roll-in, tactile measurements of the sheets were taken after the folding and final hemming steps.

5. FEM ROLLER HEMMING MODEL The explicit LS-Dyna code was used to simulate the roller hemming process. The fully integrated shell element (type 16) and shell elements that take account of the stresses in the sheet thickness direction (type 25,26) were selected as elements. The material models used are Barlat 89 for shell element 16 and "Barlat 2000" for shell elements 25 and 26. The hemming zone of the sheet was linked with elements with a length of 0.5 mm and a height of 0.2 mm. This results in approximately 14 elements on the hemming radius in order to maximize the accuracy of the subsequent measurement of the roll-in.

Figure 6; FEM-roller hemming model in LS-DYNA The inner part was incorporated into the model as deformable and fixed to the outer sheet by means of a hold-down device to which a force is applied. In order to limit the computing time, a section of 180 mm was chosen.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1.1. Rigidity of the robot during prehemming steps In order to draw conclusions regarding the resilience of the robot, the spatial trajectories of the TCP with and without the blank were recorded and compared for a total of six sheets. Both trajectories result from the same robot program. The forces acting on the roller result in an offset of approximately 2.5 mm during the second prehemming step.
Deviation of the roller trajectory between the cases with and without the blank

Figure 7; Offset of the trajectory of the roller between the cases with and without blank This means that the position of the trajectory within the validation simulation would differ from the experiment by 2.6 mm if the trajectory points from the robot program were used. As a result, the validity of the roller hemming simulation validation would be impaired or falsified. For this reason, the roller trajectory recorded under load is implemented in LS-Dyna. It also turns out that the force acting on the roller does not influence the hemming angle. This can be attributed to the forces low leverage and the low resulting moment about the TCP. 1.2. Comparison between experiment and FEA process simulation The actual roller trajectory recorded was integrated into the FEM simulation. In order to reduce the time required, 180 mm of the test blanks were reproduced in the simulation.

Figure 8; Sketch of the experimental set-up and location of the measuring points The roll-in was determined at four measurement points both in the simulations and in the experiment (six sheets). The results are presented in (Figure 9). In examining the mean errors, it is clear that all three variants show a roll-in that is lower than that achieved in the experiment. Based on the mean error, the most accurate result is achieved using shell element type 25. However, the fluctuation of the error is much greater than in the model using type 16. Based on this information, the use of type 16 is recommended as the error in this case remains more constant in the range from 0.1 mm to -0.2 mm. Furthermore, it is apparent that the use of shell elements leads to results of sufficient geometric accuracy with regard to the roll-in and that there is no need to use volume elements to represent the bending process regarding the roll-in. This provides further confirmation of the corresponding results obtained by [Sigvant 2003].

Figure 9; Results of the comparison between experiment and FEA simulation

7. CONCLUSION Use of the robot program as a basis for roller kinematics in validation simulations of roller hemming uncovered a scientific deficit: Due to a finite level of robot rigidity, the forces acting on the roller lead to a spatial deviation between the theoretical trajectory and the actual roller trajectory during the hemming process. The use of an external measuring system to take a differentiated view of the load condition identified an offset of up to 2.6 mm between the empty run and the hemming process using sheets during the second prehemming step. The programmed hemming angle is not influenced. A linear hemming process using samples made of the sheet material AC170PX (1 mm sheet thickness) served as the basis of the investigation. In order to take this into account in the validation simulation using LS-DYNA, the roller kinematics were adapted in line with the measured trajectory curve. Accordingly, the error adjusted for the rigidity error when the thin shell element type 16 is used is approximately -0.15 mm with a standard deviation of approximately 0.05 mm.

REFERENCES [Arroyo et al., 2009] Arroyo, A.; Prez, I.; Guitrrez, M.; Bahillo, J.; Toja, H.; "Simulation of roller hemming process with ABAQUS explicit"; In Proceedings of the IDDRG 2009, pp. 41 - 52: Golden, CO, USA 2009 [Ceretti et al., 2007] Ceretti E.; Attanasio A.; Fiorentino, A.; Giardini, C.; "Sheet Hemming with Rolling Tools: Analysis and Optimization of the Part Quality"; In: Key Engineering Materials, Vol. 344, pp. 357-364; Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland 2007 [Le Maot et al., 2006] Le Maot, N.; "Numerical Simulation of Flat-Surface Roll Hemming: Influence of geometry and material models"; In Proceedings of the IDDRG 2006, No. 25, pp. 287-294; Porto 2006 [Eisele et al., 2010] Eisele, U.; Roll, K.; "Integration von FEM-Rollfalzsimulationen in die virtuelle Prozesskette"; In Bauteile der Zukunft Methoden und Prozesse T31, pp. 337-358; EFB e.V., Hannover Germany 2010, ISBN 978-3-86776-343-1 [Jonkers, 2006] Jonkers, B.; "Simulation of the Robot Roller Hemming process"; Master thesis, University of Twente, 2006 [Sigvant, 2003] Sigvant, M.; "The Hemming Process A Numerical and Experimental Study"; PhD thesis; Chalmers University of Technology; Gothenburg, Sweden 2003 [Wulfsberg et al., 2005] Wulfsberg, J.; Loitz, H.; Derfling, D.; "Kraftgeregeltes Rollfalzen"; In Zeitschrift fr wirtschaftlichen Fabrikbetrieb, No. 100/03, pp. 130135; Carl-Hanser Verlag, Munich 2005

Improvement of the Welding Process for High Strength Steels by Assistance of Induction Heat Treatment
Martin Mach*, Holger Schlbe*, Bernard Nacke* * Institute of Electrotechnology, Leibniz University of Hannover, Wilhelm-Busch-Str. 4, D-30167 Hannover mach@etp.uni-hannover.de Abstract: Fundamental metallurgical facts cause high strength and ultra high strength steel steels to be relatively difficult to weld. High cooling rates occurring during the laser or hybrid welding process lead to the loss of the base material properties, increased hardness, cold crack occurrence in the weld zone and heterogeneity in the material microstructure. This limitation in manufacturing can be overcome by the use of welding methods combined with appropriate induction heating. A suitable designed induction heating system integrated into the welding process provides an increase of the weldability of high strength steels. A controlled temperature level during the welding process, reducing the cooling rates to avoid the cold cracks and residual stresses and influencing seam shape can be reached by the use of induction support. The paper focuses on the development of such integrated induction-based heat treatment systems for different welding methods and applications of high strength steels. Keywords: high strength steels, induction heating, numerical simulation, heat treatment.

1. INTRODUCTION The Institute of Electrotechnology has been working since several years on development of induction heating systems for supporting different joining processes, materials and work piece groups [Mach et al., 2008], [Kracht et al., 2009]. For high strength steels, induction heating systems have been developed for welding of metal sheets within a thickness range up to 30 mm using different welding technologies: laser welding, GMA welding, laser-GMA hybrid welding and laser welding combined with submerged arc welding. The main goal of this additional heat treatment is to obtain a controlled temperature cycle over the whole welding process using inductive pre- and/or post heating methods. The core of the objectives was to adapt the resulting weld seam properties to the base material properties. In detail, that includes increasing the formability and toughness, controlling the hardness and reducing the cooling rate to avoid cold cracks and unfavorable residual stress states. Furthermore, coupling of selected welding sources can lead to increase of their efficiency, reducing or compensating weld distortion, adaptation of the seam shape and the penetration profile and avoiding hot cracks like center line defects in high power laser applications.

In the following, the possibilities of an optimal control of the temperature level by an additional induction heating are discussed. 1.1. General remarks on induction heating According to the physical law of induction an alternating electromagnetic field is generated around each electrical conductor through which an alternating current is flowing. Metals brought into close proximity will be heated by eddy currents produced within the metal (Fig.1). Heating by induction makes herewith use of the capability of the magnetic field to transmit energy without direct contact. A basic problem is to create a sufficiently intense electromagnetic field and ensure a suitable position of the component to be heated within the center of the field. This must be done in such a way as to obtain the required heat pattern as well as the optimum transmission of energy from the electrical conductor to the work-piece.

Figure 1; Induction principle (left) and typical inductor shape for local induction heating of metal sheet (right). The inductor itself is the most important part of an induction heating unit. Usually, the inductor is achieved by forming the electrical conductor also referred to as inductor or coil with one or more turns (mainly made of water cooled copper) [Rudnev et al., 2008]. In case of welding of flat geometries, linear inductors being positioned along the welding seam are recommended (Fig. 2). Additionally, it is profitable to use so called flux concentrators for adaptation of the electromagnetic field according the particular requirements on heat pattern. Depending on the form of applied heat treatment (pre-heating, post-heating or annealing) different inductor positions before and after the welding operation can be used.

Figure 2; Position of the inductor for induction preheating and examples of inductors used for heat treatment after and before the welding.

Generally, the heat pattern is given by the geometry of the inductor, work piece material, frequency of the coil current and the position of the inductor to work piece. In order to provide the required heating effect all the above mentioned parameters must be defined properly and combined with an appropriate power supply.

1.2. Process parameters for controlling the heat pattern Independent on the position of inductor within the welding process (pre- or postheating, annealing), the following process and inductor parameters can be adapted in order to obtain the required temperature cycle: Controlled parameters Influence on the process Electrical parameters of power supply Heat penetration, electrical efficiency (power, frequency) Inductor design Temperature profile, cooling time (e.g. cross section, length, width) Process configuration Overall temperature level, cooling time (e.g. inductor position) Table I; Process parameters for controlling the heat pattern. The operating frequency is an important parameter in induction heating. Generally, the thickness of the layer in which the current flows is dependent on the frequency according to the physical background, namely to the electrical skin effect. Accordingly, the induced heat pattern corresponds to the current distribution in the work piece as well. At low frequencies, the heated layer is thick while at higher frequencies the heated layer is thin and the inner part of the work piece is generally heated only by thermal conduction from the surface. Additionally, there is a relationship between the work piece diameter (thickness) and the frequency that influences the electrical efficiency of induction heating. Both effects should be considered by the selection of the appropriate power supply. The geometry of the induction coil directly influences the provided temperature profile. The temperature distribution provided by an inductor can be modified by variation of its length and width. By modification of the geometrical cross-section of the inductor even a local influence of the temperature profile can be reached. Overall process configuration plays also an important role by combination of welding sources with induction heating. Their mutual interaction must be taken into account by implementation of the induction into a welding installation. For example, the distance of the inductor from the welding head in case of induction post-heating directly affects the way of influencing of cooling rates. Furthermore, an optimized combination of pre- and post heating or annealing can be useful for some applications. All in all, for achieving the required results an optimized combination of all parameters should be found with respect to the implementation of induction heating unit into the particular process installation.

2. APPROACH TO THE PROCESS MODELING From the viewpoint of the simulation, the investigated process represents a coupled problem characterized by the interaction of electromagnetic field and temperature field. That is why a mathematical model of both physical fields has been created. Moreover, the influence of welding process itself had to be taken into account. Therefore a macromodel methodology of implementation of welding energy has been developed based on experimental data. The finite element model (developed using the commercial software package ANSYS) uses 2D approach to describe the temperature behavior of the welding process and respects the movement of welding and induction sources by their change in time. It carries out the thermal analysis of different welding procedures as well as the electromagnetic and thermal analysis of the induction heating process for both planeparallel (sheets) as well as axisymmetrical (rotational parts) arrangements. As a result the model provides the knowledge of time and space temperature distribution within the welded steel plates and allows herewith the optimization of the induction heating systems under actual process conditions. Material properties used in the model are temperature dependent and ensure the correct behavior of the model in the whole temperature range (from ambient temperature to maximum temperature during the welding process). Laser, plasma or GMA impacts are included as two-dimensional fields of heat sources varying in time. Methods of their implementation, dimensions of the active weld area for different materials and thicknesses etc. have been determined using experimental results. Fig. 3 shows two examples of the actual shapes of the weld and its simplified implementations in the model.[Kallage et al., 2008] Internal effects in the welding process (such as convection of the melt, dynamic of the keyhole, etc.) are not considered in the numerical model. These effects in such very small areas do not significantly affect the thermal behavior of the whole system, which should be investigated within this project. The modular structure of the model allows the simulation of all possible technological combinations of the welding process and possibilities of their induction heating support (pure welding process, post-heating, preheating etc.).

thickness 6mm

thickness 4mm

Figure 3; Principles of laser and GMA welding energy implementation. The main objectives of the numerical simulation are to develop appropriate heat treatment concepts for the different welding methods and to gain new fundamental knowledge about the interaction between induction and the welding processes.

3. VERIFICATION OF THE SIMULATION MODEL Several existing welding installations have been modeled in order to test and verify the capabilities of the numerical model. Different welding processes and configurations were considered to prove the accuracy and versatility of the model. The following part shows some selected examples of the obtained results. The schematic description of the investigated arrangement and the main process parameters are shown in Fig. 4. The steel grade S690QL has been considered for simulation and experimental verification. First of all, in order to adjust the model with measurements, the time temperature distribution in the middle of the welding seam has been observed on the upper steel side. This calculated temperature curve was compared to measurement data as can be seen in Fig. 5. This comparison shows a good agreement within the whole process. In the first part of the temperature curve, the temperature cannot be correctly measured, because of hiding the pyrometer by the inductor. In this case, the simulation offers the possibility to observe the temperature even at these inaccessible points.
Laser welding with induction pre-heating
OM A ER ER TH AM C

LASER

vLASER

vIND

IND

Steel thickness Feed rate Laser power Induction power

6 mm 1 m/min 3 kW 9.3 kW MAX 10*10*60 mm 20*20*47 mm

Inductor Magnetic concentrator

PYROMETER MIRROR

Figure 4; Parameters of the investigated process and overview of the experimental installation (IWS Dresden)

Figure 5; Temperature cycle on the upper side of the weld and temperature profile on the upper side after the laser process for one selected time (1)

4. HEAT TREATMENT OF SHEETS WITH THICKNESS UP TO 30 MM The numerical model presented above has been used for design and optimization of different heating systems in order to ensure the defined improvements of high-strength steel welding methods. There are different requirements on such heating system depending on welding technology, work-piece geometry (sheets, massive parts etc.) and intended goal of heat treatment (reduction of temperature gradients, increase of welding depth etc.) which can be reached by various methods of heat treatment (pre-heating, post-heating). In any case, a lot of parameters and their influence have to be investigated depending on particular process to find an optimal design. Selected methods and their effects on the thermal cycle are presented in the next part. 4.1. Thickness category 3 12 mm Let us consider the arrangement shown in Fig. 4. The influence of inductor length in the welding process (S690QL, sheets thickness of 6 mm) with integrated induction preheating is shown in Fig. 6. Providing the constant feed rate of 1 m/min, various depth of preheated zone can be reached by variation of inductor length (see the temperature distribution on the root side).

Figure 6; Laser welding process with induction preheating: influence of the length of coil (left: temperature profile over the sheet thickness; right: temperature cycle on the root side of the weld) Although the maximum surface temperature after induction heating remains unchanged (see Fig. 6, left) root side temperature increases due to thermal transfer by conduction through the welded sheets. Additionally, the cooling rate after laser process determining the final material structure (t8/5 time) is significantly prolonged (see Fig. 6, right). This finally leads to reduction of thermal stresses in the welded material and avoiding of residual tensile stresses which may result in material cracks. Having determined the temperature behavior of the complete system including induction and laser part, an optimal length of inductor can be chosen. Additionally, for a further improvement of the welding process a suitable modification of inductor length can lead to increase of welding speed, reduction of laser power and accompanying energy and time savings. Optimization of other parameters of induction systems for flat geometries as e.g. cross-

section of inductor or generator frequency has been performed by means of the presented numerical model. 4.2. Thickness category 12 30 mm For thicker sheets (thickness from 12 mm up to 30 mm) a V-shaped and X-shaped weld preparation are used. Induction pre-heating by standard inductors leads in this case to overheating of upper surface part and non-uniform temperature distribution in the seam. Therefore, a new design of inductor for pre-heating has been developed. The distribution of the electromagnetic field is modified due to an optimized copper profile and penetrates deeper into the air gap between the plates. The corresponding temperature distribution shows consequently a homogeneous temperature profile. Based on the parametrical studies, a new experimental inductor has been built (Fig. 7).

Figure 7; Induction pre-heating: influence of inductor geometry on temperature profile and photograph of the experimental inductor

5. HEAT TREATMENT FOR 2D WELDING APPLICATION The welding process of a spindle made of hardenable steel (42CrMo4) with a sheet metal made of high strength construction steel (S690Ql) has been selected as an application for demonstrating the induction assisted welding of rotational geometries. This combination is sensitive to cracks in the weld seam. The weld geometry and the material combination are responsible for the sensitivity. Therefore usually the parts are preheated for several hours in an oven. That standard procedure of complete tempering can be replaced by partial induction pre-heating of the welding zone. This new approach allows a significant decrease of process and handling time and reduces the needed preheating energy. The selected demonstrator part and its simplified description for simulation purposes are shown in Fig. 8. A one turn inductor located close to the welding zone has been chosen for pre-heating of welding zone at the prescribed

temperature. The geometry of the spindle has been simplified (the total mass of the work-piece has been kept) in order to accelerate the numerical simulation.
hot spots
spindle

welding zone
inductor plate

Figure 8; Welded parts (produced by CNH Belgium N.V.) and schematic sketch of investigated welding arrangement The aim of induction pre-heating is to reach the prescribed temperature in the welding zone as fast as possible. The maximum allowed temperature (600C) should not be exceeded. The simulation gives the possibility to evaluate the temperature profile at each time of the pre-heating process and hereby to optimize the design of inductor and the heating regime. Fig. 9 shows the temperature distribution in the spindle after 50 s and 100 s of pre-heating. It should be pointed out, that the maximum temperature does not appear in the welding zone itself. Having evaluated the distribution of magnetic field, hot spots in the corners (shown in Fig. 8) can be expected. Therefore, the temperature measurement which is usually used to control the induction heating process must respect this fact. The increasing size of the pre-heated zone due to thermal conduction can be clearly observed for longer heating times. Having evaluated the temperature distribution, an optimal tempering time providing the required temperature profile in the welding zone can be also determined by help of this model. preheating 50 s

preheating 100 s

20 212 340 468 600

20 212 340 468 600

Figure 9; Temperature distribution after 50 s (left) and after 100 s (right) of preheating The time-temperature distribution in the welding zone for different heating times including the cooling phase after switching off the inductor (cooling time of 60 s) is shown in Fig. 10. The longer the preheating time, the more uniform temperature in the

welding zone can be achieved. This temperature distribution consequently influences the cooling rates after heating. As the welding process itself starts immediately after switching off the inductor, the cooling down in the welding zone influences the initial condition during the laser process. To avoid too fast decrease of temperature (and consequent variation of the weld depth) this part of time-temperature diagram must be carefully evaluated. The whole process can be easily investigated by means of the presented model as well. Additionally, the simulation provides the information about influence of inductor position, needed generator power etc. and helps to find a suitable process configuration which will ensure the optimal pre-heating conditions.
700

weld - upper 10 mm

temperature [C]

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 120 240 360 480 600
060s upper 120s upper 200s upper 400s upper 600s upper 060 root 120s root 200s root 400s root 600s root

weld - root

time [s]

Figure 10; Sketch of the arrangement with observed points in the welding zone (left); time-temperature distribution on the root and upper side of the weld for different preheating times (right)

6. CONCLUSION The induction heating represents a suitable heat treatment technology for optimization of thermal cycles during various welding processes on high strength steels. By the use of the optimized equipment the thermal behavior can be adapted according to requirements of particular applications. The simulation tool developed at the Institute of Electrotechnology allows the prediction of thermal cycles and temperature profiles in the work piece. This way, numeric modeling, is a powerful tool for the layout of welding processes and for the development of supporting induction equipment. Selected results of consequent optimization of heat treatment for both flat and rotational geometries are shown in this paper. The choice of the optimal parameters of the inductor providing the required cooling rates can be done using the results of numerical simulation in the case of flat geometry. Simulations of the pre-heating process of selected rotational part have shown the thermal behavior during and after the preheating process. An appropriate tempering time providing the required temperature profile with maximum efficiency can be chosen using these results.

Generally, the already evaluated practical experience with induction assisted welding of high strength steels confirm the benefits of hardness control. Depending on the welding process, the use of induction support may lead to an increase in process speed. In those application cases, where pre-heating of the material is required by guidelines in order to avoid cracks, the inductor is a useful device to realize such preheating.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work presented in this paper was partially carried out in the frame of INDUCWELD project. We appreciate a funding which had the project received from the Research Fund for Coal and Steel of European Community (Contract No. RFSRCT-2005-00040).

REFERENCES [Mach et al., 2008] Mach, M.; Schlbe, H.; Nacke, B.; "Induction assisted welding methods for high strength steels"; In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Steel in Cars and Trucks SCT2008, pp. 376-382; Wiesbaden 2008; ISBN 978-3-514-00755-0 [Kallage et al., 2008] Kallage, P.; Herzog, D.; Ostendorf, A.; Boese, B.; Haferkamp, H.; " Mechanical properties of laser MAG hybrid welded high strength steels"; In: Welding in the World 52 (2008) Sonderheft, pp. 109-115 [Kracht et al., 2009] Kracht, D.; Herzog, D.; Kallage, P.; Rosenfeld, D.; Nacke, B.; Schlbe, H.; Mach, M.; " Laser beam hot welding of quenched and tempered steels during the inductive hardening process"; In: Forschung fr die Praxis P 746, Project Report, Dsseldorf 2009, ISBN 3-937567-72-81-X [Rudnev et al., 2003] Rudnev, V.; Loveless, D.; Cook, R.; Black, M.; "Handbook of Induction Heating "; New York 2003, ISBN: 0-8247-0848-2

INFLUENCING WELDING RESIDUAL STRESSES OF HSS BY MECHANICAL POST WELD TREATMENTS

M. Rahman*, A. Htter*, N. Enzinger* and C. Sommitsch* *Institute for Materials Science and Welding, Graz University of Technology m.rahman@tugraz.at

Service behaviors of welded structures are affected by many factors. One of the most important factors are welding residual stresses, which can be positively influenced by thermal and/or mechanical post weld treatment. In distinguished cases a thermal treatment cannot be applied due to material or geometric constraints. In those cases a mechanical post weld treatment may be successful. In this study two mechanical post weld treatments, pneumatic impact treatment (PIT) and grinding off weld bead, are investigated to analyze their effects on the residual stresses in a butt-welded joint for 10mm thick high strength fine grained structural steel alform 700M. Compressive residual stresses are induced in the treated surface of the material due to small plastic deformation from PIT. The material is also plastically deformed during grinding and the weld toe stress concentration and weld defects are reduced. Both mechanical post weld treatments have significantly beneficial effects on welding residual stresses. A 2D uncoupled thermo-mechanical model is presented in this contribution. The thermo-mechanical welding simulation is performed using SYSWELD finite element software. After the welding simulation, the results in form of updated geometry and mesh are transferred to the ABAQUS software for PIT and grinding simulations, where the welding residual stresses are prescribed as an initial condition. The simulation results are validated by metallography as well as experimental measurements of residual stresses and show a reasonable agreement. Keywords: peening, welding residual stresses, mechanical post weld treatment, PIT, grinding

1. INTRODUCTION Welding distortion and residual stresses are the most common problems in welded structures [1]. Material characteristics, dimensional and shape accuracy of welded components are highly dependent on welding processes and their parameters themselves. Due to moving heat source, localized temperature gradients take place in the welding process. The weld and parent metals are then experienced a highly nonuniform temperature distribution. Therefore, the thermal expansion and contraction during the thermal cycle as well as plastic deformation result in undesirable distortions

and residual stresses in the joint [2-3]. Often the welding residual stresses are detrimental tensile and of material yield strength magnitude [4-5]. Speaking in terms of fracture mechanics; the tensile residual stresses reduce the fatigue life of the structure by increasing the mean stress and multi-axiality of the load and therefore, the growth rate of the fatigue crack is increased. For that reason, some thermal and mechanical PWT techniques are applied successfully on the welded components to influence these detrimental welding residual stresses and hence service behaviors of the components are improved significantly [6]. However, accurate prediction of residual stress field and distortion is very necessary for engineering design of welded structures. But many interacting factors, which are involved in welding, make the process very complex. In the past decades, a comprehensive number of experimental, analytical and numerical analyses were conducted [2,3-7,8-13] for the prediction of residual stress and distortion in as-welded condition. Those included 2D [9-10] as well as 3D models [11-12] for laser, MIG and TIG welding processes. Many of them [11-13] incorporated temperature and phase dependent material properties including phase transformation and transformation induced plasticity effects in their models and found acceptable results. Enormous numbers of works were also performed in the field of mechanical post weld treatments like hammer peening and shot peening techniques [14,15,16] and the induced residual stress field in the treated materials were investigated. However, there is very limited literature describing the prediction of residual stress field in a butt-welded joint treated by pneumatic impact treatment (PIT) and grinding off weld bead. Recently Weich [17] performed a comprehensive analysis of the influence of high frequency mechanical treatments (HiFIT) and UIT on the surface conditions and residual stresses in butt welded samples for low (S355J2) and high strength steels (S690QL). Weich optimized the pin diameters of the peening tools based on notch factors as a function of deformation depth and beneficial compressive residual stresses near to the treated surface induced by PIT. She reported significant improvement of fatigue life of the welded samples due to mechanical post weld treatment. R. Simoneau [18] investigated residual stresses in butt welded samples with and without hammer peening treatment and O. Hatamleh [19] studied the welding residual stresses in friction stir welded samples treated by laser and shot peening. Both Simoneau and Hatamleh presented the through thickness stress distribution using the contour method based on the elastic superposition principle. In his work, Hatamleh cut off small samples from the welded part and treated them afterwards. The contribution of welding residual stresses was lost and ignored due to cutting off samples while peening was performed. In this contribution, the influence of PIT and grinding off weld bead on the welding residual stresses in butt-welded joints are investigated.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 2.1. Welding A 2-layers MAG welding is experimentally performed for base material alform 700M and filler material X70IG (EN ISO 16834-A2007: G Mn3Ni1CrMo) using robotized automatic welding machine (2x TPS5000, 2x VR7000, 2x RobactaDrive 6.5m, Robacta TWIN 900 22) manufactured by Fronius International GmbH, Austria to investigate the welding residual stress field during and after the welding process. The base material used in this study is a micro alloyed high strength structural steel produced by voestalpine Stahl GmbH, Austria. A V-groove geometry for butt joint configuration is prepared with 10 mm thick plates, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1; Groove geometry for 2-layers butt joint with 10mm plate thickness The plates are clamped as rigid as possible, pre-heated to 100C and welded using twin solid wires. The yield and tensile strength of both base and filler materials are shown in Table 1 and the welding parameters are shown in Table 2. After root layer welding, the work piece is cooled down to room temperature and the residual stresses are measured on the top surface in as-clamped condition. Subsequently the plates are again heated to 110C considering as an interlayer temperature and the top layer welding is performed. The residual stress measurement is then carried out when the plates temperature reached room temperature again. Table 1 Yield and tensile strength of materials Material Yield strength (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa) alform 700M 810 1000 X70IG 780 940 Table 2 Parameters for two layers welding Voltage Current Voltage Speed V1 (Volt) I2 (Amp) V2 (Volt) U ( m/sec) 22 207 22 10 26 206 24 9.5

Layer Root Top

Current I1 (Amp) 204 210

Line energy (kJ/cm) 9.0 10.8

2.2. Pneumatic impact treatment (PIT) The pneumatic impact treatment (PIT) is a high frequency hammer peening technique where the pins are accelerated by air pressure, see Figure 2-a. This process is firstly performed on a heat treated stress relief alform 700M steel plate to investigate the peening parameters and the introduced stress field in the size of approximately 50x50mm into an unstressed material. A 3 mm pin diameter which is used in this peening operation, is reported by I. Weich [17] to be optimal pin diameter.

Figure 2; a) Pneumatic impact treatment (PIT) tool; b) PIT treated surface and measurement of induced stress field After the peening treatment, the depth of deformation caused by PIT is investigated using metallography. About 0.2mm depth is measured, see Figure 3. In a further step the weld toe and heat affected zone (HAZ) of the butt-welded joint are treated by PIT using the same peening parameters used in the heat treated stress relief plate. The measurement of residual stresses in the both cases is carried out using hole drilling method and the results are discussed in section results and discussion.

Treated surface Figure 3; Deformation on the PIT treated surface 2.3. Grinding off weld bead A manual grinding operation is performed in this study. The weld bead is ground with the Flex angular grinder having Grit 30. This operation is applied on both top and bottom sides of the welded joint. Figure 4-a and Figure 4-b show the grinding process and the ground upper side weld bead respectively.

Figure 4; a) Grinding process using Flex angular grinder, b) ground upper surface of welded sample About 40mm surface thickness centered about the weld bead is ground as seen in Figure 4-b. Approximately 0.2mm depth from the original surface is removed in addition to the weld bead. As the grinding process is manual, the used grinding process parameters are not possible to control during the operation. The rotational speed of the grinder is set to

6500 rpm. About 50mm/sec traverse speed and 50N vertical hand force are estimated by the operator. It is noted that 0.4 3.2 m surface roughness can be produced due to fine grinding [20]

3. FE-SIMULATION 2D finite element models are employed for analyzing 2-layers welding and subsequent PIT and grinding simulations to reduce model complexity and higher computational cost compared to 3D models. In the case of thermo-mechanical and metallurgical welding simulation, a coupled numerical approach is needed to accurately model this process. However, accurate capturing all of the aspects would result in a model that cannot be always realistically solved [12]. Therefore, an uncoupled simplifying model is established for reasonably effective results from welding simulation. Temperature and phase dependent thermo-mechanical material properties for both base and filler materials are defined. The solid-state phase transformation is also incorporated for this thermo-mechanical analysis. The welding induced residual stresses are highly dependent on non-uniform and transient temperature fields, which themselves are a function of total heat input and heat distribution patterns within the work piece. For determination of the realistic temperature profile, an accurate thermal analysis is very important considering proper thermal boundary condition including traveling heat source, heat transfer in the material due to conduction, convection and radiation heat losses from the material. The heat input into the work piece is modeled by a volumetric double ellipsoidal heat source proposed by Goldak [21]. The detailed modeling approach for thermal and mechanical analyses for welding process is described in the work presented by M. Rahman [22]. An elasto-plastic 2D plane strain model is employed for PIT simulation. The welding stress components S11, S22, S33 and S12 are prescribed as an initial condition. The peening tool is defined as rigid and the plate as deformable body, see Figure 5.

Figure 5; Geometry and mesh model for PIT with considering welding residual stresses Strain rate dependent experimental data are incorporated and isotropic strain hardening and Von Mises yield criteria are taken into account in the model. A displacement

boundary condition is prescribed as an impact motion in a very short time (0.01 sec), which produces about 0.2 mm plastic deformation on the treated surface. Grinding also introduces plastic deformation on the ground surface due to removal of material and produces heat due to frictional work between grinder and the ground surface. But, it is difficult to incorporate all these thermo-mechanical effects in the numerical grinding simulation. A simplified modeling concept is employed, where no thermal effects are considered. The welding residual stress components S11, S22, S33 and S12 are included and a static force equilibrium calculation is performed after removing the grinded elements

Figure 6; Mesh model for grinding The element model is shown in Figure 6. The elements to be removed are defined in element sets having finer mesh size of 0.1mm. The element sets are removed using element deactivation technique in implicit analysis steps. The deactivation analysis nullifies the internal forces of the deactivated elements. The material properties of these elements are removed and set to zero as a result of deactivation. Induced surface roughness and plastic deformation of the ground surface are simulated through downward vertical nodal displacements of the removed elements. About 9 m nodal displacements are assumed to have effective results. The element deactivation and the nodal displacement take place in the same the step for specific element set.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section mainly focuses on the results of residual stresses in as-welded and treated conditions by PIT and grinding. Welding thermal results and the PIT induced residual stresses in heat treated stress relief plate are presented in the contribution of M. Rahman et al [22]. 4.1. Welding residual stress distribution The through thickness welding residual stresses after top layer welding are presented in the contour plots as shown in Figure 7. The residual stress distribution in welding direction are as high as the yield strength of the base material and away from the HAZ, the stresses are very low. Highest stress concentration is calculated in some depth of the material of the welded joint. More significant stress concentration is observed at the

bottom side of the plate. About 400 MPa tensile residual stresses are calculated in the top side of the weld seam. The transverse residual stresses are very low compared to the stresses in welding direction and some beneficial compressive stresses in the range of 400 to 600 MPa are predicted at some regions in the weld metal, see Figure 7-b.

Figure 7; RS after top layer welding; a) in welding direction and b) in transverse direction An experimental measurement is carried out using hole drilling method and the residual stresses are measured both on top and bottom sides of the welded sample. The measurement positions are shown in Figure 8. The results obtained on the upper and lower surfaces are shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10 respectively. The simulated and experimental results show a very good agreement.

Figure 8; RS measurement positions on after top layer welding

1000 800

Sim_topside_S33 Exp_topside_S33 Sim_topside_S11 Exp_topside_S11

Residual stresses (MPa)

600 400 200 0 -200 0 -400 -600 -800 -1000 5 10 15 20 25

30

35

40

Distance (mm)

Figure 9; Comparison between experimental and simulation welding residual stresses in welding direction on upper surface of the welded sample after top layer welding

900 700

Sim_bottom_S33 Sim_bottom_S11 Exp_bottom_S33 Exp_bottom_S11

Residual stresses (MPa)

500 300 100 -100 -300 -500 -700 -900 0 5 10 15 20 25

30

35

40

Distance (mm)

Figure 10; Comparison between experimental and simulation welding residual stresses in welding direction on bottom surface of the welded sample after top layer welding 4.2. Influence of PIT on welding residual stresses In the PIT overlapping simulation with welded joint, the welding residual stresses are prescribed as an initial condition. A static balancing of stress field is calculated and the PIT peening simulation is performed in a subsequent dynamic step. The spring back effects are also calculated by the deactivation of all interactions and boundary conditions in the model excepting the boundary conditions for the prevention of rigid body motion. PIT has locally a big influence on the welding residual stresses. The resultant stress distributions after PIT in both welding and transverse directions are presented in Figure 12 and Figure 13 as well as Figure 14 and Figure 14 respectively.

Figure 11; Comparisons between measured and simulated stresses in welding direction in welded and PIT treated and in as-welded condition According to Figure 11, it can clearly be reported that the tensile welding residual stresses are absolutely redistributed in the region where plastic deformation takes place due to pneumatic impact treatment and the beneficial compressive stresses at the range of yield strength of the material are introduced in the treated region. Superposition

technique is not applicable in this case. Two measurements have been carried out on the PIT treated welded part at position b, which are mentioned as EXP 1 and EXP 2 and the simulation results are evaluated corresponding to the line b-c.

Figure 12; 2D calculated through thickness stress distribution in welding direction in PIT treated welded part The measured stress fields in the welding direction obtained from two different positions indicate a significant variation as seen in Figure 11, which implies that induced stresses by PIT are not homogenously distributed in the material. The maximum compressive stresses are measured about 650 to 880 MPa at 0.4 0.5 mm depth. The simulation result has better agreement with EXP 2. A comparison is made between as-welded and PIT treated residual stresses in Figure 11 and the effects of balancing tensile stresses are also shown by drawing an ellipse. The balancing tensile residual stresses cause an increase in maximum tensile stresses throughout the material.

Figure 13; Comparisons between measured and simulated stresses in transverse direction in welded and PIT treated and in as-welded condition Figure 12 and Figure 14 show the contour plots for through thickness resulting residual stresses after welding and subsequent PIT simulation. The transverse residual stresses are distributed in a manner similar to the stresses in welding direction which are described in Figure 13. About 730-890 MPa maximum compressive stresses are measured at about 0.5-0.7 mm depth. The effects of balancing tensile stresses are more clearly observed for transverse stresses shown by dotted ellipse in Figure 13. Due to minor increase in the tensile stresses in the material, they may not be harmful for the components.

Figure 14; Trough thickness stress distribution in transverse direction in PIT treated weld 4.3. Welding residual stresses influenced by grinding Three different combinations of grinding simulations are performed. Removal of upper side and both upper and lower sides weld bead are simulated. It is calculated that the grinding has significant influence on the surface residual stresses. No significant effects are observed in the depth of the material as shown in contour plots for residual stress distributions in welding direction in Figure 15. About 100 MPa to -100 MPa residual stresses are calculated on the ground surface. The grinding may influence the welding residual stresses in the depth of about 0.2 to 0.4mm from the ground surface; see Figure 16 and Figure 17. The similar results are found in the case of grinding off only upper bead or both upper and lower beads. The residual stresses are redistributed on the ground surface and the stresses in the material remain unchanged.

Figure 15; Residual stress distribution through thickness; as-welded (left) and upper weld bead ground (middle) and both side ground (right) For the validation of the simulation results, residual stress distribution in ground surface is measured at different positions, which are shown in Figure 16. The center of the joint is denoted as E, X=0. Other two positions are denoted as F and G which are 8.5 and 12 mm apart from the position E respectively. Three measurements are carried out at position E and the results are compared with the simulation results in Figure 16. The results from position F and G are presented in Figure 17. The measured surface residual stresses vary from 200 to -200 MPa. This variation may be because of uncontrolled grinding parameters or inhomogeneous distribution of welding residual stresses in the material. Simulation and experimental results show the similar tendency and give good agreement.

1000 800 Residual stress (MPa) 600 400 200 0 -200 0 -400 -600 -800 -1000 Depth (mm) 0.5 1 1.5 2 EXP_S33_X=0_ M1 EXP_S33_X=0_ M2 EXP_S33_X=0_ M3 SIM_S33_X=0 2.5

Figure 16; Position of residual stress measurement in ground weld joint (left) and through thickness residual stress distribution at point E on ground weld joint (right)

1000 800 Residual stress (MPa) 400 200 0 -200 0 -400 -600 -800 -1000 Depth (mm) EXP_S33_X=8.5 SIM_S33_X=8.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Residual stress (MPa) 600

1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200 0 -400 -600 -800 -1000 Depth (mm) EXP_S33_X=12 SIM_S33_X=12 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Figure 17; Through thickness residual stress distribution at point F (left) and at point G (right) Now the surface residual stress distribution can be presented as a function of transverse distance and made a comparison among the PIT treated, ground and as-welded residual stresses. This comparison is shown in Figure 18. The grinding influences not only the surface residual stresses, but also improves surface condition. A range of about 100 to 200 MPa compressive residual stress is introduced by grinding. These compressive stresses are very less compared to the compressive stresses induced by PIT. In the case of PIT, the higher compressive residual stresses at a range of yield strength of the material are introduced at the treated region, but no significant change of welding residual stresses in the weld metal is predicted. It is also noted that the induced compressive stresses are concentrated in the treated region and apart from this region, the influence is not significant. In the case of grinding, an overall improvement is observed in the ground surface.

1000 800 Residual stress (MPa) 600 400 200 -20 -15 -10 0 -5 -200 0 -400 -600 -800 -1000 Distance from middle of joint (mm) S33_as_welded S33_Grinding S33_PIT 5 10 15 20

Figure 18; Surface residual stresses for ground, PIT treated and as-welded conditions

5. CONCLUSION 2-layers welding and subsequent PIT and grinding off weld bead simulation are performed and are presented in this study. The results are verified by residual stress measurement using the hole drilling method. Both PIT and grinding off weld bead have locally significant positive effects on welding residual stresses. The welding residual stresses are redistributed at the treated regions. Higher compressive residual stresses are introduced in the material due to plastic deformation from pneumatic impact treatment (PIT) and these compressive stresses are concentrated at the treated region. In the case of grinding, only low compressive stresses are introduced, but overall surface conditions are improved. The simulation results show a good agreement with the experimental results. The life of the welded joint treated by PIT and grinding should be further investigated and a 3D model can be conducted for more accurate results.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Authors express their gratitude for the financial support provided by k-net JOIN, network for excellent joining under the Federal Ministry of Economy and Labor, Austria.

7. REFERENCES

[1] Z. Barsoum, "Residual Stress Analysis and Fatigue Assessment of Welded Steel Structures", Doctoral Thesis, Stockholm, Sweden 2008 [2] H. Long, at el: "Prediction of welding distortion in butt joint of thin plates", Materials and Design, Vol. 30, pp. 4126-4135, 2009 [3] D. Deng and H. Murakawa: "Prediction of welding distortion and residual stress in a thin plate butt-welded joint", Computational Materials Science, Vol. 43, pp. 353365, 2008 [4] S. Maddox, "Fatigue strength of welded structures", Abington Publishing, 1991 [5] D. Rajad and C.M Sonsino: "Fatigue assessment of welded joints by local approach", Woodhead Publishing, 1998 [6] X. Cheng, et al, "Residual stress modification by post weld treatment and its beneficial effect on fatigue strength of welded structures", Int. J. Fatigue, Vol. 25, pp. 1259-1269, 2003 [7] S.A Tsirkas, P. Papanikos and Th. Kermanidis: "Numerical simulation of the laser welding process in butt-joint specimens", Journal of Material Processing Technology, Vol. 134, pp. 59-69, 2003 [8] V. Infante et al.; "Failure analysis of welded joints rehabilitated by hammer peening", Doc. XIII.1892/01, IIW Meeting, July 2001, Ljubljana, Slovenia; 2001 [9] Z. Barsoum; A. Lundbck; "Simplified FE welding simulation of fillet welds 3D effects on the formation residual stresses", Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 16, pp. 2281-2289, 2009 [10] D. Deng; H. Murakawa; "Prediction of welding residual stress in multi-pass buttwelded modified 9Cr-1Mo steel pipe considering phase transformation effects", Computational Materials Science, Vol. 37, pp. 209-219, 2006 [11] P. Duranton, J. Devaux, V. Robin, P. Giles and J.M Bergheau, "3D modeling of multipass welding of a 316L stainless steel pipe", Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 153-154, pp. 457-463, 2004 [12] C.H Lee and K.H Chang, Finite element simulation of the residual stresses in high strength carbon steel butt weld incorporating solid state-phage transformation, Computational Materials Science, doi:10.1016/j.commatsci2009.05.007, 2009 [13] D. Deng, H. Murakawa and W. Liang: "Numerical and experimental investigations on welding residual stress in multi-pass butt-welded austenitic stainless steel pipe", Computational Materials Science, doi:10.1016/j.commatsci, pp. 1-11, 2007 [14] S.A Meguid, G. Shagal, J.C Stranart, and J.Daly: "Three-dimensional dynamic finite element analysis of shot-peening induced residual stresses", Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, Vol. 31, pp. 179-191, 1999 [15] M. Meo and R. Vignjevic: "Finite element analysis of residual stress induced by shot peening process", Advances in Engineering Software, 34 (2003) 569-575 [16] K. Schiffner, et al, "Simulation of residual stresses by shot peening", Computer and structures, Vol. 72, pp. 329-340, 1999 [17] I. Weich: "Edge layer condition and fatigue strength of welds improved by mechanical post weld treatment", PhD Thesis, Technical University of Braunschweig, 2009

[18] R. Simoneau, D. Thibault and J.-L Fihey: "A comparison of residual stress in hammer-peened, multi-pass steel welds-A14 (S690Q) and S41500", Welding in the world, Vol. 53, pp. 124-134, 2009 [19] O. Hatamleh and A. DeWald: "An investigation of peening effects on the residual stresses in friction stir welded 2195 and 7075 aluminum alloy joints", Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 209, pp. 4822-4829, 2009 [20] http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberfl%C3%A4cheng%C3%BCte [21] J. Goldak, A. Chakravarti and M. Bibby: "A new finite element model for welding heat sources", Metallurgical Transactions B, Vol. 15B, pp. 299-305, 1984 [22] M. Rahman et al.; "Influencing welding residual stresses of HSS by PIT", Mathematical modelling of weld phenomena 9, Verlag der Technischen Universitt Graz, 2009, In press

Joining of Ultra High Strength Steels for Lightweight Body Shell Design in Automobile Manufacturing
G. Weber, H. Gaul, M. Rethmeier Dr.-Ing. G. Weber BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany gert.weber@bam.de

Abstract: In lightweight body shell mass production of automobiles, different thermal and mechanical joining techniques will be applied conveniently. Among the most important thermal and mechanical joining techniques commonly used in the car body shell design are resistance spot welding, arcwelding, laser welding and brazing. Important mechanical joining procedures are self-piercing riveting and clinching. Additionally, the technique of adhesive bonding and its combinations with conventional thermal or mechanical joining procedures is becoming more and more important. Especially the combination of adhesive bonding and resistance spot welding called weldbonding is of great importance. For these joining techniques there are no limitations regarding the strength of the joined base metals. This is the main advantage of the application of resistance spot welding and the hybrid joining bonding procedure of weldbonding in comparison with other joining techniques mentioned above. The main target of this contribution is to show the influence of some different ultra high strength steels on the process reliability for both the resistance spot welding process and the welding bonding process. Furthermore, the influence of the applied high ultra strength steels on the mechanical behaviour of spot welded and weldbonded joints will be studied. The given results are based on the application of some advanced high strength steels (AHSS) and a special adhesive system. It will be shown that both the process reliability of resistance spot welding/weldbonding process and the mechanical behaviour of the spot welded/weldbonded joints are influenced by the combinations of the base metals, the applied adhesive system and the choice of joining parameters. Furthermore, the fatigue behaviour of both spot welded and the weldbonded joints will be studied. Keywords: Advanced High Strength Steels, Resistance Spot Welding, Weldbonding, Lightweight Body Shell Design, Process Reliability

INTRODUCTION

In lightweight body shell mass production of automobiles, different thermal and mechanical joining techniques are applied. Among the most important thermal and

mechanical joining techniques commonly used in the car body shell design are resistance spot welding (RSW), arc welding, laser welding and brazing. Important mechanical joining procedures are self-piercing riveting and clinching. Additionally, the technique of adhesive bonding and its combinations with conventional thermal or mechanical joining procedures is becoming more and more important. Especially the combination of adhesive bonding and resistance spot welding called weldbonding (WB) is of great importance. The resistance spot welding and the weldbonding procedure affords many advantages, e. g. improved crash performance, fatigue behaviour and, in the case of weldbonding, higher corrosion resistances. Especially for newly developed high strength multiphase steels, also called advanced high strength steels (AHSS), these joining techniques have more advantages than other joining procedures for thin steel sheets. The application of AHSS materials in conjunction with economically efficient and reliable joining processes helps saving costs and conserving resources (weight reduction, energy minimization) and provides at the same time consistent or improved safety of the passenger cell (crash optimization). In this context, the Ultra Light Steel Auto Body design (ULSAB) and New Steel Body (NSB) design are referred to [N.N., 1998; Osburg et. al., 2004]. For more information on AHSS see [Maggi et. al., 2008]. There are many contributions on the resistance spot weldability of AHSS, the process reliability of the resistance spot welding process and the mechanical behaviour of spot welded AHSS and some other steel grades [Weber et. al., 2005; Weber et. al., 2006; Weber et. al. 2009-1]. Furthermore, a lot of publications have been written about the weldbonding process and the properties of weldbonded joints [Budde et. al., 1992; Darwish et. al., 2004; Hahn et. al., 1995; Ktting et. al., 1995; Santosa et. al., 2004; Schmid et. al., 2001; Weber et. al., 2009-2]. In this contribution, statements about the process reliability of both the spot welding process as well as the weldbonding process will be given. Additionally some comments on the mechanical behaviour of both the spot welded and the weldbonded joints for a medium-viscosity adhesive and different combinations of a mild and some high strength steels will be stated too.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE JOINING PROCEDURES

2.1 Welding Equipments The spot welded and the weldbonded joints were realized by alternating current (AC) and medium frequency direct current (MF-DC) spot welding guns. Figure 1 shows the principle of the resistance spot welding and the weldbonding process. The main difference is that in the case of weldbonding a specific adhesive is applied between the sheets. The joints were welded with stiff spot welding guns with short arms and pneumatic and electromotive force generation system. For both processes, the electrode force Fe depends on the applied base metals. The electrode forces which were used for RSW of the high strength steels are 3.5 kN, 4.5 kN and 5.5 kN; and for the mild steel the lower forces of 2.2 kN, 2.6 kN and 3.0 kN. The welding times were 6 Cyc., 10 Cyc. and 20 Cyc. or 120 ms, 200 ms, 400 ms respectively [Weber et. al, 2006].

Figure 1: Principle of resistance spot welding and weldbonding with AC or MF-DC current type The weldbonded joints which are analyzed in this contribution were realized at the Laboratorium fr Werkstoff- und Fgetechnik of the University Paderborn and the German Welding Institute SLV Munich [Cramer et. al., 2009]. The electrode force and the welding time for the weldbonding process were chosen different from the ones used for RSW. For the high strength steels the electrode forces are 3.5 kN and 4.5 kN and for the Martensitic steel MS-W1200 4.5 kN and 5.5 kN, the welding times were varied from 260 ms up to 400 ms. The realized weldbonding processes described in this contribution are based on an epoxy resin based adhesive (BetamateTM 1480). This is a medium-viscosity adhesive. For the application of adhesives with other viscosity behaviour, see [Cramer et. al., 2009, Weber et. al., 2009-2]. 2.2 Advanced High Strength Steels The newly developed so called advanced high strength steels (AHSS) show superior properties in comparison with traditional high strength steels, for example carbon steels and other conventional grades, see Figure 2 [Maggi et. al., 2008]. Due to the chemical composition and the manufacturing process, AHSS offer a very good solution with regard to high strength and good formability. The reason for such generally contradictory behaviour is the combination of different microstructures, like ferrite, austenite, bainite and martensite. The ULSAB project has demonstrated that the excellent properties of AHSS in combination with new manufacturing processes and innovative design leads to a significant reduction in the weight of body shells in automobile production and, accordingly, to a reduction of CO2 emissions [N.N., 1998]. Grades of Advanced High Strength Steels AHSS are normally classified into four types, i.e. dual phase steels (DP), transformation induced plasticity steels (TRIP), complex phase steels (CP), martensitic steels (MS) and press-hardened steels (USIBOR). With the aid of a temperature specific manufacturing process and thanks to different chemical compositions the amount as well as the dispersion of different microstructures (ferrite, martensite, etc.) and the mechanical

dual phase steel

TRIP steel

AHSS

complex phase steel

martensitic steel

Figure 2: Formability versus strength for conventional and advanced high strength steels (AHSS) properties of AHSS can considerably be varied according to the user requirements. The different microstructures of AHSS can be characterized as follows [Osburg et. al., 2004; Maggi et. al., 2008]. Dual phase steels (DP) have a ferritic matrix (ferrite content varying between 85 and 90 %) with inclusion of martensite islands. The mechanical properties of DP steels can be influenced by changing the amount of martensite. Generally, increasing the martensite content also increases the mechanical strength. An advantage of DP steels is the combination of high strength with high elongation when compared to conventional high strength steels, see Figure 2. Transformation induced plasticity steels (TRIP) possess a complex microstructure dominated by ferrite (70-85 %) with residual austenite (up to 15 %) and additions of martensite and bainite. The strength/ductility balance is increased by strain induced austenite to martensite transformation (TRIP effect). Steels with TRIP effect attain high uniform elongation values at high tensile strength levels because of their very strong work hardening. Complex phase steels (CP) have a fine complex microstructure of bainite with islands of retained austenite and inclusions of ferrite and martensite. CP steels offer higher yield strength in comparison with TRIP steels, however, with simultaneous decrease of formability. Martensitic steels (MS) steels offer a predominantly martensitic microstructure with minor quantities of ferrite and bainite. In consequence of the martensitic microstructure, the mechanical strength reaches up to 1400 MPa and more, but with strongly restricted formability, which is an essential factor to be considered in applications in the automobile industry. Table I shows typical mechanical properties of selected AHSS, which are used for the following interpretations.

Press-hardened steels such as UsiBor or Ultraform use boron as an alloying element. Boron acts as hardening agent during thermo mechanical treatments and provides a material with excellent hardness and high strength. A quenching treatment leads to precipitation of boron carbides at the grain boundaries as well as boron segregations. The suppressing of austenite to ferrite transformation caused by this segregation phenomenon leads to increasing hardenability. Furthermore, substitutional solid solution elements such as Mn influence the strength after quenching.
Steel grade (short term) TRIP700 TRIP700 TRIP800 DP600 CP800 CP800 MS1200 UsiBor Steel grade Sheet thick(Standard Surface ness in mm definition) DC01 1.50 HCT690T 1.60 HCT690T+Z 1.60 Z100 HCT780T 1.25 ZE75/75 HCT600XD 1.30 Z100 HT 800C 1.65 HT 800C 1.50 Z190 MS-W1200 1.55 --22MnB5 1.50 AlSi Yield strength in MPa 185 450 470 700 400 790 690 950 1280 Tensile strength in MPa 320 740 710 880 625 900 910 1220 1470 Elongation after fracture A20 42 28 32 29 26 13 11 12 11

Table I: Mechanical properties of the used base materials

PROCESS RELIABILITY OF THE RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING AND THE WELDBONDING PROCESS

3.1 Welding Current Ranges and Process Reliability The introduction of the weldbonding process reliability is based on the definition of the resistance spot welding process reliability [Weber et. al., 2005; Weber et. al., 2006; Weber et. al., 2009-1]. Thus, to ensure process reliability during spot welding and weldbonding under production conditions, the knowledge of the welding current range (WCR) is of basic importance. Different WCR are obtained depending on the selected welding parameters. The primary welding parameters of resistance spot welding are the root mean square value (r.m.s.-value) of the welding current IW, the stationary electrode force Fe and the welding time tw. These parameters are the primary joining parameters of the weldbonding process, too. In resistance spot welding, the WCR is usually defined on the basis of requirements imposed on the r.m.s.-value of welding current during spot welding. A particular requirement is that the r.m.s.-value of welding current must be kept within certain limits set by quality demands placed on the spot weld diameter dp. The lower limit of the r.m.s.-value of welding current is determined by a minimum spot weld diameter, whereas the upper limit of the welding current is given by the physics of the spot welding process and the weldbonding process respectively. Commonly used lower

quality limits are spot weld diameters of dp = 3.5 t or dp = 4 t , whereby t is the sheet thickness. These lower quality limits are then also referred to as 3.5 t -limit or 4 t limit. The situation is completely different with the upper quality limits. The maximum admissible upper quality limit is usually referred to as splash limit I SL . This limit constitutes a stability limit of the resistance spot welding process and accordingly of the weldbonding process. The splash limit is the very quality limit at which a spot weld can still be performed without the occurrence of a splash. In order to ensure that at and below this limit no splashes do in fact occur, it is necessary in setting this limit to take into account that it varies within a certain scatter band. The variation of the upper quality limit depends on the welding / joining parameters electrode force and welding time, on the material to be joined and its coating, on the applied adhesive system, on the electrode cap types, on the applied current form as well as on the electrical and mechanical machine properties of the spot welding unit. The spot weld diameter, and hence the upper and lower quality limits depend on the test procedure, and the fracture type must always be indicated in welding range determinations. The WCR for AHSS, by definition, is the setting range of the welding current. Particularly in the definition of the welding range, a welding current difference according to I = IU - IL = ISL - I4t (1)

is usually assumed, whereby the lower (IL) and the upper quality limits (IU) are set by the 4 t - limit I L I 4 t and by the splash limit IU I SL . The representation of the difference I of the r.m.s.-value of welding current, according to equation (1), between the upper and the lower quality limit as a function of the (stationary) electrode force Fe and of the welding time tw I = f (Fe, tw) (2) is referred to as three-dimensional weldability lobe. From the three-dimensional weldability lobe according to this definition, the classical two-dimensional weldability lobes can be derived as special representations [Weber et. al., 2005; 2006], i.e. I = f (Fe = const., tw) I = f (Fe, tw = const.) (3) (4)

Furthermore, welding current ranges can be described by three-dimensional weldability lobes [Weber et. al., 2009-1]. The process reliability of the spot welding and the weldbonding process depends on the size of the WCR. Roughly speaking, the process reliability will be higher if the WCR becomes wider for the chosen welding parameters. The process reliability depends on the selection of welding parameters and on additional influencing factors. Important influencing factors are the shape and material of the electrode caps, the base metal and the base metal combinations, the coating of the steel sheets and the static and dynamic mechanical machine properties of the welding equipment. Additionally the process reliability of the weldbonding process is influenced by the properties of the applied adhesive system.

3.2 Welding Current Ranges of the Joining Processes 3.2.1 Welding Current Ranges of the Resistance Spot Welding Process The size of the welding current range is a measure for the process reliability of the spot welding process. As described in the section above, for more than one parameter threedimensional weldability lobes should be used. According to Equation (2), Figure 3 shows two examples for three-dimensional weldability lobes and exhibit the influence of different welding times tw and electrode forces Fe. The weldability lobes are given for uncoated and hot dip zinc coated TRIP700 in Figure 3 a) and b), respectively. There can be seen, that in general the welding current ranges I increase with higher welding times and higher electrode forces. Furthermore, uncoated sheets are resulting normally in a wider WCR. According to Equation (3), a special case of a weldability lobe is

Figure 3: Three-dimensional weldability lobes for spot welded TRIP700 a) uncoated, b) coated with zinc
Fe = 4.5 kN Fe = 4.5 kN

Figure 4: Two-dimensional weldability lobes for spot welded TRIP700; a) uncoated, b) coated with zinc

depicted in Figure 4 for Fe = 4.5 kN. It can be seen that the upper and lower quality limits I4t and ISL of the welding current are shifted by the zinc coating towards higher absolute values except for ISL at long welding times. 3.2.2 Welding Current Ranges of the Weldbonding Process The size of the welding current range is a measure of the process reliability in the case of WB, too. In order to show the process reliability for different spot welded and weldbonded AHSS, the corresponding, conventional weldability lobes were first set up. The applied adhesive was BetamateTM 1480 (epoxy resin-based) with medium-viscosity. In the following, two-dimensional weldability lobes in accordance with the special representation (equation 4) with constant welding time (tW = const.) will be given for the weldbonded base metals HCT600XD, HCT780Z + ZE50/50, MS-W1200 and 22MnB5
a) b)

c)

d)

Figure 5: Weldability lobes of different base metals and the adhesive BetamateTM 1480 for RSW and WB [Weber et.al. 2009-2]: a) HCT600XD; b) HCT780Z + ZE50/50; c) MS-W1200; d) 22MnB5 (UsiBor)

(UsiBor). Since the welding time was kept constant, according to equation (4), i.e. I = f (Fe, tW = const.) only the influence of the welding parameter electrode force Fe on the welding current ranges I for the different combinations of base metals and for the applied adhesive is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that in the case of weldbonding (RSW + BetamateTM 1480) and RSW both quality limits IL and IU increase with higher electrode forces Fe. It is notable that for higher strengths of the base metal, i.e. for welding MS-W and UsiBor, the process window of the weldbonding process gets smaller in comparison to resistance spot welding. Especially, this influence is a result of lower absolute values of ISL. In summary, one can say that the influence of the tested medium-viscosity adhesive for all weldbonded sheets on the welding current ranges is not significant in comparison to the spot welding process.

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR STRENGTH STEELS

OF

JOINED

ADVANCED

HIGH

4.1. Mechanical Properties of the Spot Welded Steel Sheets of AHSS The influence of the welding time on the tensile-shear force is represented in Figure 6 (left hand side). The tensile-shear force Fs increases when the welding time tw is prolonged. Therefore, a significant difference of the quality features with regard to medium or long-time welding was found. This means that the quality features tensileshear force shows the same behaviour with respect to the process reliability as shown in Section 3.2.1. Furthermore, it can be shown that the influence on the tensile-shear force for different electrode forces has not the same significance. Independent of the chosen welding parameters, the types of fracture for all examined spot welded joints are plug failures [Weber et. al., 2006]. The Whler tests were carried out by a servo-hydraulic test system under forcecontrolled regime with a load ratio of R = 0.1 and a test frequency of f = 50 Hz. Each of the S-N curves (Whler curves) is based on 7 to10 test specimens. The choice of a failure criterion for Whler tests depends on the special situation of the test procedure.

Figure 6: Tensile-shear forces of RSW-Joints for different welding times and steel grades (left hand side) and S/N Curves for different steel grades (right hand side)

If the detection of a predefined crack-length is possible, then one can use a crack-length related failure criterion. But this is very difficult when testing spot welded specimens of joined thin sheet metal structures [Weber et. al., 2006]. Because of the lack of a unified and reproducible failure criterion for fatigue testing of such joined structures it is convenient to use the criterion of total fracture. Thus, the applied test stop criterion was the total fracture of the tested specimens. In this connection, plug failures or fractures in the material were the dominating failure types. Weld diameter was used as the criterion for comparing the fatigue test results from the different steel types. The value of the weld diameter was nearly 7.8 mm in all cases. The results of the Whler tests are given in Figure 6 (right hand side). The results show that for all tested AHSS, the load cycles at fracture is higher than in the case of the reference material DC01. In particular, the load cycles at fracture of the complex phase steel CP800 and of the martensite phase steel MS-W1200 are significant higher than in the case of reference steel DC01 and higher than in the case of TRIP700. For example, for the test force of 4.0 kN the load cycles at fracture are 68473 for DC01 (reference steel) 184700 for RA-K40/70 (TRIP steel) 255044 for CP800 (complex phase steel) 314771 for MS-W1200 (martensite phase steel), [Weber et. al. 2006] It can be summarized that the load cycles at fracture of the AHSS are higher than the maximum load cycles at fracture of the mild reference steel. It is well known that the duration of fatigue crack propagation for spot welded AHSS is higher than for spot welded mild steel sheet of lower strength. Thus, the fatigue strength of the tested spot welded AHSS is higher than that of the tested mild reference steel. 4.2 Mechanical Properties of the Weldbonded Steel Sheets of AHSS In this section, the comparison of some selected mechanical properties of weldbonded and spot welded sheets of AHSS and low strength reference sheets of mild steel is carried out. For the characteristic data of the tested steel grades see Table I. The most important mechanical properties of weldbonded and spot welded joints are the behaviour under mechanical static loads. Furthermore, the fatigue behaviour of spot welded joints in comparison to weldbonded joints is of main importance. In the following, some selected results on the tensile-shear strength under static load and on the fatigue strength under shear load for weldbonded and spot welded joints will be given and commented. Furthermore, the absorbed energy of the materials and its combinations under static load will be given, too. All results are based on the same adhesive as used in the previous section 3.2.2 for weldability lobes construction showing the process reliability of the weldbonding process. The influence of the base metal strength on the spot welded and the weldbonded joints for the medium-viscosity adhesive BetamateTM 1480 is given by Figure 7 (left hand side). As expected, with higher base metal strength the maximum tensile-shear force increases. It can be seen that for the same weld diameter the tensile-shear force is increased by weldbonding in comparison to the spot welded specimens, as well. But the

Figure 7: Influence of the base metal strength on the strength of weldbonded and spot welded joints for same base metals, with weld diameters (in columns); tensile-shear force and absorbed energy for the base metal combination TRIP800/DP600 (right hand side) [Cramer et. al., 2009; Weber et.al. 2009] standard deviations of the tested, weldbonded specimens are also higher, which might indicate stronger process fluctuations due to the applied adhesive. Figure 7 (right hand side) shows the tensile-shear strength and the absorbed energy for weldbonded and spot welded joints of the base metal combination HCT780T/HCT600XD for the applied adhesive BetamateTM 1480 under quasistatic load. It can be seen that the tensile-shear force values of the weldbonded joints are significantly higher than those of the spot welded joints. Also the difference is not such significant, the absorbed energy of the weldbonded joints is as well higher. This means that the weldbonding process also improves the crash performance In order to analyze the fatigue behaviour of weldbonded joints Whler tests were carried out under a force-controlled regime with a load ratio of R = 0.1. This was done for shear specimens using tensile-fatigue test procedures according to EN ISO 14324. The applied test stop criterion was the total fracture of the tested specimens. In this connection plug failures or fractures in the material were the dominating failure types. The comparison of the fatigue behaviour of spot welded, bonded and weldbonded joints are given in Figure 8. First, it can be seen that even only bonding of the sheets results in significantly higher fatigue resistance. A further improvement of the fatigue resistance can be achieved by the combination of both processes.

SUMMARY

For given welding parameter combinations, welding current ranges (WCR) for spot welded advanced high strength steels were developed. In this connection three- and two-dimensional weldability lobes for TRIP steel were established. From these

Figure 8: Shear strength of the base metal combination HCT780T/HCT600XD and the adhesive BetamateTM 1480 under quasistatic load (left) and S/N Curves of spot welded and weldbonded joints in comparison (right) weldability lobes, the influence of short-, medium- and long-time welding and of different values of electrode force on the process reliability can be concluded. Depending on the welding parameters, there exist sufficiently high process reliabilities for the investigated TRIP steel. For uncoated steel sheets, however, the biggest WCR and therefore the highest process reliabilities were found. In the case of hot dip zinc coated steel sheets, sufficiently high process reliabilities will be realized by optimization of the two welding parameters electrode force and welding time. Only in the case of practically unimportant short-time welding a process reliability does not exist. But in the mass production of automobiles, usually medium- and long-time welding is used. Therefore, for sufficiently high electrode forces in all situations of car mass production, there exist always sufficiently high process reliabilities which guarantee spot welds of high quality. The mechanical properties of spot welded joints were studied for the quality feature tensile-shear force and the fatigue behavior. It was shown that the tensile-shear force is significantly influenced by the welding time. The influence of electrode force on these features is negligible. For the fatigue tests, the load cycles at fracture of the tested AHSS is higher than the load cycles at fracture of the tested mild reference steel. Thus, the fatigue strength of the tested spot welded AHSS is higher than the fatigue strength of the tested mild reference steel. The well known advantages of the weldbonding process for mild steels of lower yield strength are a truth for the application of high strength steels, too. Disadvantages due to smaller sizes of welding current ranges and consequently significantly lower process reliabilities do not occur. Only for the martensitic steel grade, the WCR is smaller due to a smaller absolute current Value at the splash limit ISL. Advantages of the weldbonding process are given by the mechanical behaviour. For all cases of weldbonded base metals and their combinations, higher values of the tensile-shear force

under static load are found for the applied adhesive in comparison with the spot welded joints. The absorbed energy is higher for weldbonded than for spot welded joints, too. This means that the crash behaviour of the weldbonded joints becomes better as in the case of spot welded joints. The mechanical investigations have shown that the standard deviation of the tensile-shear force regarding the weldbonded joints is increased. This might indicate that the weldbonding process underlies stronger fluctuations than resistance spot welding. The investigation of the fatigue behaviour has shown that the weldbonded joints are advantageous to the resistance spot welded joints. The number of cycles till the fracture of the specimen is increased significantly.

REFERENCES [Budde et. al., 1992] Budde, L.; Hahn, O.; Adhesive bonding in combination with spot welding or clinching; In: Welding in the world, pp. 26-32; Vol. 30; No. ; 1992 [Cramer et. al., 2009] Cramer, H.; Bschorr, T.; Hahn, O; Thommes, H.; Zech, F.; Final Report for FOSTA-No. P704/10, AiF-No. 14476 N; Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e. V., Dsseldorf 2009 [Darwish et. al., 2004-1] Darwish, S. M.; Al-Samhan, A.; Design rationale of weldbonded joints; In: Int. J. Adhes. Adhes., pp. 367-377; Vol. 24; 2004 [Hahn et. al., 1995] Hahn, O.; Peetz, A.; Eigenschaften und Wirtschaftlichkeit kombiniert gefgter Blechverbindungen; In: Konferenz-Einzelbericht: DVSBerichte, pp. 272-277; Vol. 1; Dsseldorf; Germany 1995 [Ktting et. al., 1995] Ktting, G.; Schmid, G.; Widerstandspunktschweikleben geklebter und beschichteter Karosseriebleche: Verbindungseigenschaften, Technologie und Gefahrstoffemission; In: Konferenz-Einzelbericht: DVSBerichte, pp. 17-20; Vol. 165; Dsseldorf; Germany 1995 [Maggi et. al., 2008] Maggi, S., Murgia, M.; Introduction to the metallurgic characteristics of advanced high-strength steels for automobile applications; In: Welding International, pp. 610-618; Vol. 22; No.9; 2008 [N.N., 1998] N. N.: Ultra light steel auto body final report; American Iron and Steel Institute; Washington D.C.; USA 1998 [Osburg et.al., 2004] Osburg, B.; Patberg, L.; Grneklee, A.; Flth, Th.; GroeGehling, M.; Hinz, M.; Mebus, H.; New Steel Body Sicherer und wirtschaftlicher Karosserieleichtbau mit Stahl; In: Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift ATZ; pp. 190, Vol. 106; No. 3; 2004 [Santosa et. al., 2004] Santosa, I. O.; Zhang, W.; Goncalvesa, V. M.; Bayb, N.; Martins, P. A. F.; Weldbonding of stainless steel; In: Int. J. of Machine Tools and Manufacture, pp. 1431-1439; Vol. 44; No. 14; 2004 [Schmid et. al., 2001] Schmid, G.; Korte, M.; Walther, U.; Punktschweikleben im Automobilbau; In: Konferenz-Einzelbericht: DVS-Berichte, pp. 53-58; Vol. 213; Dsseldorf; Germany 2001 [Weber et. al., 2005] Weber, G.; Gkl, S.; Resistance spot welding of advanced high strength steels Influence of welding parameters and electrode cap type; In:

Proceedings of the International Conference of the International Institute of Welding (IIW), pp. 135-155; Czech Republic; Prague 2005 [Weber et. al., 2006] Weber, G.; Gkl, S.; Resistance Spot Welding of Uncoated and Zinc Coated Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS) Weldability and Process Reliability Influence of Welding Parameters; In: Welding in the World, J. of the International Institute of Welding (IIW); Vol. 50, No 4/4; Rossy; France 2006 [Weber et. al., 2009-1] Weber, G; Brauser, S.; Rethmeier, M.; Extended Weldability Lobes in Resistance Spot Welding of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS); In: Proceedings of EUROJOIN; Vol. 7; Lido di Venezia; Italy 2009 [Weber et. al., 2009-2] Weber, G.; Thommes, H.; Bschorr, T.; Cramer, H.; Hahn, O.; Rethmeier, M.; Hybrid Bonding of Advanced High Strength Steels in the Lightweight Body Shell Design for the Automobile Manufacturing; In: Int. Conf. on Advanced Comp. Engineering and Experiment; Vol. 3; Rome; Italy 2009

Predicting the Occurrence of Cosmetic Defects in Automotive Skin Panels

Hazra S*, Williams D, Roy R, Aylmore R and Smith A *Warwick Manufacturing Group, University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL sumit.hazra@warwick.ac.uk

Abstract. The appearance of defects such as hollows and shock lines can affect the perceived quality and attractiveness of automotive skin panels. Predicting their occurrence is difficult because they are usually small, localised deviations from the intended styling of the panels. However, despite their size, they become visually apparent after the application of paint. As a result, the perceived quality of a panel may become unacceptable and considerable time may be dedicated to minimising their occurrence through tool modifications. This paper will look at the causes of these defects and will illustrate the use of the wavelet transform as a technique that can be applied to simulation results as well as measured data to locate and quantify their severity. A key aspect of the problem is to relate the output of the transform to how an observer perceives a defect and this will be illustrated with several test cases.

Key words: Surface deflection, cosmetic defects, wavelet analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION The exterior styling and perceived quality of skin panels is important in infusing the product with attributes and emotions that create desirability for it. This is particularly so in mature markets, where growth levels are relatively low and there is an increasing need to differentiate products that appeal to consumers varying tastes. While the exterior is consciously styled within manufacturing constraints, the perceived quality of skin panels depends on factors such as the occurrence of subtle defects that are consequences of the manufacturing process. Examples of these defects include hollows that occur around door handle depressions and shock-lines that occur adjacent to styling lines. These defects do not hinder the functioning of panels but affect its aesthetic appearance. Despite their importance, they are difficult to predict and tend to be identified and minimised during tool maturation. As a result, the cost impact of cosmetic defects can be high. The work in this paper will deal with hollows. In cross-section, hollows have sinusoidal profiles with depths greater than 50m (Fig.1).

30-50mm

>50m

Fig.1 Schematic of of a hollow in cross-section The causes of these defects have not been firmly established, but they are thought to be the consequence of either localised springback [1, 2] or buckling [3]. They are difficult to identify on an unpainted surface but become visually apparent after the application of paint because the gloss layer in a paint system endows the surface with optical properties. Hollows tend to distort reflections, thus making them apparent to an observer. Two broad approaches have been suggested to predict the occurrence of hollows. The first is to analyse the topology of a panel by, for example, examining the change in the radii of the panel [4-6] and the second is to analyse the reflections of straight light lines on a panel [1,7]. Both approaches are able to locate potential defects, but the ability to predict an observers perception has not been discussed in great detail. Correlation of the suggested approaches is carried out against data that is subjective in nature. This is usually in the form of auditor assessments of painted panels or stoned panels, where panels are lightly scratched with an oilstone to reveal defects. Past work in the plate glass industry suggests that observed severity can be deduced by examining the dimensions of geometrical deviations [8, 9]. For example, optical distortions in plate glass are related to sinusoidal deviations [8]: D = 4S2W/L2 u 106 (1) where D is optical distortion in millidiopters, W is amplitude (mm) and L is wavelength (mm). Higher values of D are more noticeable to the eye. In automotive panels, Andersson [4] identified that the wavelengths most noticeable to the human eye ranged from 30mm to 50mm. He did not identify critical depths but eq.(1) suggests that greater amplitudes cause greater optical distortions. This concept was examined by analysing the topology of two surfaces: one measured with an optical scanner and the second predicted using stamping simulation. However, instead of the change in radii method favoured by Andersson [4], we used a signal processing method, the wavelet transform, to analyse the surfaces. The output of the transform was used to predict the likely location and severity of defects.

2. DETECTING DEFECTS USING THE WAVELET TRANSFORM The sinusoidal geometry that causes distorted reflections suggests that signal processing techniques can be useful in helping to characterise defects in terms of wavelengths and amplitudes. Examples of such techniques include the Fourier transform and the wavelet transform, which extract the frequency (1/wavelength) and amplitude content of a profile or surface. The wavelet transform appears as follows:

c (a 0 , b0 )

a0

1 2

f

f f

f ( x)M (
0

x  nb0 )dx a0

(1)

(2) where f is a given 2D profile, M is the wavelet analysing function and c, the correlation value. a0 and b0 are discrete scale and translation values applied to M where nb0 is a regularly spaced translation. The wavelet transform has been suggested as being particularly useful because its properties allow it to identify localised shapes that cause hollows, in cosmetic surfaces that have large radii [10, 11]. The location and severity of defects is predicted by examining the spectrum of wavelengths and amplitudes that are contained in the 2D profile. Because M is not a harmonic function, the calculated value for c in eq.(1) is not an amplitude in the same strict sense as in the Fourier transform. However, because it reflects the fit of f to M, it can be regarded as a quasi amplitude [10].

f

M ( x)

1.1. Application to a scanned surface The technique was used to assess defect severity on a pre-production bodyside part (Fig.2). The part that was assessed was taken from a batch that was manufactured under serial production conditions, painted, assembled into vehicles and rated by trained inspectors. Defect severity was classed into three categories ranging from severe (Category 1) to mild (Category 3). Two areas on the part were examined (Fig.2): The top of the pillar was assessed to have defects that were Category 3 to undetectable while the bottom of the pillar had defects that were between Categories 2 and 3. The part from the batch was withdrawn from the manufacturing process after the stamping stage, cut to size, mounted to maintain its shape and scanned with GOMs ATOS optical scanner. The measurement accuracy of the scanner was verified against the National Physical Laboratorys freeform surface [12] and was found to be 0.02mm over a curved surface.

240
E

180 1 Wav velength mm 120 1 60 Visible defect w wavelengths

G F

Location mm m

18 80 13 35

Wavelen ngth mm
elengths Visible defect wave

90 45 4
C B

Location mm L

of rofiles from t pre-prod the duction pane that were a el analysed. Fig.2 Location o section pr wavelet plots indicate the location of troughs alo the profi s e f ong iles, particul larly those The w that pos ssess wavele engths that a likely to b interprete as defects are be ed s

Two section profiles from the scan were extracted and analyzed (Fig.2). The profile at the base of the pillar identified potential defects in the locations marked A to D (Fig.2). In the 30-50mm wavelength range that the human eye is sensitive to, the amplitudes of the defects increased from A to D: A had the smallest value of -0.06 and B to D increased from -0.11 to -0.15. This agreed with the subjective assessment that the defects were more noticeable along the B to D region. The analysis of the top of the panel showed that the topology of the formed panel was less likely to be interpreted as containing defects. The defects marked E and F were out of the visible wavelength region and only G had the potential to be a defect with a c (Eq.1) of -0.02. The c values were therefore between three to eight times greater at the bottom of the pillar compared to the top of the pillar value and this seemed to reflect the assessment that the condition at the top of the pillar was less severe. Using the data gathered, an initial relationship was suggested between the wavelet outputs and perceived severity: Defect Depth(Correlation Wavelength severity coefficient) (mm) Category 1 Category 2 Of the order -0.1 50 50

Category 3 Of the order -0.01 50 Table 1 Relationship between wavelet parameters and observed severity 1.2. Application to a simulated surface Using the relationships in Table 1, the wavelet method was applied to the results of a stamping simulation model to assess its applicability earlier in the vehicle development process. The assessment was carried out without prior knowledge of defect locations or severities. The simulation model was created for the LS-DYNA v971 solver and incorporated tooling CAD geometry, drawbead geometries and the appropriate material models. A feasible draw process was obtained followed by a springback simulation. The draw process was carried out explicitly while the springback process was carried out implicitly. Care was taken to ensure that there was a sufficiently fine blank mesh around the smallest radii in the tooling so that artificial hollows were not introduced adjacent to fillet radii. The result of the draw simulation was validated against strain data that was measured from the deformation of pre-production physical panels. Circle grids were etched onto the panels and the strains were investigated using the GOM Argus measurement system. The error of the measurement was rated at 0.017 strain and this was estimated from the analysis of 17 grids in the unstrained state. In area A (Fig.3), the predicted strains generally agreed with the measured strain data (within measurement error) while in area C, strains were generally overpredicted by a maximum of 0.01 strain. This was taken to be a reasonable level of correlation. Using judgment, three areas on the panel were initially identified as likely locations for the formation of potential defects (Fig.3).

(a) A A: Adjacent to the rear door Area ap perture

(b) Area B: Along t top of the B-post the e

(c) Area C: Adjacen to the tail light cluster a nt r Figure 3 The three ar T reas that wer initially id re dentified are shown abov ve. The ar reas were th examine more clo hen ed osely using the wavelet tool. Sectio profiles t on extracted from th simulatio model w he on were extend ded and de-noised [11] and then ] mposed as be efore. The ex xtension and de-noising stages were carried out on profiles d decom before and after s e springback a then sub and btracted to provide the n deforma p net ation in the profile after sprin e ngback. A fuller expla anation of t extensio and the de-noising the on algorit thm can be found in R [13]. W Ref Within the th hree areas, t wavelet technique the t predic cted three sig gnificant defects and th compared to two that were obser his d t rved by an inspec who ana ctor alyzed the pr re-productio panels. Th false posi on he itive result occurred in o area A at the locat tion shown in Fig. 4. n

Figure 4 On false posit result oc ne tive ccurred in th circled loc he cation in Are A. ea In term of severit the wave analysis of the simul ms ty, elet lation data g generally ove erestimated the se everity of th defects th were observed but w he hat were largely in the righ ballpark y ht (Table 2). e

Observation Prediction Area A Between 2 and 3 Between 1 and 2 Area B 3 Between 2 and 3 Area C No defect No defect Table 2 Comparison between predicted defect severity and observed defect severity on pre-production panels. Defect severity is classed from severe (Category 1) to mild (Category 3).

3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The shape of a hollow in profile suggests that signal processing methods can be useful in characterising the geometry of hollows. The wavelet transform, in particular, has several advantages over the Fourier transform because it provides information about the location of the wavelengths in a profile and it can detect wavelengths on different scales. However, care has to be taken over the choice of the analysing function, M. The suitability of M depends on its ability to decompose a polynomial of degree n. An Norder wavelet will not decompose polynomials of degree n= N-1 [14]. As skin panels are designed as compound radii (n t 2), an N=2 order wavelet was chosen to decompose the profiles described in this paper. The agreement of the predicted defect severities in the scanned panel (Section1.1) to auditor data required that the scanning system was able to reproduce the surface and that the wavelet method was able to characterise the defects within it. As the measurement uncertainty of the scanning system was lower than the expected minimum depth of a hollow, it gave encouragement that the wavelet method was characterising actual defects in the panel rather than artefacts of the measurement. The results of the stamping simulation in Section1.1 were validated against physical strain data rather than dimensional data because the physical panels were removed after the draw stage. As a consequence it was not possible to mount it on a fixture to correlate the model dimensionally. Previous work that examined the dimensional predictions from finite element analyses suggest that the current generation of software is able to reproduce these defects [4, 6, 15]. This gave encouragement that the correctly predicted presence of defects in areas A and C and absence of defects in Area B were not merely artefacts of the simulation process. In conclusion, the wavelet transform was introduced as a possible tool to analyse the surface of skin panels for cosmetic defects and to relate them to perceived severity. The method was applied to two test cases and correlated to physical auditor data. The prediction was accurate in predicting the location of known defects and the relative severities of the defects present in the panels.

4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial and technical support provided by Jaguar Land Rover, Advantage West Midlands and The European Regional Development Fund during the course of this work.

REFERENCES [1] Dutton T, Pask E, Visualisation of Surface Defects in Sheet Metal Panels, 5th International. LS-DYNA Users Conference, Sept 21-22 1998, Detroit, Michigan [2] Asnafi N, On springback of double-curved autobody panels, Int J of Mech Sci, 2001, 43, p.5 [3] Wang H-P, Xu S, Cao J, Chen W, Cheng HS, Wang CT, Preliminary Study On a Surface Distortion Prediction for Sheet Metals: Validation in Yoshida Buckling Problems, Proceedings of Numisheet 2008, edited by Hora P, Interlaken, Switzerland, p.787 [4] Andersson A, Macro-Geometric Defects A numerical and experimental study of springback and surface defects, PhD Thesis, Lund University, 2004 [5] Kase K, Makinouchi A, T Nakagawa, H Suzuki, F Kimura, Shape error evaluation method of free-form surfaces, Computer Aided Design, 1999, 31, p.495 [6] Park CD, Chung WJ, Kim BM, A numerical and experimental study of surface deflections in automobile exterior panels, J. of Mat Proc Tech, 2007, 187-188, p.99 [7] Liu L, Sawada T, Sakamoto M, Evaluation of the surface deflections in pressed automobile panels by an optical reflection method, J. of Mat Proc Tech, 2000, 103, p.280 [8] Bartoe RD, The Dynamics of Ceramic Rollers and Operating and Maintenance Practices to Produce Quality Tempered Glass, Proceedings Glass Processing Days, June 18-21, 2001 [9] ASTM C 1652/C 1652M, Measuring Distortion in Flat Glass Products Using Digital Photography of Grids [10] Hazra S, Williams D, Roy R, Aylmore R, Detecting subtle cosmetic defects in automotive skin panels, Proc. IMechE Part C: J. Mechl Eng Science, 2008, Vol. 222, p.2203 [11] Hazra S, Williams D, Roy R, Aylmore R and Smith A, Subtle Cosmetic Defects in Automotive Skin Panels, Key Engineering Materials, 2009, 410-411, p.197 [12]McCarthy M, Head of the National Freeform Centre, National Physical Laboratory, UK (www.npl.co.uk/freeform), (2008) private communication [13] Misiti M, Misiti Y, Oppenheim G, Poggi J-M: Wavelet Toolbox For Use With Matlab, Users Guide, version 3 (The Mathworks Inc. 2006). [14] Mallat S, A Wavelet Tour of Signal Processing, Academic Press, 1999 [15] Fu Z, Hu P, Wang H, Zhao K, Research on Experiment and Simulation of Automobile Panel Redrawing Character Proceedings of Numisheet 2008, edited by Hora P, Interlaken, Switzerland, p.767

Online Acquisition of Material Data to Control Perturbations Caused by Varying Material Properties for Forming Processes.
Jrg Heingrtner*, Robert Seelos*, Marcel Born*, Pavel Hora*, Anja A. Neumann** and Dirk Hortig** *ETH Zrich, Institute of Virtual Manufacturing, Technoparkstrasse 1, 8005 Zrich, Switzerland; heingaertner@ivp.mavt.ethz.ch, seelosr@student.ethz.ch, marcel.born@besonet.ch, phora@ivp.mavt.ethz.ch **Daimler AG, 71059 Sindelfingen, Germany; anja.a.neumann@daimler.com, dirk.hortig@daimler.com

Abstract: Variations of the material properties, although they lie inside predefined tolerances can cause defects in the manufactured part or product. A system for the nondestructive measurement of mechanical properties and the identification of inappropriate material in production is presented. This system is based on the eddy current measurement principle to acquire material data. The acquired eddy current data are combined with intelligent data mining algorithms to generate a mathematical model to calculate the mechanical material properties in production. By the use of DoE methods and the gained mathematical model the design space for a specific part is explored by using FEM. A metamodel is computed for every geometry material combination and added into an expert system. This system predicts the feasibility of a specific part by comparing the actually measured eddy current data with the calculated metamodel. Keywords: eddy current, nondestructive testing, metamodel, numeric simulation 1. INTRODUCTION In the press shop, car manufacturers face several challenges. The produced parts are subject to highly dynamic changes due to short design cycles. [Krause et al., 1996] Especially body shell parts are becoming increasingly complex but they nevertheless need to be produced with high shape accuracy and no rejections at low cost. Several factors influence the quality of the produced parts in the press shop, which are shown in Figure 1. Some of these parameters can be used to control the forming process (e.g. die cushion pressure or blankholder force), some are varying, like the humidity, the temperature or the mechanical material properties. To be able to compensate the scattering material properties or to sort out inappropriate materials measurement systems for the inline acquisition of the mechanical material properties are required.

One possibility to achieve this is by using the eddy current principle. Eddy current systems are well known in quality assurance and non-destructive testing. [Moore, 2004]

Figure 1; influences on the quality in the press shop In this work a multifrequency eddy current system is used to acquire the material properties inline in production. The material microstructure has an impact on the mechanical as well as the electromagnetic material properties (Figure 2) and a correlation between these properties exists. [Schwind, 1998] [Maass, 2001]

Figure 2; correlation between electromagnetic and mechanical properties The examined material is DC06 a cold rolled mild steel with a thickness of 0.8mm. According to the specifications, the mechanical properties of this material can vary in a wide range: Rp0,2 = 120 to 180MPa, Rm = 270 to 330MPa, A80 > 41%. Using a multifrequency eddy current system, a fingerprint of the inspected sample can be acquired. [Ruovi, 2004] Through modern data mining algorithms, the mechanical material properties can be calculated from the eddy current data. With the measured values a database is built to be used for stochastic simulations. This way the design space and also computation time is reduced significantly. A metamodel is generated from the simulation results, which allows a prediction if a blank with specific mechanical properties measured in production will result in a good part or not.

2. THE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 2.1. The eddy-current principle The induction law, shown in equation 2.1 describes all phenomena related to electromagnetic fields; equation 2.2 is the link between the electromagnetic field and the material in the field. The electromagnetic permeability is material dependent and even smallest changes of can be measured by the eddy current system due to its high sensitivity. 2.1 2.2 The eddy current probe consists basically of two coils, which are encapsulated in one plastic body. The emitter coil generates an electromagnetic field, which induces eddy currents in the material. These eddy currents generate an electromagnetic field themselves, which counteracts the initial field (Lenzs law). The total electromagnetic field is the difference between these fields and is measured by the receiver coil.

Figure 3, basic principle for eddy-current measurements The measurement system uses a Magnatest D eddy current device from Institut Dr. Frster in Germany, which is a multifrequency device working in serial mode. Seven frequencies, 1024Hz, 512Hz, 256Hz, 128Hz, 64Hz, 32Hz and 16Hz are used including the 3rd, 5th and for the lower frequencies also the 7th harmonic, resulting in 48 scalar values representing one eddy current measurement.

2.2. Hardware setup The measurement system was mounted in the blank cutting press, on a crossbeam in front of the feeder unit and the subsequent cutting process, where the sheet movement is discontinued. This is necessary, because to achieve the highest sensitivity and the best reproducibility the eddy current probe has to be placed directly on the inspected sample without a gap between probe and sample. Therefore the sheet metal must not move during the eddy current measurements. The measurement system had to fulfill four main functions: move the eddy current probe up and down, measure the eddy current values for each blank, mark each blank to assure correct identification after cutting and calculate the mechanical properties. The setup consists of a PC, the eddy current device, the eddy current probe, an inkjet printer, a linear drive and the electronics to communicate with the press and the drive (Figure 4).

Figure 4; left: eddy current system in production, right: measurement head mounted in the blank cutting press 2.3. Model generation and accuracy of the system An explicit formulation of the relationship between the electromagnetic and the mechanical material properties is not feasible. A different representation has to be found. Using modern multidimensional regression algorithms the correlation between

Figure 5; accuracy of the trained system

the electromagnetic and the mechanical properties can be reproduced. These algorithms must be trained in advance. From experience it is known, that the minimum amount of data necessary for training are 100 samples from 10 different material batches taken from normal production. These data are divided into two groups, one for training using 50 samples and one to test the generated model consisting of the rest. Sometimes it is recommended to use only 20 30% of the available data for validation [Nisbet et al., 2009], but in this specific case a larger training set does not result in a better mathematical model. The accuracies for the validation data are +/-2.5% for Rp0,2, +/-2% for Rm +/-4.5% for Agl and +/-4% for A80. The results for Rm are shown in Figure 5. In Figure 6 tensile test data and calculated values for blanks taken from production are shown.

Figure 6; tensile test vs. calculated values, left: Rp0,2, right: Rm; blue: tensile test, red: calculated values 3. INLINE MEASUREMENTS AND DATA EVALUATION Four complete coils were measured during production, for each coil approximately 1400 1500 measurements were made. The results for two coils are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7; left: calculated values for coil no. 2, right: coil no. 4; blue: Rm, red: Rp0,2 The acquired data were used to calculate the statistical parameters necessary for the subsequent stochastic simulations. In Figure 8 an example for the distribution of Rm is shown, its mean value and the standard deviation are the input parameters for the simulations. The values of Rm vary from 280 to 301MPA which is only part of the

possible range in the material specifications, which allow Rm to be within 270 to 330MPa.

Figure 8; distribution of Rm 4. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE) FOR STOCHASTIC SIMULATIONS By using the eddy current method real-time information on the variations of material properties is available. To use this knowledge to predict the feasibility of a part in short time an expert system is built. It compares the actual measured values with a before computed metamodel. To generate this metamodel a LS-Dyna-simulation of the specific part was coupled with the optimization tool LS-Opt combined with Matlab. LS-Opt handles the distribution of the Parameters Agl, A80, Rp0,2, Rm and Fr like shown in Figure 9 and controls the DoE. Conseqently it generates the input for the further preprocessing in Matlab. In this first step a reference technical stress-strain-curve for the used material is edited according to the given LS-Opt input. This means that the curve is scaled in x and y direction based on the relations between the parameters of the curve and the sampling point. To stay as general as possible it is presumed that all the parameters are independent, even Rm and Rp0,2. 4.1 4.2 4.3 The add-on new symbolizes the input given by LS-Opt and orig stands for the origin of the curve. The modified material is then written into a material.card and flow.curve file to be included into the LS-Dyna deck.

Figure 9; LS-Opt variable definition for DoE During preprocessing also a file containing the FLC is created which is needed later on for the evaluation of the target value of the metamodel. To calculate the yield locus a Barlat89 formulation with m = 2 is used. [Hora, 2007] 4.4

4.5

Then the eMMF-Criterion is used. The material dependent factors E0 and n are chosen according to Table I. [Hora et al., 2007] 4.6 4.7 After pre-processing the LS-Dyna-simulation is run using the generated files. Both, Gosh and Hockett-Sherby laws are used and afterwards compared. By using real data and not the range from the technical specifications, calculation time can be reduced significantly, since the measured range of the mechanical properties is much smaller

than in the specifications.

Table I

5. SIMULATION RESULTS Post processing is handled by LS-PrePost and Matlab. Strain data is read out in order to compare the strain of each element with the FLC.

Figure 10; simulation results, left: strain, right: thickness In Figure 10 examples for simulation results are shown with several critical regions, where failure would occur for the given settings. 6. METAMODELS The target function for the metamodel which is generated with IVPs own software METAGenerator is chosen to be the distance to the secure FLC. Therefore the distance of each risky or cracked element to the secure FLC is measured and summed up. METAGenerator calculates and evaluates the best Kriging model, where F(x) globally approximates the design space while Z(x) creates local deviations. The variant 2 is the unknown, R stands for the correlation matrix and R(x_i, x_j) for the correlation function between any two sampled data points 6.1

6.2 Cross-validation according to the leave-one-out method estimates the prediction error. For g-i the metamodel excluding the sample it is defined as 6.3 using n = 1 as long as it is not too time demanding to build n metamodels. The lower the value of CVn is, the better is the result of the metamodel [Fang et al., 2006]. For the metamodel shown below in Figure 11, 243 simulations were performed using a full factorial design of experiments. Calculation time on a 28 CPU cluster was approximately six days.

Figure 11; metamodel with classification in categories With this metamodel, failure of a specific blank can be predicted, using the inline measured eddy current data. For example, the results from the metamodel can be divided in three regions, a safe region, a risky region and a failure region. According to this, measures can be taken to assure constant quality of the produced parts, e.g. adjust the press settings or sort out material that is inappropriate. Therefore the metamodel is stored in the eddy current system. For each eddy current measurement the system checks in which region of the metamodel the actual blank lies and if it will become a good part. Thus metamodels are knowledge generated from previously measured data combined with the specific forming process to allow predictions concerning future production.

7. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK Material properties vary along a coil and between coils in a range which is within the technical specifications, but can nevertheless have a significant effect on the deep drawing process. The achieved accuracy of the presented system is good enough to create a database for stochastic simulations. Basing on these simulations metamodels for the application in the press shop can be created. This way it is possible to measure and sort material inline in production to minimize scrap production. Also simulation time for stochastic simulations can be reduced. Future work will be concentrated in connecting the eddy current data to the yield curve as this is a more significant measure in forming technology and to link the metamodels directly to the press settings. REFERENCES [Krause et al., 1996] Krause, F.-L., Kehler, T. and Mischok, P. "Interaktive Interpretation von Designskizzen als Kern eines neuen Entwurfsprozesses im Automobildesign"; In: VDI Berichte Nr. 1289, pp 269-282, 1996. [Moore, 2004] Moore, P.M. "Electromagnetic testing (Nondestructive testing handbook; Vol. 5)"; American society for nondestructive testing, 2004. [Schwind, 1998] Schwind, Michael. "Zerstrungsfreie Ermittlung mechanischer Eigenschaften von Feinblechen mit dem Wirbelstromverfahren"; Meisenback, 1998. [Maass, 2001] Maass, Michael. "Bestimmung von richtungsabhngigen Werkstoffeigenschaften und Rissverlufen mit dem Wirbelstromprfverfahren"; VDI Verlag, 2001. [Ruovi, 2004] Ruovi, Michal. "Die zerstrungsfreie Ermittlung von genauen Zugversuchsdaten mit dem Wirbelstromverfahren"; VDI Verlag, 2004. [Nisbet et al., 2009] Nisbet R., Elder J. und Miner G. "Handbook of statistical analysis and data mining applications"; Academic Press, 2009 [Hora, 2007] Hora, P. "Grundlagen der umformtechnischen Verfahren"; Script; WS2006/2007 [Hora et al., 2007] Hora, P., Tong, L. "Enhanced Modified Maximum Force Criterion, a model for the theoretical prediction of Forming Limit Curves"; 2007 [Fang et al., 2006] Fang, K.-T., Li, R., Sudjianto, A. "Design and Modeling for Computer Experiments"; Chapman & Hall/CRC; 2006

3D Digitizing in Optimization of Sheet Metal Processing

Konstantin Galanulis, Carsten Reich GOMmbH, Mittelweg7, 38106 Braunschweig Germany k.galanulis@gom.com

Abstract: 3D optical metrology methods are increasingly used in tooling and sheet metal processing related tasks in the last years. They deliver nearly operator independed, in a short time, a large amount of information and contribute significantly to the process optimization especially of demanding manufacturing and materials like high strength steels and hot forming. 3D digitizing with ATOS provides 3D shape information in a fine mesh representing all shape details. Hole pattern and trimlines on sheet metal are further information of the delivered results. Main advantages of 3D digitizing in comparison to the established 3D coordinate measuring machines are the high flexibility regarding diversity of parts, measuring speed and integrity of data. Measured data are always comparable and traceable from the development of the part up to its production and complete live cycle. This leads to shorter production start-up times and significant cost savings.

Keywords: 3D digitizing, quality control, tool manufacturing, sheet metal inspection

1. INTRODUCTION GOM develops and distributes optical measuring systems with its main focus on applications like 3D digitizing, 3D coordinate measurements, material properties determination, deformation measurements, forming analysis. GOM systems are used in product and production development as well for quality control processes. The 3D digitizing system ATOS has established itself as a powerful tool for analysis and first article inspection in sheet metal processing. The always available full field information and short lead time have improved significantly quality and development time of new products. Furthermore in the last years ATOS is involved in production sampling inspection. Outstanding developments were driven by the demands on integration in customer processes and automation. Full compatibility with CAD and measuring planning PMP interfaces as well object-oriented and offline programming functionality are some of the highlights which will be discussed in this paper.

2. BASICS OF OPTICAL 3D DIGITIZING WITH ATOS White light optical measuring systems such as the digitizing system ATOS (figure 1) capture formed components and tool geometries of any size and complexity with high precision and scanning density in short time based on fringe projection [Reich et al, 2000], [Winter et al, 1999], (figure 2).

Figure 1: ATOS Sensor

Figure 2: Projection of fringe patterns onto the surface of a part The measurement results are point clouds in ASCII format and polygon meshes in STL format. In addition the measured trimming and the hole pattern as IGES or ASCII data set is available (figure 3). For assemblies and body in white hammed edges, pins, tapped holes and other typical joining elements can be extracted from the polygon mesh. Due to the two camera approach ATOS stands out by a high process stability. Decalibration of the sensor or enviromental predurbations are monitored and reported during any measurement.

Polygon mesh

Feature hole

Border line

Figure 3: Generated polygon mesh for the sheet metal, hole and border line

3. APPLICATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION IN PROCESSES In sheet metal relevant applications ATOS is established for measurement of tools, single sheet metals, assemblies such as closures as well body in white [Galanulis et al, 2004], [Galanulis et al, 2005], [Schneider et al, 2008]. In digitizing of tooling: rough castings are used to generate milling paths and support a time effective and manless roughing process, tool try-out for reverse engineering and feedback into CAD or copy milling of new tools as well validation of FEA calculations, tools in operation for wear monitoring.

Digitized data of single sheet metals typically are considered in the pressshop for analysis and inspection purposes in the first article inspection and sampling inspection in serial production as well for validation of FEA calculations. In addition in assembly and body in white applications an effective analysis of flash and gap as well control of functions and optics is in intensive use. Measuring with ATOS always includes the complete surface information, trimming and hole patterns of the part. Any analysis of the part can be done on this data without the need of the physical part anymore. This allows always and at any time the full comparability of measurements of parts from the first prototypes up to the end of the

part livecircle. Changes during development or livecircle as well trends in the production are easy determinable. The complete surface information and the comparison with nominal data allows a simple comprehensible shape based visualisation of geometrical deviations (figure 4). Furthermore all relevant coordinate transformations like global or local best-fit, 3-2-1, RPS, etc. are supported by the software. Analysis functions as requested in measuring plans (PMP, FTA) and usually measured with 3D coordinate machine up to geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) are applicable on the measured ATOS data. All generated output is fully compatible with established portprocessing systems or typical measuring reports. ATOS measurements stand out for a excellent gauge repeatability and reproducibility (GR&R) as well for good correlation to 3D-coordinate machines.

Figure 4: Shape based visualisation of geometrical deviations

4. AUTOMATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS So far in most sheet metal relevant metrology tasks the handling of the ATOS system is carried out manually by the user with manual handling devices like stands. As a result of the increasing adoption of ATOS in such applications and the need of measurement of larger batch sizes of components full automatic solutions based on robots, translation units and additional rotation axis have been developed and installed in the last years (figure 5). In the recent stage these solutions already allow shorter measuring time and higher flexibility regarding diversity of parts than CNC driven 3D coordinate machines.

Figure 5: Measurement of closures and single sheets in an ATOS robotic measuring cell supported by a linear stage and additional rotation axis To minimize the allocation time of the robotic measuring cell in the teaching process of parts the complete offline measuring planning is fully implemented in the ATOS software. This functionality is called virtual measuring room (figure 6) and considers the complete design of the measuring cell, the CAD data of the part and its fixture as well the measuring plan.

Figure 6: Virtual measuring room For the individual items in the measuring plan the software calculates offline with expert knowledge all individual sensor positions under consideration of the feature type such as surface point, trimming and hole (figure 7) as well the optical surface properties of the part. Furthermore the software simulates for all sensor positions the movement paths of the handling devices and checks the completition of the measuring plan. All sensor positions and movement paths are always controled in regards to collision prevention. Coordinate transformations and the calculation of the requested items in the

measuring plan as well the documentation in specific report layouts are part of the simulation too. The completed offline simulated measuring program for a specific part can be applied in the following in the measuring cell and verified in an online test mode with low speed of the handling devices. In addition the measuring results of the individual sensor positions are getting approved. Usually smaller modifications taking place but the total approval time of the programming in the measuring cell is low so the utilization of the cell is high. The whole online approval process of the measuring program is also completed in the ATOS software. The control of the handling devices by panels or additional interfaces is unnecessary as it is still accomplished in the ATOS software. The human factor is reduced due to provision of expert knowledge by the software.

Figure 7: Measuring planning based feature type Due to the object oriented approach in the measuring planning any modification of the configuration of the measuring cell (type and position of e.g. robot or turn table) are considered automatically in the measuring program and new sensor positions and related movement paths are calculated. This allows a simple application of the measuring programs for different measuring cells. Any change in the measuring program is documented and traceable which improves significantly the process reliability. For a specific part the measuring program with the sensor positions, the measuring plan with coordinate transformations and tolerances, the CAD data and the report layouts are merged in the ATOS software in the so called Part Inspection File. The exchangeability of Part Inspection Files in different stages of the product lifecircle for different measuring cell layouts is supported by the Part Inspection Management (figure 8). Once a Part Inspection File is generated just modifications and

adaptations to the local circumstances need to be applied which allows significant time savings.

Figure 8: Part Inspection Management supports the exchange of inspection information

CONCLUSION Optical digitizing with ATOS has caused fundamental changes in metrology of tooling, single sheet metal, assemblies as well body in white development and manufacturing in the last decade. The full field surface measurement which improves the understanding of these processes, the tracebility of the measurement which enhances the process reliability and the flexibility as well reduction of measuring time have significant potential for cut of development time and improvement of quality in production. The recent developments aim a further improvement of above mentioned features as well a standarization and a higher integration in overall processes.

REFERENCES [Reich et al 2000] C. Reich, R. Ritter, J. Thesing: 3D-shape measurement of complex objects by combining photogrammetry and fringe projection, Optical Engineering, 39(1), 2000, pp.224-231. [Winter et al 1999] D. Winter, D. Bergmann, K. Galanulis, J. Thesing: Qualittssicherung und Digitalisierung mit Photogrammetrie und Streifenprojektion, Fachtagung Optische Formerfassung (5./6.10.1999), Berichtsband 70, 45-53. VDI/DVE - GMA und Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Zerstrungsfreie Prfung e.V., Stuttgart, Germany.

[Galanulis et al, 2004] K. Galanulis, C. Reich, J. Thesing, D. Winter: Exactness visualization of press parts and tools by the optical digitising system ATOS, Proceedings of IDDRG Forming the future (24./26.05.2004), Dsseldorf 2004, Germany.pp.298-306. [Galanulis et al., 2005] K. Galanulis: Optical measuring technologies in sheet metal processing, Proceedings of SheMet (05./08.04.2005), Advanced Materials Research Vols. 6-8 (May 2005) pp. 19-34, Trans-TechPublications [Schneider et al, 2008] M. Schneider, H. Friebe and K. Galanulis, Validation and optimization of numerical simulations by optical measurements of tools and parts, Proceedings of IDDRG 2008, 16th 18th June 2008, Olofstrm, Sweden, pp 373384, ISBN 978-91-633-2948-7

Indication of cracking during pressing of advanced thin plates using an AE-based monitoring system
Gabrielson Per*,***, Skre Thomas**,***, Sthl Jan-Eric*** *Alfa Laval Lund AB, Box 74, 221 00 Lund, Sweden ** Kristianstad University College, School of Health and Society, 291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden *** Lund University, Production and Materials Engineering, Box 118, 221 00 Lund, Sweden per.gabrielson@alfalaval.com

Abstract: The acoustic emission that is detectable in the forming of complex thin part plates contains information about the quality of the pressed plates. The information can be used as process control and to filter out advanced thin plates with defects such as cracks. The article describes the results obtained in a try-out pressing process in special developed punch-die pairs with different pressing depths in a press at Alfa Laval in Lund. At the trials two module testing tools called SE30 and SE25 were used to create a different degree of formability by different surface enlargement in the same complex original design. Used sheet materials were stainless steel and two qualities of titanium. The used measuring system was based on a PC with AE-sensor of model 8152 from Kistler. The results of experiments show that it is possible to detect and distinguish the plates that fracture during the forming operation. For a large number of plates detectable signals from areas close to cracks with only local necking were also obtained. This local necking cannot or can hardly be detected by light-test or light detecting equipment. The left figure shows a metal sheet with fractures and the right figure describes measured acoustic emission as a function of time and the number of the details. In this example the first four plates are fractured and the last five plates are without any fractures. There are several differences between the two types of signals of acoustic emission. The signal that indicates cracking of the plate differs by a sudden high acoustic emission and also a slightly lower level before the crack formation is started. Before the fracture occurs the sheet metal is stretched out and the lower level of acoustic emission also indicates less movement of the sheet metal just before the time of fracture.
AE Sens or No: 1; ID: provd(2-10); red) Alarmed detail; blue) Acc epted detail [V] v 2 0 9
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The purpose of the conducted experiment was to find out whether the selected approach was appropriate. The obtained result shows unambiguously that the chosen approach is pertinent and that an AE-based monitoring system can be used as a process control system to ensure the quality of production of advanced thin plates in stainless steel and titanium. Information can be saved from the main forming operation and can be used to see trends both long and short term. Keywords: forming, complex, process control, acoustic emission, stainless steel, titanium

1. INTRODUCTION The acoustic emission is a measuring method were surface waves will be detected with e.g. piezoelectric sensors. The surface waves can be created from many different causes as e.g. cracking, friction, material flow, mechanical rigid body vibrations or shocks [McIntire P et al., 1987]. The pressed part is industrially today often tested after the pressing operation e.g. by light-test or light detecting equipment. With an acoustic system connected to the pressing tool it should instead be possible to measure and detect failure while pressing. This work was made to evaluate if it is possible to detect and indicate cracking during pressing of advanced thin plates using an AE based monitoring system. The work consists of pressing advanced thin plates in stainless and titanium in special test tools while monitoring with an AE system. The pressing tools were designed to be able to achieve cracks and beginning of cracks in certain situations.

2. EXPERIMENT The experimental work was made at Alfa Laval in Lund in a hydraulic press. In the pressing, sheet material, directions of sheet in tool, lubrication were variable factors to achieve both correct plates and plates with cracks. While pressing, the acoustic emission and the press force were detected. Totally 160 plates were pressed. 2.1. Materials and lubricants The material used in this work was stainless steel AISI 316 and titanium Grade 1 with the dimension 330 x 330 x 0,5 (mm). We used titanium from two different suppliers (Ti-1, Ti-2). Both a wet lubricant (Lub-1), normally used by Alfa Laval and a so called dry-lubricant (Lub-2) were used. 2.2. Setup and measuring equipment In experimental part the following equipment were used. AE sensor model 1, 8152B1, Kistler, frequency range 50-400 kHz. AE sensor model 2, 8152B2, frequency range 100-900kHz. An inductive sensor was used as trigger of collection of the measuring

data. A PC-based measuring system was used together with a measuring and analyzing program. At the trials two module testing tools called SE30 and SE25 were used to create a different degree of formability by different surface enlargement in the same complex original design [Gabrielson et al., 1999]. See Figure 1. This different degree of formability was used to be able to obtain both correctly pressed parts and parts with cracks in both stainless steel and titanium. Fine tuning was made by changing lubricant or no lubricant at all, direction of material in tool or just by running very close to the limit until cracks suddenly occur.

Figure 1; Plates pressed in the two different module testing tools, SE30 and SE25. The AE sensors were attached at the side of the upper and lower tool part. During the experiment the AE sensors were attached in a number of different positions against the side of the tools. Eight different positions for the sensors were used. See Figure 2.
Pos. 1 Pos. 5

Pos. 2 Pos. 4 Pos. 8

Pos. 6

Pos. 3

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The lower tool

The upper tool

Figure 2; Pressing tool with AE sensors attached. Different positions on lower and upper tool part to attach the AE sensors.

3. RESULT The results of experiments show that it is possible to detect and distinguish the plates that fracture during the forming operation. Below the results are divided into test of module tool SE 30 and SE25 and also different test series depending on material supplier and stainless steel or titanium.

3.1. Result from test in tool SE30 with titanium from supplier Ti-1 in different directions In this part all the titanium sheets are lubricated with Lub-1 and the material is pressed in 0 and 90 degrees direction to the rolling direction. Positions of AE-sensors are shown in Table I. AE-sensor number 1 2 3 Position 2 4 6 Type of sensor 1 1 1 Trial number 1-20 1-20 1-20

Table I; Type of AE-sensor and position of sensor on tool according to Figure 2 above. Due to the anisotropy of the material cracking, occurs when the sheet is pressed in rolling direction and in direction of the fish bone pattern. The cracks occur in apex as shown in Fig 6. When the material is pressed in the 90 degrees direction, the plates are approved and without cracks. Test matrix and the result from pressing titanium from supplier Ti-1 in module tool SE30 are shown in Table II. Trial Material Number of Position Direction Lubrication number cracks of cracks of sheet 1...10 Running-in 11..12 Ti-1 8 apex 0 deg Lub-1 13 Ti-1 10 apex 0 deg Lub-1 14..15 Ti-1 9 apex 0 deg Lub-1 16..20 Ti-1 0 90 deg Lub-1 Table II; Test matrix and result regarding cracks from pressing Ti-1 material with lubrication Lub-1 in different directions. Figure 3 shows signals from using AE-sensor 1 in position number 2. Five samples in 0 degrees direction and five samples in 90 degrees direction were pressed (trial number 11-20). The blue curves in Figure 3-6 shows parts that are correct and without cracks and the red curves show plates that crack during the pressing operation. Out of this result it is possible to fit a limit curve to distinguish between correct plates and cracked plates. This is represented by the black line in Figure 3. In same way the result from AE-sensor 2 and 3 in position 4 and position 6 are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. The result shows that it is possible to differ between cracked or not cracked titanium plates with the AE system when using the three different sensor positions.

AE Sensor No: 1; ID: provd(11-20) 10 9 8 7 [V]; p [*25 bar] 6 Defect details Correct details Estimated alarm limit Punch pressure

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Figure 3; Titanium (Ti-1), tool SE30, signals using AE-sensor 1 in position 2. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the punch pressure.
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Figure 4; Titanium (Ti-1), tool SE30, signals using AE-sensor 2 in position 4. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the punch pressure.
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Figure 5; Titanium (Ti-1), tool SE30, signals using AE-sensor 3 in position 6. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the punch pressure.

Photo of cracked titanium plate in apex position are shown in Figure 6. Cracks

Figure 6; Cracks in pressed titanium plate at the apex position. 3.2. Results from test in tool SE30 with titanium from supplier Ti-2 in different directions This test was made in the same way as the above test but with a different supplier, Ti-2. Also with this supplier it was possible to differ between cracked or not cracked titanium plates with the AE system for all tested sensor positions. Figure 7 shows the result from using AE sensor 1 in position 2 according to Table I and Figure 2. Sample number 4 in Figure 7 differs from others in that we here also got a situation where the material was only necking in two positions besides the cracks. The AE response from this pressing shows another peak later in time.
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Figure 7; Titanium (Ti-2), tool SE30, signals using AE-sensor 1 in position 2. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the pressing pressure. 3.3. Results from test in tool SE30 with stainless steel with different lubrication. Trials made with stainless steel AISI 316. To achieve different results when pressing stainless steel in tool SE30 we have lubricated both with wet lubricant (Lub-1) and drylubricant (Lub-2). Figure 8 shows result from AE-sensor 1 (position 1, type of sensor 2). The position of the crack is located along the channel, see Figure 9. Also with stainless steel it was possible to differ between cracked or not cracked plates with the AE system even if the location and appearance of the cracks were totally different from the titanium case.

AE Sensor No: 1; ID: rostfr(32-76) 10 9 8 7 [V]; p [*25 bar] 6

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Figure 8; Stainless Steel, tool SE30, signals using AE-sensor 1 in position 1. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the punch pressure.

Crack

Figure 9 ; Crack in stainless steel case 3.4. Results from test in tool SE25 with titanium and with different lubrication. Tests made with the titanium from supplier Ti-1 in tool SE25. Both wet lubricant (Lub1) and dry-lubricant (Lub-2) were used. In these tests the cracks appear in the center of the sheets, as can be seen in Figure 10. The sensors are also moved in new positions in comparison to positions used in tool SE30. Type of AE-sensor and used positions are shown in Table III. Results from the tests show that it is possible to separate signals from correctly formed details and details with cracks, see Figure 11.

Figure 10; Fracture of the sheet metal along median line.(left) A difference in the indentation or movement of the sheet metal is obtained as a function of wet or dry lubrication of the plate (right).

AE-sensor number Position Type of sensor 1 1 2 2 3 1 3 7 1 Table III; Type of AE-sensor and position of sensor on tool according to Figure 2.
AE Sensor No: 3; ID: vrktg(1-11) 10 9 8 7 vAE [V]; p [*25 bar] 6 5 4 3 2 6 1 0 No of details [-] 4 0 0.2 0.4 t [s] 0.6 0.8 1 2 0 0.2 t [s] 0.4 4 vAE [V] 2 0 10 8 0.6 0.8 1 Defect details Correct details Estimated alarm limit Punch pressure AE Sensor No: 3; ID: vrktg(1-11); red) Alarmed detail; blue) Accepted detail

Figure 11; Titanium (Ti-1), tool SE25, signals using AE-sensor 2 in position 3. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the punch pressure. We also made some tests which resulted in a minimum of the size of the cracks or only necking, see Figure 12. These tests were made with titanium from supplier Ti-2 and lubricated with dry-lubricant (Lub-2) and the rolling direction of the sheet metal was in the major direction of forming.

Figure 12; Small cracks and/or beginnings of cracks in apex position. The results of these tests are not so obvious compared to the other results in this article. In Figure 13 it is clearly shown that only one sensor is not enough to detect all fractures. We need more than one sensor in different positions to detect the elastic waves from the fractures. In this test the sensors are also located in the line with the crack. The elastic waves that the AE-sensor detects naturally propagate perpendicular to the cracks and necking. The signal to noise ratio has to be improved with a better analysis routine and in these cases the sound from the dry friction surfaces, in contact and relative motion obscure the signals from the crack formations see Figure 14.

AE Sensor No: 1-3; ID: vrktg(12-19) 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 vAE [V] 0.2 Sensor No: 1 Sensor No: 2 Sensor No: 3 Visual insp I/0

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Figure 13; Results obtained by acoustic emission detected in comparison to the results by visual inspection. Yellow bars show details with cracks. Yellow bars half height shows details with necking. Blue, green and red curve show detects acoustic emission from AE sensor 1, 2 and 3.
AE Sensor No: 2; ID: vrktg(12-19) 10 9 8 7 vAE [V]; p [*25 bar] 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 4 vAE [V] 2 0 8 7 6 5 4 3 0 0.2 0.4 t [s] 0.6 0.8 1 No of details [-] 2 1 0 0.2 t [s] 0.4 0.6 0.8 Defect details Correct details Estimated alarm limit Punch pressure AE Sensor No: 2; ID: vrktg(12-19); red) Alarmed detail; blue) Accepted detail

Figure 14; Signals using AE-sensor 2 in position 3. Blue curves are correct parts and red curves are details with cracks. The black line is limit curve for approved part. Pink curve shows the pressing pressure. Detail number 7 is also produced with a small crack and this AE-sensor did not detect this fracture.

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The result shows that it is possible with the AE-system to detect and distinguish the plates that fractures during the forming operation in module tools SE30 and SE25. In the experiment many parameters such as material direction, lubrication and different tool difficulties have been changed to achieve different pressing results. This has resulted in different wrinkling, material inflow etc. But despite any disturbing factors the AE-system has proved a reliable detector of cracks. For a great number of plates it was also possible to detect local necking and beginnings of cracks with the AE-system. This local necking cannot or can hardly be detected by light-test or light detecting equipment. It is also possible to see that the AE signal is affected by differences in lubrication and that sounds from wrinkling occurs very early in time and because of this do not inflict with sounds from cracks. Also, big cracks occur earlier than smaller cracks

or situation with only close to crack or necking. The obtained results show that the measured acoustic emission is dependent of the quality of the used sheet metal material. The built up elastic energy in the material in the pressing operation will release and propagate in the fracture propagation process. The shape and direction of the cracks help us to place the sensors in the best position. The measured acoustic emission contains information from the pressing operation, not only fractures, but also information from the friction and wear mechanisms in the contact between the tool and sheet metal [Skre T et al., 2002]. Especially Figure 7 shows that the sheet material is moving more in the beginning of the press operation for the plates that can be pressed without cracks. The detected acoustic emission from friction surfaces is directly proportional to the relative velocity between the friction surfaces [Skre T et al., 1998]. If the size of the fractures is small the change in instantaneous relative speed is less and this also can explain the small differences between the measured acoustic emission for not cracked and cracked details in Figure 14 compared to Figure 7. The easiest way to improve the tests shown in Figure 14 is to move the AE sensors to positions 1, 4, 5 or 7 and the second best way is to improve the analysis routine.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors give our compliments to our colleagues both at the Lund University, Alfa Laval Lund AB and the Kristianstad University Collage. Without dependability and pleasant fellow worker this article had not been written. The basis of this work has been built up during several years and in shorter and longer projects and in co-operation with different partners. The knowledge has been built up step by step so we would like to thank also for earlier contribution in working time, manufacturing and use of equipment and economical support.

REFERENCES [Gabrielson et al., 1999] Gabrielson Per; Schedin Erik; Ekstrand Gunnar.; "Formability of stainless steel and Commercially pure titanium sheets in plate heat exchanger applications"; In: 6th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, pp. 1383-1388; Nuremberg 1999 [McIntire P et al., 1987] McIntire P, Miller K R. Nondestructive testing handbok. Second edition. Volume 5. Acoustic Emission Testing. American Society for Nondestructive Testing. 1987. ISBN 0-931403-02-2. [Skre T et al., 1998] Skre T, Thilderkvist P, Sthl J-E. Monitoring of friction processes by the means of acoustic emission measurements --- Deep drawing of sheet metal. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 80-81 (1998), p 263-272. [Skre T et al., 2002] Skre T, Johansson T. Improved Quality in Press Plant with Acoustc Emission (AE), 3. Workshop des VDI-Fachausschusses, "StanzereiGrowerkzeug", 28. November 2002, Dsseldorf

Numerical comparison and verification of FEA in sheet metal forming by optical measurements of large and complex parts
H.Friebe*, M.Klein*, K.Galanulis*
Mittelweg 7-8, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany Web page: www.gom.com

* GOM mbH

h.friebe@gom.com, m.klein@gom.com Abstract: As part of complex process chains, optical measuring systems have become important tools in industrial sheet metal forming processes in the last years. Together with the numerical simulation of forming they have significant potential for quality improvement and optimization of development time for products and production. These optical measuring systems deliver nearly operator independent in short time a large amount of information and contribute to the process optimization for all deep drawing materials, including high strength steels. For the validation of numerical forming simulations an interface in between optical forming analysis and numerical simulation is of particular importance, due to incompatibilities of different FEA output formats. This paper presents on bases of application examples the actual improvements of the optical measuring system ARGUS. This includes an extended measuring strategy for complex and large sheet metal parts and new tools for FEA result import and the direct comparison between experimental measurement data and numerical results. The new extended measurement strategy supports the fast and easy determination of shape and strain values for complex and large parts. High local resolution results with a reasonable amount of data for largest parts can be achieved by measuring and combining independent single areas in their real positions. The local resolution (measurement point spacing) of each measuring area can independently be chosen to minimize the measurement effort. In the case of a complete measurement of largest parts with high local resolution the measuring time is reduced significantly. A new ARGUS FEA interface supports the direct import of numerical simulation results like shape as well as displacements, strains and thickness reduction. The alignment and mapping can directly be done corresponding to the shape. Differences between simulated and measured results can be calculated and visualized e.g. on the measured 3D surface. An effective measurement of large parts and the possibility of the numerical comparison enable a significant increase of the reliability of FEA. Key words: Forming analysis, FEA verification, Optical measurement

1. INTRODUTION FE simulations and optical measuring systems have significant potential for the quality improvement and optimization of the development time for sheet metal products and production. The combination of both has developed to an important tool in industrial sheet metal forming process chains in the last years. Finite element (FE) simulations are nowadays verified by performing full field forming analysis with the ARGUS measuring system [Schneider et al, 2008]. Due to the reason that this FE simulations are also conducted for large and complex sheet metal parts, the ARGUS measurement strategy is extended to guaranty an easy and fast measurement. In order to calculate numerical comparisons between forming simulation and measurement, an interface in between is of particular importance. The new ARGUS FE interface is introduced to directly import numerical simulation results and to calculate full field numerical comparisons. 2. FORMING ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX AND LARGE PARTS WITH THE ARGUS XL STRATEGY 2.1 ARGUS standard measurement principle ARGUS is a modern measuring solution for forming analysis for metal sheet parts. Circular dots are applied to the original sheet metal with a regular spacing of typically in between 0.3 mm and 5 mm prior to the forming process, by etching, laser-marking or printing. These dots follow the deformation of the part during the forming process. The centers of these dots are the reference for determining the coordinates and for the following deformation analysis (figure 1). After forming, the shaped component is recorded with a digital camera from various views (figure 2) and 3D coordinates are derived with photogrammetric algorithms. Thus, the entire surface of the shaped sheet metal is described according to the density of the etched structure and aligned to a 3D mesh.

Figure 1 Formed sheet metal part with applied ARGUS measurement dots

Figure 2 ARGUS measurement: Specimen with coded targets and scale bars (left) and camera positions for ARGUS measurement (right) In this mesh each 2x2 point field is compared to the original geometry and the corresponding surface strain tensor is determined [Alpers et al., 1999]. As a result e.g. the major and minor strain and the thickness reduction of the sheet metal are available as surface information. The thickness reduction is directly calculated from the major and minor strain assuming volume constancy and respecting bending influences based on the curvature of the surface.

Figure 3 Strain result from ARGUS Major strain, minor strain, Forming Limit Diagram The recording principle of the ARGUS system allows flexible adaptation of the measurement to various applications [Behring et al., 2004]. A minimum of three views are required for measuring. As the individual views are recorded successively with one camera, the system can be used for simple and complex parts, as well as for small and large ones. During the photogrammetric calculations the system is calibrated automatically. Thus no other preparations of the system are necessary, except the adjustment of the lenses to the required measuring volume. For standard parts the complete setup, measurement and post processing are done in just a few minutes [Friebe et al, 2006], [Galanulis et al., 2005]. 2.1 ARGUS XL extension So far, the amount of images was not limited in ARGUS, but there was a significant increase in measurement and calculation time for a measurement of large and complex parts. If the measurement of a large and complex part is split and measured in multiple local areas, the effort is much less, than measuring the complete part within just one single measurement. The combination of multiple measurement areas to a complete dataset is a basic principle of actual digitizing systems [Thesing et al, 2008]. There the local digitized areas are automatically combined based on known reference points, that are derived from an additional photogrammetric measurement.

This method was now adapted to the ARGUS System. Due to the reason that the ARGUS system is based on a photogrammetric measurement, there is no need of an additional system to measure reference points. Only the measurement procedure and post-processing was extended.

Figure 4 Situation for ARGUS XL: top image: complete part with adapted reference points, bottom images: single local ARGUS measurement area Following steps are part of the ARGUS-XL measuring strategy: a) Definition of local measurement areas and adaption of reference points (more than 3 points for one area) (figure 4) b) Determination of reference point coordinates (full scale specimen) - Simple full size measurement without detection of etched or laser-marked ARGUS dots - Definition of valid reference points - (optional: Definition of 3D coordinate system ) c) ARGUS measurement of all local areas - Automatic identification of reference points - Automatic 3D coordinate transformation by reference points d) Automatic combination of all local measurements to one global dataset (figure 5)

Figure 5 Automatic combination of multiple ARGUS measuring areas: top left image: result from single ARGUS measurement, top right image: single measurement transformed by reference points, bottom image: complete result measured with the ARGUS XL strategy (1.3 Mio dots, grid spacing 1mm) The ARGUS XL measuring strategy allows for each local measurement area an independent dot spacing. Thus the local strain resolution can be adapted to the expected radii and strain localizations. Areas with larger radii and without the localization of strain effects can be measured with larger dot spacing, to reduce the amount of result data and the measuring effort. The independent measurement of local areas allows a high local resolution. Due to the combination of these local areas with the reference point strategy, the global shape of the complete part is measured with high accuracy.

3. FULL FIELD COMPARISON BETWEEN NUMERICAL SIMULATION AND ARGUS MEASUREMENT 3.1 General requirements The ARGUS software provides a further developed module to import results from numerical simulations. In order to compare experimental results from ARGUS to results from finite element simulations there are important issues to be considered. The ARGUS measurement results are derived from the etched circular dot pattern on the surface of the measured sheet metal part and the strain results are calculated with help of a surface strain tensor. To be able to perform a suitable comparison between numerical simulation and measurement results, it is recommended to consider simulation results from the surface (e.g outer layer results). The results from numerical simulations must be exported in a format, which is compatible to the ARGUS FE module. A numerical simulation is typically based on a 3D input geometry, e.g. a CAD model, in which the 3D coordinate system is defined. The ARGUS measurement is in its own 3Dcoordinate system, what makes an alignment of both 3D datasets indispensable. Alignment algorithms are included in the new ARGUS software module, as described in chapter 3.3. Due to the reason that the positions of the ARGUS measurement dots of the real sheet metal part and the nodes of the simulation differ, these 3D points cannot be directly compared. The ARGUS FE module includes functions to perform a re-calculation (mapping) between simulated and measured points, including 3D coordinate and results value interpolations. After importing the FE results in the ARGUS software module, 3D alignment and mapping, full field deviations between numerical simulation and measurement results are calculated for different result values. 3.2 Export format FEA From numerical simulations the results must be exported in a suitable ASCII format, containing at least the 3D coordinates and one result value, like major strain or minor strain. Unfortunately usual FE software packages have different export formats, what requires a flexible data import interface. The ARGUS FE module includes so far, in its new import interface, format conversion routines to handle result export files from ABAQUS, LS-Dyna, AUTOFORM and PAMSTAMP. Other FE software packages are supported with an open ASCII format. 3.3 Alignment of FE simulation and ARGUS measurement results To calculate a reliable numerical comparison between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement results, an accurate 3D coordinate system alignment between both 3D datasets is necessary. Manual alignment functions, like best-fit planes, circles, cylinders, cones and multiple transformation procedures, are available. For parts with a distinct 3D shape an automatic alignment is possible. In this case the 3D coordinate alignment is calculated with firstly a manual pre-registration and secondly a best-fit transformation. The manual pre-registration is performed by using at least three corresponding 3D points in FE simulation and measurement results. The pre-registration leads to a rough alignment of both 3D datasets, as shown in figure 6, left image. This is the initial condition for an automatic best-fit alignment, which is based on free-definable areas.

Figure 6 Alignment of FE simulation and ARGUS measurement results: top: no alignment, left: pre-registration, right: best-fit alignment 3.4 3D shape comparison between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement The aligned 3D datasets are firstly used to evaluate the difference in 3D shape between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement. The difference is determined by calculating the normal distance between both 3D datasets. A large deviation in shape would reveal that there are significant differences between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement. In this situation a numerical comparison of corresponding result values would not be reasonable.

Figure 7 Full field 3D shape deviation between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement

Figure 7 shows the 3D shape deviation between FE simulation and measurement of a trunk lid with a size of approximately 1.5m x 0.5m x 0,5m. The fact that the shape deviation is in the important areas in the range of a few millimetres, the numerical comparison of strain results was considered to be useful. 3.5 Mapping of ARGUS measurement to FE simulation results The point positions of the ARGUS measurement are defined from the preparation of the circular point grid. In the FE simulation the nodes are defined as a mesh, depended on the numerical requirements. Typically the positions of the ARGUS points are different from the node positions in the FE simulation. Figure 8 shows a sketch of differences in positions. To enable the numerical comparison a mapping must be performed. Thus a mapping tool is included in the ARGUS FE module. During the mapping process all 3D points from the ARGUS measurement are projected in normal direction on the 3D shape of the FE simulation results. The new mapped points are the intersection points of the projection with the FE surface. For these points result values can be calculated by an interpolation from the FE simulation result values of neighbouring nodes. The result values of the mapped points (figure 9, green points) are used for the numerical full field comparison.

Figure 8 Differences in positions between FE simulation (grid nodes) and ARGUS measurement (red points)

Figure 9 Mapping of FE simulation and ARGUS measurement

3.6 Direct comparison between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement After all necessary 3D alignment steps, the check of the shape deviations and the 3D point mapping the ARGUS FE module is calculating the difference between measurement and numerical simulation of different quantities for all measurement points, e.g. 3D displacements, major strain, minor strain, equivalent strain, thickness reduction. This will lead to full field deviation results, as shown in figure 10 for major strain and minor strain.

Figure 10 Difference between FE simulation and ARGUS measurement as a full field comparison of a trunk lid for major strain (top) and minor strain (bottom)

4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The new ARGUS measurement strategy for large and complex parts is significantly reducing the evaluation time for the forming analysis of large sheet metal parts. The mathematical algorithms are guaranteeing reproducible and high accurate measurement results (3D shape and strains) in comparison to usual manual evaluation. Together with the ARGUS FE module, including the direct comparison of numerical simulation and experimental results, there is significant potential for the quality improvement of numerical forming simulations. This comparison enables an easy verification of the quality of FE simulations. During the optimization of FE calculations the progress of single iteration steps can be evaluated. Multiple factors are influencing the FE simulation results, thus for the future the optimization of the results based on an automated iteration procedure would be beneficial. For validating the progress of the FE iteration steps it could be worth to investigate if a new equivalent value can be developed on base of the full field comparison results. REFERENCES [Alpers et al., 1999] B. Alpers, D. Bergmann, K. Galanulis, D. Winter: Advanced deformation measurement in sheet metal forming, Proceedings of the 6th ICTP (19.-24.09.1999) [Behring et al., 2004] D. Behring, K. Galanulis, H. Friebe, M. Klein: Verification of simulations and evaluation of stamping processes by forming analysis, Proceedings of IDDRG Forming the future (24./26.05.2004), Dsseldorf 2004, Germany. pp.45-54 [Friebe et al, 2006] Friebe, H., Galanulis, K., Erne, O., Mller, E. FLC Determination and Forming Analysis by Optical Measurement Systems, Proceedings of FLC Zurich 2006, 15th 16th March 2006, IVP, ETH Zurich, Switzerland [Galanulis et al., 2005] K. Galanulis: Optical measuring technologies in sheet metal processing, Proceedings of SheMet (05./08.04.2005), Advanced Materials Research Vols. 6-8 (May 2005) pp. 19-34, Trans-TechPublications [Schneider et al, 2008] M. Schneider, H. Friebe and K. Galanulis, Validation and optimization of numerical simulations by optical measurements of tools and parts, Proceedings of IDDRG 2008, 16th 18th June 2008, Olofstrm, Sweden, pp 373384, ISBN 978-91-633-2948-7 [Thesing et al, 2008] J. Thesing, D. Behring, J. Haig: Optische Messung technischer Oberflchen in der Praxis : Bestimmung von Geometrie und Topographie, (VDIBerichte: 1996), (2007), 153-165, Dsseldorf : VDI-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-18091996-6

On the Role of the Finite vs. Conventional Infinitesimal Incremental Technologies for Multi Stage Stamping Simulation
V. Apanovitch, S. Huhn and V. Petchenov Forming Technologies Inc. 3370 South Service Road Burlington, Ontario, Canada shuhn@forming.com

Abstract: A detailed review of the Product Development Process (PDP) workflow revealed the need for two complementary technologies to address optimization, lead times and accuracy compromises during the different stages of product development; a fast upfront less detailed Incremental (FIT) to optimize intermediate geometries, blank shapes and forming conditions and the classical explicit incremental for the final detailed verification of whole process. The paper reviews the traditional PDP workflow and highlights an improvement to reduce lead times and highly increase manpower efficiencies; a typical engineer spends 10-20 percent of his time doing creative work and the rest to manage overhead data to execute the creative work. The workflow model is implemented in a common computer based workflow that integrates 3 different finite element solver technologies; the coupled hybrid inverse (CHI) and two Incremental Solvers (FIT and LS-DYNA) into a common graphical user environment to reduce data redundancies and improve data handling efficiencies. Application of the workflow and technologies to different classes of processes is discussed with typical numerical results. Examples include the case of net shape forming with 4 major draws, another covers the case of location of the preform, before a central trim and a major movement of the material for a double attached part. A third case includes the optimization of the preform shape and the boundary conditions, while the final example demonstrates the use of FIT to develop intermediate geometries for the analysis using LS-DYNA. The paper compares the level of manual effort, number of iterations and accuracy that can be achieved using FIT as compared to LS-DYNA and the merits for a combined workflow in one analysis environment. The advantages and limitations of the different solvers are investigated and positioned towards the idea of accuracy on demand. The conclusion is that LS-DYNA should always be the final validation, while an order of magnitude effort and lead time reduction is achieved when the two technologies are combined. The work also identified the next bottleneck in PDP workflow: the development of general theory of intermediate geometries. Keywords: multi stage stamping analysis, Finite Increment Technology (FIT), LSDYNA.

INTRODUCTION During the Product Development Process (PDP) a plan is developed that specifies how a metal sheet is processed through different die stations to create an assembly that conforms to the fit, functional and cost requirements. This process plan is an important part of any PDP and can be seen as a critical business activity that requires interactions across Product design, Process and Tooling design, and Manufacturing. Failure to process a part properly can be disastrous, endangering the companys bottom line and future performance prospects. While most steps in the development of the process plan are covered and analysis tools are well established in the industry, the paper addresses an activity that has been largely ignored by the process simulation industry; which is specifically the die process development. This is essentially a design based activity to enable the designer to start with the final product geometry, and progressively move backwards to design the intermediate shapes up to the first form geometry. The work in this paper will describe the PDP and then introduce a Finite Element based technology to enable the design and validation of the intermediate geometries specified in the process plan. The design and validation tool is based on the Finite Increment Technology (FIT); the design aspect is based on the Indirect FIT (IFIT) as described in [Huhn et al., 2008] [Apanovitch et al., 2009], while the validation aspect is based on the Direct FIT (DFIT) as described in [Apanovitch et al., 2010]. The article will elaborate on the use of IFIT and DFIT within the scope of the Metal Stamping Design and Validation (MSDV) tools and how such technologies are used as upfront in the design and validation of the process within the CAD workflow requirements. The last section will provide a critical review of some limitations of the validation tools and how the issue of accuracy should be redefined, not only from a mechanics perspective, but also from the practical limitations of the virtual and physical tryout perspectives. The article will conclude with some thoughts as to the role of tools within the MSDV process flow, and will identify additional technologies to bridge the void within the PDP workflow. PROCESS ANALYSIS TOOLS AT DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE PDP A simplified view of the PDP from an engineering design perspective is shown in Figure 1. The process usually starts from the styling stage and eventually evolves through product design into the process design stage.

Figure 1; A simplified view of the PDP. Many PLM tools are used to support the process including CAD, CAE, ERP and costing tools. The discussion in this work is limited to the use of Metal Stamping Design and Validation (MSDV) tools. The most well known tools for MSDV are the

OneStep, implicit incremental and explicit incremental, together with tools for the development of process plans and die face geometry. 1.1. Styling, Planning & Product Design In the early stages of product development, the user has to rely on tools that support costing estimation as well as product feasibility with minimum geometrical information available. For MSDV, OneStep tools are fulfilling these needs and are used to support the first 3 activities in the PDP. The variants of OneStep are used to predict the blank shape and through nesting calculate the material requirements and the material cost of the product. The tool is also used to predict the feasibility of making the part at the styling and product design stages. An example for the use of OneStep for prediction of reflect line distortion [Konieczny et al., 1996] [Singh et al., 1997] in styling is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2; Prediction of reflect line distortion as a result of springback deformation. The blank shape and nest configuration are also used to design the product for maximum material utilization as shown in Figure 3. In this application the user can manually introduce overlaps into an already cost optimized nest layout and get in real time feedback what areas of the part would be affected by this overlap.

Figure 3; Optimizing the product geometry for material utilization using FormingSuite CostOptimizer 1.2. Die Process and Draw Development Two separate technologies are used for the draw development activities; one is quick and based on some simplified surfaces or mesh based, while the other for a detailed

draw die, is based on elaborate surfaces with C2 continuity to produce NC quality surfaces. This methodology is especially needed for outer body panels. The detailed draw development is usually associated with a CAD system, and not performed in a standalone mode as the quick application is. The objective of the quick draw development is to develop enough geometry to analyze the part using incremental validation tools and provide, when appropriate, a blank size to be used in physical tryout as well as for costing the blank. The time required to perform the detailed draw development is at least an order of magnitude larger than the effort for the quick approach. The result of the quick approach is only an intermediate step for the validation of the draw development ideas, and to act as a reference for the detailed draw development. With the quick approach there is no need for modeling the intricate tooling details, e.g. plussing /overdraw conditions, exact punch and die radii or even specification of tooling radii at open ends. 1.3. Process Validation A similar strategy is also used for the process validation: quick versus detailed. The typical detailed validation tool is an explicit incremental with a full shell formulation. This technology is very well established and validated and used universally by the automotive and supplier industries. To speed up the validation task other incremental solutions are used with various degrees of approximation of the membrane/bending interaction, the convergence criteria, the number of iterations, contact criteria, and the mesh refinements. It is common for some users to test processes very quickly using a quick validation and perform the final validation using a detailed validation. Incremental validation tools are normally run in a standalone mode, and outside the CAD environment, because of the resource and the time requirements. The speed and accuracy of the incremental solutions are moving targets. The degree of robustness and accuracy over the last decade increased dramatically with explicit, together with the speed of validation through the CPU parallelization strategies. 1.4. Improving the PDP As shown, almost all areas in the PDP are covered with analysis tools that provide the accuracy needed. However, one open issue is the development of intermediate forming stages in case of a multi stage forming operation. A complete process plan will include the number of operations, the boundary conditions to achieve the design intent as well as the geometries of the intermediate geometries. Traditionally such activities were performed within the CAD using very simplified tools to conserve the line length or at best conserve the material surface areas. Up to now there are no tools available that allow a quick feasibility estimation and a trim line development for such processes in the stages before a quick draw development. A new technology FIT is introduced to cover this gap. FIT is a design and validation tool and is based on the Finite Increment Technology (FIT). The design aspect is based on the Indirect FIT (IFIT) as described in [Huhn et al., 2008] [Apanovitch et al., 2009], while the validation aspect is based on the Direct FIT (DFIT) as described in [Apanovitch et al., 2010].

The analysis is further supported by a mathematical model to handle process planning [Karima et al 2010]. In essence this model is based on an automated feature extraction, the features are classified as related and unrelated, grouped into actions and actions are further grouped into operations. The result is a process plan that satisfies the constraints imposed to transform the sheet into the product. THE USE OF FIT TECHNOLOGY DURING THE PDP PROCESS The IFIT will enable the re-position of major chunks of material, while preserving volume between different configurations and while keeping track of incremental strains between operations. Some examples are shown in Figures 4 to 6. When such design activities are performed in CAD, there are no tools to ensure the conservation of the volume between the operations. It is not uncommon that when CAD tools are used, a heavy burden is placed on the implicit and explicit incremental solutions and typically many iterations are required to fine tune the intermediate shapes to enable a workable solution, which is by no means optimized. IFIT is designed to balance material volumes and account for incremental strains between operations, so that such activity can be performed within the time frame of CAD based environments. DFIT is also designed to work within the CAD speed and data management constraints, and accordingly the accuracy would in general not be expected to overlap with the quick validation technology. DFIT allows for the modeling of the process plan, starting from the blank size and progressing through each operation as with the quick and detailed validation tools. 1.5. Evaluation of Intermediate Forming Stages A first typical use case of the IFIT is the fast evaluation of multiple process options and an optimization of the intermediate forming stages based on the result. Figure 4 shows the final part geometry and the strip layout for progressive processing of the part which was achieved using IFIT.

Figure 4; Final part and the resulting strip layout for a progressive processing of the part after using IFIT to develop the intermediate forming stages The development of the intermediate stages starts from the final part moving step by step backwards in the opposite direction of the real manufacturing process. The first approach shown in Figure 5 shows intolerable thinning of the inner section of the

part. Reviewing the thinning plots obtained for the intermediate forming stages, this failure can be traced back to the first drawing operation.

Figure 5;IFIT results for the initial operation layout A change of the according intermediate form was introduced while keeping the process description and eventually all needs are fulfilled. The result is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6; IFIT results for the final operation layout

1.6. Trim Line Development and Evaluation of Incremental Strains During Flanging Another application of IFIT is shown in Figure 7. This part is formed in a draw, trim and flange operation. For the development of the process geometry from the final geometry, it is necessary to develop the intermediate geometry starting from a punch face and finally getting the first form. Again IFIT is ideally suited to handle such design scenarios, within the CAD environment and allows beside an evaluation of the process feasibility also an early trim line development.

Figure 7; Part geometry, process geometry and direct laid out trim line on the die face after the initial drawing operation. IFIT is also designed to handle the development of intermediate geometries for BIW parts and Seat frame components. IFIT enables the development of the shape of the part after trimming, with flanges laid out with detailed information as to the incremental strains and energies dissipated during this flanging operation.

Figure 8; Part geometry, process geometry and direct laid out trim line on the die face after the initial forming operation. Beside the shown benefits, the IFIT formulation was found to have limitations in accounting for the loss of material when the process includes some form of trimming between operations, for such applications the DFIT technology was developed.

1.7. DFIT for a Quick Process Validation DFIT allows for the modeling of the process plan, starting from the blank size and progressing through each operation as with the quick and detailed validation tools. DFIT strain increment is limited to a whole single operation and does not account for any change of strain path during one operation [Apanovitch et al 2010]. DFIT is designed to work within the CAD speed and data management constraints, therefore DFIT is not designed to handle the scope of the detailed validation, but only to work as complement and upstream of the validation tools. However, as speed and accuracy are moving targets, the accuracy of DFIT in some areas will overlap with the capabilities of the quick validation tools. One example of such an overlap is heavy gauge material that does not exhibit much change in strain path during one operation, and whose wrinkling initiation is very limited. An example for such a process is shown in Figure 8. It shows the part and process developed in the previous section.

Figure 9; DFIT results for a heavy gauge part; HRSLA 80, 1.8mm CONCLUSION A detailed review of the Product Development Process (PDP) workflow revealed the need for two complementary technologies to address the die process design. These technologies are based on the Finite Increment Technology (FIT) and are designed for a fast upfront less detailed analysis to optimize intermediate geometries, blank shapes and forming conditions. The first application, indirect FIT (IFIT) is implemented for an inverse analysis, starting from a product geometry and considering intermediate forming stages to calculate formability results as well as provide an accurate blank shape and position. The second application is the direct FIT (DFIT), which incorporates the classical incremental workflow from the blank to the part. This analysis is positioned as a fast alternative to explicit incremental solutions, which are still suggested to be used for the final detailed verification of whole process. The workflow model is implemented in a common computer based workflow that integrates 3 different finite element solver technologies including FIT and LS-DYNA into a common graphical user environment to reduce data redundancies and improve data handling efficiencies.

REFERENCES [Huhn et al., 2008] Huhn, S. ; Menke, T. ; Stuehmeyer, A. : " Simulation mehrstufiger Umformprozesse mit der Finite Increment Technology (FIT) "; MEFORM 2008 [Apanovitch et al., 2009] Apanovitch, V. ; Huhn, S. : "On a Methodology for the development of intermediate forms for stampings processed in multi-stages"; IDDRG 2009 International Conference, June 1-3 2009, Golden, Colorado, USA [Apanovitch et al., 2010] Apanovitch, V.; Huhn, S.; Peeling, D.; Medvedyev, D.; " Advantages & Limitations of Direct vs Indirect Finite Increment Technologies for Blank Size & Trim Line Development for MultiStage Stampings "; IDDRG 2009 International Conference, May 31 June 2 2010, Graz, Austria [Konieczny et al., 1996] Konieczny, A.; Kolodziejski, J.; Karima, M.; "On Formability Assessmant Tools for Car Body Styling and Body / Product Design"; In: Proceeding of the IBEC 1996 Body Assembly & Manufacturing, 1996 [Singh et al., 1997] Singh, B.; Konieczny, A.; "Changing of Stamping Process Design and Practice due to Integrated Design Approach to Car Body Quality Enhancement"; In: SAE Proceedings, 1997 [Karima et al 2010] Karima, M.; Huhn, S.; Apanovitch, V.; Peeling, D.; "Computerized Process Planning For Sheet Metal Stampings"; In: Proceedings of the International Conference New Developments in Sheet Metal Forming, May 4 6 2010, Fellbach / Stuttgart, Germany

PROFORM: PROFILE FORMING INNOVATION

M.A. Gutierrez, (PROFORM coordinator), I. Eguia (PROFORM EMF leader) Labein-Tecnalia, Automotive Unit Edificio 700, C/Geldo, Parque Tecnolgico de Bizkaia, 48160 Derio (Bizkaia), Spain marian@labein.es S.Berner, (PROFORM Roll forming leader) PtU, Technische Universitt Darmstadt (Germany) C. Hennigs (PROFORM laser leader) Materials and Processes, Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V. (Germany) A. Sedlmaier (PROFORM control leader) data M Sheet Metal Solutions GmbH (Germany) A. Agnello(PROFORM validation leader) C.R.F. Centro Ricerche Fiat S.C.p.A. (Italy) J. Bahillo (PROFORM integration leader) Ingemat (Spain)

Abstract: PROFORM is a research project that brings car manufacturers, component, tooling and equipment suppliers together with universities and research institutes for the development of a new engineering and manufacturing concept, based in a built to order system for reducing lead time and costs in producing high technology transport components for vehicle bodies (car and trucks). The breakthrough concept is based on the integration of three emerging forming technologies, flexible roll forming, laser forming and electromagnetic forming, in the frame of a simultaneous engineering and production strategy. This paper describes the prototype manufacture line developed by the project consortium and installed at LABEIN facilities in order to demonstrate the viability of the idea. Five different variants of the same component have been obtained in this line showing the flexibility of the concept. The first result in term of geometry accuracy is also evaluated in this paper. Keywords: Roll Forming, Electromagnetic Forming, Laser cutting, automotive, Manufacturing

1. INTRODUCTION Roll forming is a high productive technique that is well-established in industry for the manufacturing of large quantities of profile-shaped products. Compared with other forming processes, roll forming offers a number of technical, economical, and ecological advantages such us high output per unit of time, low tool costs combined with long tool life, permits processing high and ultra-high-strength sheet metal and high flexibility (different geometry that can be obtained with only control changes)

In automotive structures, most applications can be found in buses (space frame), trucks and vans and the first applications for passenger cars have started, focused on sills, bumpers, side impact beams and roof bows (Figure 1). Unfortunately the application rate can not increase much more due to package restrictions. Structural profile applications today are restricted mainly for straight structures.

Figure 1: Car components suitables for PROFORM concept (courtesy of DURA) To overcome this limitation and to develop a new manufacturing concept based on roll forming for vehicle body components is the objective of PROFORM project. Flexible roll forming technology allows the production of profile with variable cross section along the longitudinal direction. The target base geometry selected in the project has a variation of the width in both sides (Figure 2 right) A flexible cutting between coil and roll forming unit is necessary to feed the line with the appropriate material shape. The solution adopted in the project is based on laser system with two head connected and synchronized with the flexible roll forming line control Electromagnetic forming allow to form details that can not been obtained by flexible roll forming such us reinforcement, local flange cutting and bending, hole piercing, (Figure 2 left). Thus, the results from the PROFORM project increase the flexibility of the roll forming as well as an improvement on formability operations, integrating technologies such as the electromagnetic forming or laser forming.

Figure 2: Structural profiles for car body components A prototype line have been developed in the project as demonstration activity, it is not the objective of this paper to describe deeply each technology involved but showing the implemented solutions and the first results obtained with it

2. FLEXIBLE ROLL FORMING INTEGRATED LINE The three technologies involved in the project (flexible roll forming FRF, electromagnetic forming EMF, laser cutting LC) are integrated in an experimental platform for the production of non-constant section profiles (flexible roll forming integrated line). Beforehand, these three technologies were deeply studied one by one, taking into account their capabilities, the potential advantages of each of them and the needs for their adaptation to the integrated line. Based on the business cases developed by the project partners by each technology involved, a target geometry was selected. The dimensions and used material of the profile are realistic and will be a challenge to produce within tolerances as usual in automotive industries. The fact that this profile is not a U-shape (one bend at either side), but a top-hat channel (with 2 bends at either side) made this profile representative for the technological state of the art. Thus, Figure 3 (left) shows the final basic geometry as the outcome of all studies and it is the final agreement for production at Labein with the roll forming integrated line. The profile has a widening in the middle of the profile of 20 mm. With this basic profile, five different functional profiles in three steel grades (ZST340, DP600 and PM800) can be formed on the pilot line like local widened and/or narrowed profiles and conical profiles to show the line flexibility

Figure 3: Car component suitable for PROFORM concept

3. FLEXIBLE ROLL FORMING Flexible roll forming is a continuous forming process for the production of profiles with variable cross sections in length. Crucial for flexible roll forming is the tool system. Contrary to conventional forming stands, in flexible roll forming the forming rolls are not fixed in their position but are moved along a path which describes the desired bend line of the profile. The forming rolls positions must always be perpendicular to the formed flange to avoid additional shear strains and offset in the formed flanges (Figure 4 on the left). The perpendicularity is realized by superposition of a translational and rotational movement of the rolls. Typically these motions are controlled by computerized numerical controls (CNC).

The flexible roll forming line manufacture in the project for the prototype integrated line was manufacture by Gasparini and dataM used the flexible roll forming concept developed and patented by PtU Darmstadt [3]. The forming stand is shown in Figure 4 on the right. The stand consists of a driven tool support in which the forming rolls are mounted. With the help of two driven spindles the translation and pivoting of the stands are realized. Two conventional roll forming stands are used to feed the sheet.

Figure 4: Position of the forming rolls (left), layout of a forming stand for the flexible roll forming (right)[1] Compared to other forming processes (i.e. deep drawing, stamping ), flexible roll forming offers the possibility to change the profiles geometries only by modified programming of the control. The area where the profile changes its width (transition zone) can be split into compression and tension zones. As demonstrated in Figure 5, longitudinal strains need partly to be introduced to the profile to achieve the desired geometry, contrary to conventional roll forming where longitudinal strains are to be avoided.

Figure 5: Compression and tension zone at a flexible roll formed U-profile in the FEA Blank holders are revealed as a very important element to control the final geometry of rolled parts reducing the unintended web wraping. Its presence ensures the adequate drawing of material avoiding the appearance of zones under or over compressed. Even in the stage of design, simulation could predict the anomalous behaviour of metal sheet without blank holders. The flexible roll forming line developed in the project was obtained through the cooperation among mainly three project partners: PtU Darmstadt designed the flexible devices, Gasparini manufactured and assembled the flexible parts, designed and manufactured of the conventional stands and whole machine assembly. DataM provided the design and supply of the electrical parts and the control unit.[2].

The line consists on 9 conventional stands and 8 flexible stands and blank holders. Each stands is motorized by a 3 kw geared motors. The maximum speed line is 10 m/min

Figure 6: PROFORM prototype flexible roll forming line The concept for the computer control was developed by dataM. The control system must be able to position independently all stands of the roll forming line in a translational and rotational way. Due to the nature of the continuous roll forming process all movements of the stands must be synchronized with the movement of the blank. The control unit must also be able to integrate additional pre-, post- and inline processes and units with different types of kinematics and I/Os, synchronization requirements, etc. The basic idea of the control design was a centralized approach. All motion and PLC functionality, part programming, machine operation, maintenance and service operations should run on one system. These functionalities were traditionally distributed to different controllers and PCs, for the price of higher complexity and costs. The integration of heterogeneous systems is much more difficult, the number of parts in the system is much higher and as a matter of fact the reliability will be reduced. Also the exchange of information between different components is much more complex as individual interfaces need to be developed for all components. Thus the overall complex

4. LASER PRE-CUTTING UNIT In this work, the LC-unit is regarded which prepares the metal sheets as a pre-operation. An endless metal sheet of a coil has to be cut on both sides depending on the required profile geometry of the flexible roll forming process (Figure 7). Laser Zentrum Hannover e.V. and LMB Automation GmbH worked together for this purpose. This requires two laser cutting heads which can be moved laterally and independently. An accurate metal sheet guiding system is necessary to ensure the correct cut position laterally and to avoid warping. Thus, close tolerances of parameters used for laser cutting with regard to the optical adjustment and the distance between metal sheet and laser cutting head (< 0.5 mm) can be realised to achieve a good cut

quality without burr. Furthermore, safety aspects have to be realised, especially regarding the laser safety.

Figure 7: LC-unit in combination with decoiler and straightener The LC-unit construction is based on a direct connection to a flexible roll forming line (FRF-line). A laser source, coupled with both laser heads, provides the cutting energy. The required laser power depends on the maximum velocity, material thickness and specific profile geometry. According to the dimensioning of the prototype unit with a required velocity of 10 m/min, a minimum laser power of about 2.5 kW (1.25 kW for each optic) is necessary to cut metal sheets with a thickness of up to 1.5 mm. A fibre laser was used with a separate cooling system for the laser source (Figure 8). The processing fibres have a diameter of 100 m. For the fusion cutting process, technical nitrogen with a pressure of approximately 20 bars is required [6]. The complete roll forming system, incl. laser and peripheral equipment can be adapted to the metal sheet dimension regarding width and thickness. For higher thicknesses and velocity the laser power has to be enlarged correspondingly.

Figure 8: PROFORM Laser pre-cutting unit

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC FORMING In roll forming, additional manufacturing steps needed in the components are often made in separate, independent forming cells. Stamping operations or bending operations of the extremities of the parts are required to meet functional demands in the part, and this is usually made using conventional technologies. The advantage of a roll formed components could be enhanced if EMF is considered as a forming process that can

produce equivalent deformation level and product variants from a pre-formed roll part, at an affordable cost. It is well known that with Electromagnetic forming (EMF) large forces can be imparted to a conductive metallic workpiece by a pure electromagnetic interaction [9]. The produced electromagnetic force can produce stresses in the workpiece that are several times larger than the material flow stress. Ultimately this can cause the workpiece to deform plastically and to be accelerated at high velocities against a forming die. The EMF operation was performed using a 60KJ Magneform Energy storage control unit system where the actuator or coil is connected. A single turn coil was manufactured (ANTEC, S.A.) and reinforced using fiberglass pre-impregnates giving the coil the desired robustness. The single turn coils describes a closed loop parallel to the vertical flange, being the width of the conductor of 10 mm along the direction of the groove (Figure 9). A die manufactured using Boehlers K390, heat treated and coated using a TiAlN layer to prevent premature erosion and die wear was utilized (Genta). [7].

Figure 9: Single turn coil (left), area where energy is imparted (center) and side view of the die in position (right). The key aspect in this case is determined by the possibility to simultaneously form a feature in a moving profile, a profile that is being formed by means of forming rollers. A process lay-out like the one depicted in Figure 10 could be envisioned, where a separate forming stand comprising all necessary means to form the stiffener is installed. The profile would be formed by the action of the rollers and at the same time the driven rollers would guide the profile towards the EMF stand. Without motion interruption, the EMF operation(s) would be executed once the profile reaches the specified point where the stiffener needs to be inserted. This kind of combination strategy can constitute a real advantage over more conventional operations and can enhance the possibilities of process like the flexible roll forming.
1 2
4 3

Workpiece

Forming rollers

3 4
6 2

Coil

Coil clamp

5 6 7

Die

Holder

Linear Guides

Figure 10: Generic lay out(left) and EMF stand incorporating a coil that releases forming energy to moving workpiece (right)[8]

6. RESULTS

6.2 Integration on the demonstration line The key aspect to allow the integration of the different machine developed in the project was the roll forming control concept that was conceived for a machine integrating additional processes like laser cutting of the blanks at the beginning of the roll forming line. Other inline process units for heat assisted forming by laser or induction had to be integrated into the control as well as processes like electro-magnetic forming. For this purpose a general module was developed for the integration and synchronisation of input and output functions depending on the master axis of the electronic cam shaft module. Figure 11shows the complete line from the entry (right picture) with the laser pre-cutting system and from the exit, the electromagnetic forming device after the flexible roll forming line (left).

Figure 11: PROFORM prototype line at LABEIN-Tecnalia Facilities: EMF stand after the flexible roll forming line (left) and laser pre-cutting before it (right) 6.2 Experimental results The different variations of the selected geometry as was described in section 2 were manufactured using the above described line by PtU Darmstadt. Some examples in material ZST340 are shown Figure 12. To evaluate the part quality in terms of geometry accuracy two aspects were measured: Warping on transition zones (defined as the height deviation of the profile in a transition zone, relative to the theoretical flat surface of the top of the hat) and angles of sides

Figure 12: Geometries in ZSTE340 obtained in the flexible roll forming line

Figure 13 show the measurement of the height variation on the transition zone for some preliminary samples. Process needs some adjustments, in order to reduce the detachment to the industrial tolerances.

Figure 13: Height variation in transition zone (ZSTE340 samples) Figure 14, Figure 15 and Figure 16 show some measurement of the angles in the transition zone for two geometries and two materials. Although tests have not finished yet, it is possible to extract some conclusions after these first results.

Figure 14: Angle measurement for geometry 1 in ZStE340

Figure 15: Angle measurement for geometry 5 in ZStE340

Figure 16: Angle measurement for geometry 1 in PM800 The angle of the wide section is greater than in the narrow section. In the future programming of forming should take in mind that bending wont regular along the length of the part and it will be necessary to include a condition of over bending in some areas to achieve a final result with a constant angle along the part Situation of blank holders along the machine is a strategic question to find the best results in terms of parts geometries. So, it will be necessary to completely analyze the forming process before establish the line to find the appropriate location of blank holders. The bigger are the transition radius between the narrow and the wide section the better is the final result. Design of parts should be also adapted to the forming process in order to avoid as far as possible abrupt changes in the shapes of the pieces Concerning the EMF results Figure 17 show the longitudinal detachment from the theoretical profile measured by C.R.F. on the part obtained by LABEIN on a moving profile. The maximum distance measured is 0.86 mm advance to accepted geometrical tolerance (+/-0.5mm). The geometry accuracy can be improved with a new design of the EMF die.
0.86 mm

Figure 17: PROFORM prototype flexible roll forming line

7. CONCLUSIONS The completed PROFROM prototype line begins operation at the Labein facilities in Bizkaia, Spain, during the RollFORM 09 conference, October. Some preliminary results are shown in this paper. The group is working on line improvements that will increase the geometry accuracy and create more complex geometries, which it is

planning to finish by the end of 2010. For further information, visit www.proformip.org.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author/s would like to thank the European Commission for their financial support of the project PROFORM, (contract 026706-2), Sixth Framework Programme Priority NMP, within which the work presented here has been carried out. The authors also extend their thanks to all the PROFORM project consortium members (LabeinTecnalia, Antec, Axyal, Actarus, Cirtes, C.R.F., Daimler, DataM, Eximet, Gasparini, Gestamp, Genta, Inasmet-Tecnalia, Ingemat, LZH, LMB, MGEP, Onapres, Profilmetall, PtU-Darmstadt, Robotiker-Tecnalia, Filzek-Tribotech) for their help, collaboration, open discussions and continued support.

REFERENCES [1] Groche, P.; Beiter, P; Vogler, F.; Schmitt, W.; Berner, S.; Duschka, A.; "SelfAdjustment in Flexible Roll-Forming Lines"; In: Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Roll Forming, ROLLFORM09, pp. 25-31; Bilbao 2009; ISBN 978-84-88734-03-7 [2] Abee, A.; Berner, S.; Sedlmaier, A.; Accuracy improvement of roll formed profiles with variable cross sections, In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, ICTP 2008 Gyeongju, Korea. [3] Patent WO 2009/013017 A4 [4] Abee, A.Z; Sedlmaier, A.; On the quality improvement of roll formed profiles with variable cross sections, International Symposium on Plasticity, Frenchman's Reef and Morning Star Marriott Beach Resort, 2009. [5] Poks, B.; Dietl, T.; Sedlmaier, A.; Computer Control for Roll Forming of Profiles with Discontinuous Cross Sections In: Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Roll Forming, ROLLFORM09, pp. 57-65; Bilbao 2009; ISBN 978-8488734-03-7 [6] Hennigs, C.; Schlter, P.; Hustedt, M., Herzog, D.; Laser cutting unit for the trimming of steel strips in (flexible) roll forming lines In: Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Roll Forming, ROLLFORM09, pp. 141-146; Bilbao 2009; ISBN 978-84-88734-03-7 [7] Eguia, I.; Mangas, A., Gutierrez M.A,; Shallow Electromagnetic Forming of Longitudinal grooves in Roll formed Automotive profiles In: Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Roll Forming, ROLLFORM09, pp. 117-124; Bilbao 2009; ISBN 978-84-88734-03-7 [8] PCT/ES2009/070075 [9] Parka, Y; Kimb, H; Oh, S; Design of axial/torque joint made by electromagnetic forming, Thin-Walled Structures 43 (2005) pp 826844.

For other people this is a piece of steel.

For us the next worldwide patent.

Steel is more than just matter. For our employees it is a material that must be precisely understood. Only those who know the product, its structure and its individual properties down to the smallest detail command the skill of creating something new through small changes. And the future will be lighter and safer as a result of our efforts.

www.voestalpine.com

Where it all comes together. l

MAGNA International is one of the leading global automotive suppliers with a product and service portfolio ranging from the development and manufacture of parts, components and modules through system integration to engineering and assembly of complete vehicles for OEMs. The company employs approximately 72,000 people in 242 production and 86 engineering and R&D centers in 25 countries. Regarded as the most diversied automotive supplier in the world, MAGNA provides products in the following areas: Body & Chassis Systems / Cosma International Closure Systems / Magna Closures Vision Systems / Magna Mirrors Exterior & Interior Systems / Magna Exteriors & Interiors Seating Systems / Magna Seating Electronic Systems / Magna Electronics Powertrain Systems / Magna Powertrain Complete Vehicle Engineering & Assembly / Magna Steyr Roof Systems / Magna Steyr Hybrid & Electric Vehicles & Systems / Magna E-Car Systems

www.magna.com
METALFORMING CLOSURES VISION EXTERIORS INTERIORS SEATING ELECTRONICS POWERTRAIN COMPLETE VEHICLE ENGINEERING & ASSEMBLY ROOF SYSTEMS HYBRID & ELECTRIC

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Optical 3D Measuring Techniques

GOM (Gesellschaft fr Optische Messtechnik) develops, produces and distributes optical measuring equipment for 3D-digitizing and 3D-deformation measurement. The measuring systems are based on digital image processing and used in product development, quality control, material and component testing. All over the world automotive, aviation and consumer good manufacturers as well their suppliers use GOM systems and improve their product quality and competitive ability.

Worldwide Support Network

GOM was founded in 1990 as spin-off of the Technical University Braunschweig, Germany. The company owns subsidiaries in Switzerland, France, Great Britain and Belgium. Worldwide, more than 30 committed and competent partners install, support and market GOM products. Today, GOM offers a complete in-house solution covering hardware, software, technical support and training. The product range includes the systems: ARAMIS - Full-field 3D Deformation Analysis ARAMIS is the ideal solution for the determination of material properties, e.g. forming limit curves (FLC), yield curves, etc. These material properties are nowadays used as input parameter in finite element simulations and in the forming analysis of sheet metal parts. ARGUS - 3D Forming Analysis ARGUS measures 3D coordinates of sheet metal components and derives full-field distributions of major strain, minor strain and thickness reduction. ARGUS supports optimization processes with a fast determination of critical forming areas. In the ARGUS software a direct numerical comparison of measured 3D-geometry and strain information with numerical forming simulations (FEA) can be calculated and used to verify and optimize these FE-simulations. ATOS - 3D Digitizer ATOS is a powerful solution for 3D full-field digitizing and measurement of complex components. With a high dense point cloud, trimming and hole pattern. ATOS measures complete surface geometry in short time. The system is used mainly in quality control, reverse engineering and rapid prototyping. PONTOS - Dynamic 3D Analysis PONTOS delivers for an arbitrary amount of measurement points 3D coordinates, 3D displacements, deformations, velocities and accelerations. It is used for the operational analysis of machines, like forming presses, in crash tests and for motion analysis.

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DIE MANUFAC T UR ING

In die manufacturing, every modication loop costs money. But you dont have to afford all of them.

In sheet metal forming, things dont always go exactly as planned. The sheet metal might not ow into the die as was simulated in advance, and it might spring back differently than expected. With Tebis, you can get these kinds of surprises under control. Using springback predictions from simulations or based on prior experience, you can use the Tebis Morpher to compensate the method surfaces with the touch of a button before the rst sheet is pressed. In the subsequent try-out, the actual springback is compensated using the digitized sheet metal part or measured points. The Tebis Reverser quickly and easily transfers all manual changes previously made to the die to the CAD surfaces. That means that you get your nished part in fewer loops and fewer modication loops means automatic savings for you. To nd out more, please visit www.tebis.com
Te b i s Te c h n i s c h e I n f o r m a t i o n s s y s t e m e AG , E i n s t e i n s t r. 3 9 , D 8 215 2 M a r t i n s r i e d / P l a n e g g , Te l e f o n 0 8 9 / 81 8 0 3 - 0 , i n f o @ t e b i s . c o m , w w w. t e b i s . c o m

PRESS HARDENING WITH AP&T &T

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AP&T Box 208, Industrigatan 5, SE-514 24 Tranemo, Sweden Fax +46 325 66 18 88 Phone +46 325 66 18 00 Internet aptgroup.com

Solutions for Metal Forming Simulation

eta/DYNAFORM
Die System Simulation Solution
DYNAFORM is the complete die system simulation solution. DYNAFORM reduces the tryout time and costs that are associated with the tooling design and development cycle. Designed to be easy to use, DYNAFORM contains numerous automated functions to aid in even the most complex forming problems. Models can be either constructed or imported using DYNAFORMs powerful pre-processor. LS-DYNA, DYNAFORMs analysis engine, is an implicit and explicit solver used by the worlds top aerospace, automobile and ordnance companies. DYNAFORMs post-processor contains a myriad of tools for interpreting the LS-DYNA analysis. Now in its 10th year, DYNAFORM is a well established product with over 700 licenses worldwide. Its applications include: Tool Surface Modeling, Finite Element Mesh Generation, Draw Bead Force Prediction, Binder Wrap Analysis, Draw Die Simulation, Trimming Operations, Spring Back Simulation, Multiple Stage Tooling Simulation and more.

LS-DYNA
Nonlinear Structural Analysis
LS-DYNA allows simulating multi-stage sheet metal stamping processes with high accuracy. Subsequent to the simulation of the forming process you may simulate the trimming and the springback of the part. The simulation will allow you to perform a feasibility study of the part as well as its nal shape after the manufacturing process. In addition, the design of the tools can be optimized with respect to the number of forming operations. Using the knowledge obtained with LS-DYNA the simulation can be crucial to help reduce manufacturing costs. The solver provides specic functionality like drawbead models and metal forming contact denitions to assist in the simulations. The solution offered by LS-DYNA is an incremental one that aims to obtain an accurate solution rather than having a very fast solution as provided by typical one step solvers. Specic sheet metal stamping features are provided by the pre- and postprocessing tool LS-PREPOST that is included in the software package.

Please contact us for further information: DYNAmore GmbH Industriestr. 2 70565 Stuttgart, Germany Tel. +49 (0) 7 11 - 45 96 00 - 0 Fax +49 (0) 7 11 - 45 96 00 - 29 E-Mail: info@dynamore.de www.dynamore.de

FTI - FORMING TECHNOLOGIES INC.

Solution Provider for Simulation Based Cost and Process Optimization for Sheet Metal Forming and Progressive Dies.

Feasibility
Inverse Solver CHI

Assoziative

Regenerative

Cost Optimisation
Material Costs Die Costs FORMING TECHNOLOGIES INC.

Formability
FASTFORM Multistage LS-DYNA

Forming Technologies Inc. (FTI), a software developer for the design, simulation, validation and costing of sheet metal components. Since 1989, FTI has provided OEMs and suppliers in the automotive, aerospace and appliance industries with innovative software and training solutions designed to reduce development time and material costs. FTI have created the Formingsuite associative and regenerative environment that is modular based and includes inverse, implicit and explicit solvers. OEM Customers: BMW, Chrysler, Daimler, FORD, Honda, Hyundai, Kia, Nissan, Toyota, Volvo Trucks, . Supplier Customers: Brose, Benteler, Faurecia, Gestamp, Johnson Controls, Keiper, Lear, Magna,

USA Office
Forming Technologies (USA) Inc. 939 East 12 Mile Road Madison Heights, MI, USA 48071 Tel: (248) 542-1128

Headquarter Canada
Forming Technologies Inc. 3370 South Service Road Burlington, ON L7N 3M6, Canada Tel: 001 905 340 3370

Germany Office
Forming Technologies GmbH Zeilring 8 65817 Eppstein Germany Tel: 0049-(0)160-90910849

Asia Office
Forming Technologies Asia Limited 21/F., New World Tower 1 18 Queen's Road Central, HONG KONG Tel: 852 - 29017110

India Office

www.forming.com

Forming Technologies (India) Pvt. Ltd. S. No. 7 & 8, Flat No. 29, C Wing Serenity Co-op Hsg Society, Ramnagar Colony Bavdhan Khurd, Pune - 411 021, INDIA Tel: 011 91 20 2295 1130

Safety through hot stamping

At its Hot Stamping Center of Excellence, the Schuler Group offers a full range of machine and process know-how in the field of hot stamping. Please contact us at the: Austria Graz 2010 May 31 June 02

Lighter, stronger, safer hot stamping

Schuler SMG GmbH & Co. KG 68753 Waghusel | Germany | Louis-Schuler-Strae 1 Phone: +49 (7254) 988-220 | Fax: +49 (7254) 988-339 E-mail: lothar.graebener@schulergroup.com www.schulergroup.com

Leichter konstruieren
mit Kaltband von BILSTEIN

RP 0,2 > 1000

A80 > 10 % S 10

ITG Induktionsanlagen GmbH

ITG

SYSTEC
Unternehmensgruppe

INNOVATIVE TECHNISCHE GESAMTLSUNGEN

Our skills Development, design and manufacturing of induction-heating plants, including the peripheral equipment

Our performance Consulting during the conception of a plant Development and design of induction heating plants Manufacturing of induction heating plants Start-up and After-Sales Service Maintenance and modernization of existing plants

Applications Induction heat treatment plants in research and industry Middle- and High-Frequency- converters with powers from 10 to 3.000 kW at frequencies from 50 Hz to 350 kHz Induction pipe heating plants Induction pipe tempering plants Induction sheet-metal heating plants Induction bar steel tempering plants Induction hardening and tempering plants Induction billet-heating plants for forging applications Induction melting plants

Your problem + our solution = the shared success

Headquarter ITG-Induktionsanlagen GmbH Neckarsteinacher Strae 88 D-69434 Hirschhorn Tel: +49 6272 / 9203-0 Fax: +49 6272 / 9203-10 zentrale@itg-induktion.de www.itg-induktion.de

Germany

France

Austria

Netherlands

Russian Federation

Mexico

Switzerland

united Kingdom

Poland

Czech Republik

Brazil

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