Ecology

I. General ecosystem: all the biotic factors or organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors (temperature, light, water, nutrients) with which they interact biosphere: the global ecosystem ecological niche: what an organism feeds on; its nutritional role in an ecosystem - Gauses Principle of Competitive Exclusion: if two species share an ecological niche (share the same resources), they will compete and one will not survive II. Environment A. Biomes i. What

large regions of Earth whose distribution depends on the amount of rainfall and temperature classified by predominant vegetation ecotones: borders between different biomes 1. Marine largest; the oceans (75%) most stable; little variation in temperature provides most of the Earths food and oxygen Divided into regions based on amount of light they receive: a. Photic zone = upper water receives light b. Aphotic zone = little light penetrates c. Benthic zone = bottom since the oceans are so vast, they contribute greatly to Earths primary overall production. However, since light does not penetrate much of the oceans, they contribute very little per unit area freshwater biomes linked to soils and biotic components of the terrestrial biomes 2. Tropical rain forest near equator with abundant rainfall covers only 4% of the Earth but accounts for 20% of worlds food production most diversity of species and available niches on Earth high, dense canopy; dimly lit forest many trees covered with epiphytes, photosynthetic plants that grow on other trees rather than supporting themselves some are biodiversity hotspots, meaning that they contain many endangered species Divided into regions based on temperature (thermal energy) - warm upper layer - thermacline: area of rapid temperature change - cool lower layer vertical stratification (canopy, etc.) 3. Desert very little rainfallless than 10/yr experiences the most extreme temperature fluctuations Plants - have shallow roots to capture water during sudden short downpours -ex. cactus, sagebrush, creosote, mesquite Animals -ex. kangaroo rats, snakes, lizards, arachnids, insects, and birds 4. Temperate grasslands covers vast areas of the world in both temperate and tropical regions low rainfall makes area inhospitable for forests Animals -ex. grazing animals = as bison, wildebeest, gazelle -ex. burrowing animals = prairie dogs 5. Temperate deciduous northeast region of North America south of taiga trees drop leaves in winter soil is rich in humus, due to decomposition of thick layers of leaf litter Plants and animals - vertical stratification: some species inhabit the ground, some low branches, while others inhabit treetops -ex. squirrels, foxes, deer, and bear 6. Taiga northern Canada and much of worlds northern regions landscape is dotted with lakes, ponds, and bogs very cold winters characterized by heavy snowfall; trees are adapted by having branches directed downward to prevent heavy accumulations of snow from breaking them Animals -ex. moose, bear, elk, lynx, wolverines, and martins; flying insects and birds are prevalent in summer 7. Tundra far northern parts of North America, Europe, and Asia permafrost has a permanently frozen subsoil the frozen desert Animals - Although number of animals is high, the number of different species is small

ii. Types

-ex. many insects, also reindeer, caribou, Arctic wolves, and polar bears 8. Savannah 9. Chaparral 10. Coniferous forests 11. Temperature broadleaf forest B. Pollution i. Cycles 1. Water Cycle although Earth receives a constant supply of energy from the sun, chemicals must be recycled water evaporates from the land, forms clouds, and then rains over oceans and land water evaporates from the land, but most evaporates from plants by transpiration 2. Carbon Cycle cell respiration by animals and bacterial decomposers adds CO2 to the air burning fossil fuel adds CO2 to the air photosynthesis removes CO2 from the air and adds O2 3. Nitrogen Cycle although Earth receives a constant supply of energy from the sun, chemicals must be recycled a. Denitrifying bacteriaconvert nitrates into free atmospheric nitrogen b. Nitrifying bacteriaconvert NH4+ into nitrites and then to nitrates c. Bacterial decomposersconvert organic nitrogen back to NH4+ d. Nitrogen-fixing bacterialive in nodules in the roots of legumes and convert free nitrogen into NH4+ (ammonium ion) ii. Negative Human Impact 1. Global Warming - excessive burning of fossil fuels causes high concentrations of CO2 and water vapor in the air - these absorb much of the infrared radiation reflecting off the land (greenhouse effect), causing the average temperature of Earth to rise - An increase of 1C worldwide could cause polar caps to melt, raising the sea level. New York, L.A., and Miami could be under water in the future - According to NASA< the top 4 warmest years since the 1980s were the last few years, and global temperatures continue to rise 2. Depleting the Ozone Layer - the accumulation in the air of chlorofluorocarbons, refrigerants, and chemicals from aerosol can has formed a hole in the protective ozone later. This hole allows more UV light to reach Earth, which has caused an increase in skin cancer (melanoma) worldwide - governments of various countries have sought to control the use of chemicals that cause the depletion of the ozone layer 3. Acid Rain - caused by pollutants in the air from combustion of fossil fuels - nitrogen and sulfur pollutants in the atmosphere turn into nitric, nitrous, sulfurous, and sulfuric acids - pH of 5.6 - kills organisms in lakes and destroys ancient stone architecture 4. Eutrophication of Lakes - runoff sewage, fertilizers, and manure from pastures increase nutrients in lakes and causes excessive growth of algae and other plants - as large populations of photosynthetic organisms die, organic material accumulates at the bottom of the lake, and decomposers use up oxygen as they break down excess organic matter - with oxygen depleted, more organisms die and more decomposition occurs, further depleting oxygen; more matter accumulates on the lake bottom - ultimately, the lake fills in with organic matter and disappears 5. Habitat Destruction - massive destruction of habitats throughout the world has been brought about by agriculture, urban development, mining, forestry, and environmental pollution -ex. northern spotted owl of the Pacific Northwest was threatened with extinction due to deforestation 6. Toxins in the food chain (biological magnification) - poisons, like pesticides, entering at producer level, become amplified throughout chain - each level accumulates more and more toxins -ex. 1950s DDT and almost extinction of the bald eagle 7. Introduction of new species into habitats where there are no natural predators -ex. killer honeybee- this bee was brought from Africa to Brazil in 1956 to produce a better honey; it escaped by accident, is spreading throughout the Americas, and has caused the death of some humans -ex. zebra mussels- this mollusk is native to Asia but accidently was transplanted to the US, probably by ship; its population has exploded and is causing millions of dollars in damage by clogging pipes in various lakes and rivers. It was also caused the extinction of several indigenous species by competing against them III. Plants and Animals A. Population Growth i. Definitions population: individuals of one species living in one area -ex. all the potted owls in Oregon community: all the living organisms living in one area -ex. Atlanta, Georgia ii. Properties of Populations 1. sizetotal number of individuals in a population 2. densitynumber of individuals per unit area or volume 3. dispersion patternspacing of individuals within the area of habitation a. clumpedmost common dispersion pattern

-ex. fish travel in schools because there is safety in numbers b. uniformcertain plants secrete toxins that keep away other plants that would compete for limited resources c. randomoccurs in the absence of any special attractions or repulsions -ex. trees are spaced randomly in a forest 4. survivorship or mortality curvesshow size and composition of a population a. Mammalssuccess of the young, but high mortality in old age b. Hydra and reptilesorganisms have a mortality rate that is constant over the life span c. clams, oysters, sea starsorganisms show a high mortality among the young. These are sea-dwelling animals that fertilize externally 5. age structure diagramsshow relative numbers of individuals at each age a property of populations half the population is under 20 population is increasing rapidly -ex. a developing nation, such as India iii. Factors that limit population growth a. density-dependent increase directly with population competition for food buildup of wastes predation disease b. density-independent unrelated earthquakes, storms, floods, fires deforestation or climate change iv. Growth patterns 1. r-strategists many small young little/no parenting rapid maturation reproduce once -ex. insects, rabbits 2. K-strategists few, large young per individual intensive parenting slow maturation reproduce many times -ex. mammals v. Graph of Growth a. exponential growthunrestrained growth. No predation, parasitism, or competition; unlimited resources; population recently introduced to an area b. stable populationremains near the environments carrying capacity c. carrying capacitynumber of individuals an area can support; can increase or decrease as environmental conditions change d. death phasepopulation is crashing; predation, lack of food, buildup of toxins B. Food Chain i. Definitions food chain: pathway along which energy (in form of food) is transformed from one tropic (feeding) level to another - never more than 4-5 tropic levels because energy lost from one level to the next - relies on decomposers (bacteria and fungi) to recycle nutrients, although they are never shown in food chain - producer -> primary consumer -> secondary consumer -> tertiary consumer -ex. Terrestrial food chain= grass -> grasshopper -> frog -> hawk -ex. Marine food chain= phytoplankton -> zooplankton -> small fish -> large fish food pyramid: model for the food chain that demonstrates the loss of energy along the chain trophic efficiency: amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next - usually 5-20% ii. Toxins (biological magnification) - poisons, like pesticides, entering at producer level, become amplified throughout chain - each level accumulates more and more toxins -ex. 1950s DDT and almost extinction of the bald eagle C. Interaction between organisms: 1) Competition 2) Predation 3) Symbiosis i. Mutualism (+/+) both organisms benefit -ex. bacteria in human intestine produces vitamins ii. Commensalism (+/0) one benefits and one remains unaffected -ex. whale and barnacles iii. Parasitism (+/-) one benefits while the other is harmed -ex. tapeworm in the human intestine 4) Plant and animal defenses a. Plants plants evolved spines, thorns, camouflage, and chemical toxins, (morphine, strychnine, and nicotine), against

herbivores b. Animals active defenses such as fighting or fleeting from predators passive defenses such as cryptic coloration and camouflage A. Aposematic coloration- bright red or orange coloration warns possible predators that this animal is poisonous B. Batesian mimicry- copycat coloring by one harmless animal mimics the coloring of an animal that is poisonous C. Mllerian mimicry- two or more poisonous species mimic each other to gain an advantage or combined numbers