Jawaban no.

2:

The network layer is responsible for routing, which is moving packets (the fundamental unit of data transport on modern computer networks) across the network using the most appropriate paths. It also addresses messages and translates logical addresses (i.e., IP addresses) into physical addresses (i.e., MAC addresses).

This contrasts with the data link layer below it, which is responsible for the device-to-device delivery of packets using MAC addresses. Above the network layer is the transport layer, which is responsible for making certain that packets are delivered in sequence and without errors, loss or duplication. Jawaban no. 50
Host Extensions for IP Multicasting [RFC1112] specifies the extensions required of a host implementation of the Internet Protocol (IP) to support multicasting. The multicast addresses are in the range 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255. Address assignments are listed below. The range of addresses between 224.0.0.0 and 224.0.0.255, inclusive, is reserved for the use of routing protocols and other low-level topology discovery or maintenance protocols, such as gateway discovery and group membership reporting. Multicast routers should not forward any multicast datagram with destination addresses in this range, regardless of its TTL.

Jawaban no. 32:

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a standards-based, distance-vector, interior gateway protocol (IGP) used by routers to exchange routing information. RIP uses hop count to determine the best path between two locations. Hop count is the number of routers the packet must go through till it reaches the destination network. The maximum allowable number of hops a packet can traverse in an IP network implementing RIP is 15 hops. it has a maximum allowable hop count of 15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small networks, but it's inefficient on large networks with slow WAN links or on networks with a large number of routers installed. In a RIP network, each router broadcasts its entire RIP table to its neighboring routers every 30 seconds. When a router receives a neighbor's RIP table, it uses the information provided to update its own routing table and then sends the updated table to its neighbors.

HOP COUNT
the number of point-to-point links in a transmission path. Since each link is terminated at a network device such as a router or gateway, the processing performed within the device to determine how to forward the packet adds overhead to the transmission. Although each

point-to-point link is technically a hop, the hop count is the number of network devices between the starting node and the destination node. An IP packet traveling over the Internet can easily "hop" through more than a dozen routers.

Hops in a Network
Electrical signals may travel near the speed of light in a wire, but each junction point (router, gateway, etc.) adds processing overhead. Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/hop-count#ixzz1tatJ8JPG

4-56

Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) The Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) which was originally defined in RFC 1075 was driven from Routing Information Protocol (RIP) with the difference being that RIP forwards the unicast packets based on the information about the next-hop toward a destination, while DVMRP constructs delivery trees based on the information on the previous-hop back to the source. The earlier version of this distance-vector routing algorithm constructs delivery trees based on TRPB algorithm. Later on, DVMRP was enhanced to use RPM. Standardization of the latest version of DVMRP is being conducted by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) InterDomain Multicast Routing (IDMR) working group. DVMRP as mentioned earlier implements the RPM algorithm. The first packet of multicast messages sent from a particular source to a particular multicast group is flooded across the internetwork. Then, prune messages are used to truncate the branches which do not lead to a group member. Furthermore, a new type of messages is used to quickly "graft"back a previously pruned branch of a delivery tree in case a new host on that branch joins the multicast group. Similar to prune messages which

are forwarded hop by hop, graft messages are sent back one hop at a time until they reach a node which is on the multicast delivery tree. Similar to RPM, DVMRP still implements the flooding of packets periodically. In cases where more than one router are present in a subnetwork, the one which is closer to the source of a multicast message is elected to be in charge of forwarding multicast messages. All other routers will simply discard the multicast messages sent from that source. If there are more than one router on the subnetwork with the same distance from the source, the router with lowest IP address is elected. DVMRP support tunnel interfaces (i.e. interfaces connecting two multicast routers through one or more multicast-unaware routers). More specifically, each tunnel interface should explicitly configured with the IP address of the local router's tunnel interface and the IP address of the remote router interface. The scope of an IP multicast can be limited by using the TTL field in the IP header. The following table lists the conventional TTL values used to limit the scope of multicast packets. TTL Scope Threshold 0 Restricted to the same host 1 Restricted to the same subnetwork 15 Restricted to the same site 63 Restricted to the same region 127 Worldwide 191 Worldwide; limited bandwidth 255 Unrestricted in scope Table 1:TTL Scope Control Values Spanning Trees A better algorithm than Flooding is the Spanning Tree algorithm. This algorithm which has been already used by IEEE-802 MAC bridges is powerful and easy to implement. In this algorithm, a subset of internetwork links are selected to define a tree structure (loop-less graph) such that there is only one active path between any two routers. Since this tree spans to all nodes in the internetwork it is called spanning tree. Whenever a router receives a multicast packet, it forwards the packet on all the links which belong to the spanning tree except the one on which the packet has arrived, guaranteeing that the multicast packet reaches all the routers in the internetwork. Obviously, the only information a router needs to keep is a boolean variable per network interface indicating whether the link belongs to the spanning tree or not. We

use a small network with five nodes and six links to show different trees. For simplicity sake, we do not differentiate between hosts and routers, subnets and links. We also assume that links are symmetric and their costs are shown next to the links. The spanning tree from source node (C) is shown in Figure 4:

Figure 4:Spanning Tree [Huitema]

The datagrams shortest path tree describes the path taken by a multicast datagram as it travels through the internetwork from the source subnetwork to each of the individual group members. The shortest path tree for each (source, group) pair is built on demand when a router receives the first multicast datagram for a particular (source, group) pair.

4-44 IDRP (Interdomain Routing Protocol) is an OSI exterior (interdomain) routing protocol that is used to exchange routing information between autonomous systems (ASs) of routers. The corresponding OSI interior (intradomain) routing protocol is IS-IS, which is designed to work within an autonomous system. IDRP was considered as a routing

protocol for the Internet in the early 1990s when it was thought that OSI protocols would be used on the Internet. It has since fallen out of favor.
The difference between inter- and intra-domain routing are in the types of protocols you use. Inter-domain routing protocol examples would include BGP, OSPF, and EIGRP. These are meant for slower WAN connections and are less likely to saturate the link. Intra-domain routing protocols would be more like IGRP and RIP. They are much more chatty and it is better to use these protocols on a limited basis across much faster connections (LAN). We use the inter-domain routing protocols because they effectively replicate the routing tables on preset schedules or when certain conditions are met. IE, OSPF updates it's neighbors anytime it detects a link state change anywhere on the network. BGP lets its neighbors know anytime the LOCAL router has a link state change. They each have their appropriate implementations. Intra-site routing protocols however are constantly sending "hello packets" back and forth to assess the link state and establish their routing tables. For most intra-site routing protocols you want to try to keep the number of routers involved to under ten.