The boiling point of an element or a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the

environmental pressure surrounding the liquid.

[1][2]

A liquid in a vacuum environment has a lower boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid in a high pressure environment has a higher boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. In other words, the boiling point of a liquid varies dependent upon the surrounding environmental pressure (which tends to vary with elevation). Different liquids (at a given pressure) boil at different temperatures. The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere.
[3][4]

At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid

becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form bubbles inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point is now (as of 1982) defined by IUPAC as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar. The heat of vaporization is the amount of energy required to convert or vaporize a saturated liquid (i.e., a liquid at its boiling point) into a vapor. Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor. On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid. A saturated liquid contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a saturated vapor contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing). Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition. If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied. The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Usually, boiling points are published with respect to atmospheric pressure (101.325 kilopascals or 1 atm). At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling
[5]

point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point. If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature is known, the normal boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation thus: Saturation pressure is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased so is saturation temperature. If the temperature in a system remains constant (an isothermal system), vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased. Similarly, a liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased. The boiling point of water is 100 C (212 F) at standard pressure. On top of Mount Everest, at 8,848 m elevation, the pressure is about 260 mbar (26.39 kPa) and the boiling point of water is 69 C. (156.2 F). The boiling point decreases 1 C every 285 m of elevation. For purists, the normal boiling point of water is 99.97 degrees Celsius at a pressure of 1 atm (i.e., 101.325 kPa). Until 1982 this was also the standard boiling point of water, but the IUPAC now recommends a standard pressure of 1 bar (100 kPa). At this slightly reduced pressure, the standard boiling point of water is 99.61 degrees Celsius. The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) of the liquid. The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids.
[6]

As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest

normal boiling points. For example, at any given temperature, propane has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point(-42.1 C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of propane (the purple line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure. The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends (usually slightly) on pressure and is usually specified at standard atmospheric pressure. When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point. Because of the ability of some substances to supercool, the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance. When the "characteristic freezing point" of a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of observing the [1] disappearance rather than the formation of ice", that is, the melting point. For most

substances, melting and freezing points are approximately equal. For example, the melting point and freezing point of the element mercury is 234.32 kelvins(38.83 C or 37.89 F). However, certain substances possess differing solid-liquid transition temperatures. For example, agar melts at 85 C (185 F) and solidifies from 31 C to 40 C (89.6 F to 104 F); this process is known as hysteresis. The melting point of ice at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close
[2]

to 0 C (32 F, 273.15 K), this is also

known as the ice point. In the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is the same as the melting point, but in the absence of nucleators water can supercool to 42 C (43.6 F, 231 K) before freezing. The chemical element with the highest melting point is tungsten, at 3683 K (3410 C, 6170 F) making it excellent for use as filaments in light bulbs. The often-cited carbon does not melt at ambient pressure but sublimes at about 4000 K; a liquid phase only exists above pressures of 10 MPa and estimated 4300 4700 K. Tantalum hafnium carbide (Ta4HfC5) is a refractory compound with a very high melting point of 4488 K (4215 C, 7619 F).
[3]

At the other end of the scale, helium does not freeze at all at normal

pressure, even at temperatures very close to absolute zero; pressures over 20 times normal atmospheric pressure are necessary. The steps to naming an organic compound are: 1. Identify the parent hydrocarbon chain. This chain must follow the following rules, in order of precedence: 1. It should have maximum substituents of the suffix functional group. By suffix, it is meant that the parent functional group should have a suffix, unlike halogen substituents. If more than one functional group is present, use the one with highest precedence as shown here. 2. It should have maximum number of multiple bonds. 3. It should have maximum number of carbons (Side chains included). 4. It should have the maximum length. 5. It should have maximum number of double bonds. 2. Identify the parent functional group, if any, with the highest order of precedence. 3. Identify the side-chains. Side chains are the carbon chains that are not in the parent chain, but are branched off from it. 4. Identify the remaining functional groups, if any, and name them by the name of their ions (such as hydroxy for -OH, oxy for =O , oxyalkane for O-R, etc.). Different side-chains and functional groups will be grouped together in alphabetical order. (The prefixes di-, tri-, etc. are not taken into consideration for grouping alphabetically. For example, ethyl comes before dihydroxy or dimethyl, as the "e" in "ethyl" precedes the "h" in "dihydroxy"

and the "m" in "dimethyl" alphabetically. The "di" is not considered in either case). In the case of there being both side chains and secondary functional groups, they should be written mixed together in one group rather than in two separate groups. 5. Identify double/triple bonds. 6. Number the chain. To number the chain, first number in both directions (left to right and right to left), and then choose the numbering which follows these rules, in order of precedence: 1. Has the lowest locant (or locants) for the suffix functional group. Locants are the numbers on the carbons to which the substituent is directly attached. 2. Has the lowest locants for multiple bonds (The locant of a multiple bond is the number of the adjacent carbon with a lower number). 3. Has the lowest locants for double bonds 7. Has the lowest locants for prefixes. 8. Number the various substituents and bonds with their locants. If there is more than one of the same type of substituent/double bond, add the prefix (di-, tri-, etc.) before it. The numbers for that type of side chain will be grouped in ascending order and written before the name of the sidechain. If there are two side-chains with the same alpha carbon, the number will be written twice. Example: 2,2,3-trimethyl- . If there are both double bonds and triple bonds, write the "ene" before the "yne". In case the main functional group is a terminal functional group (A group which can only exist at the end of a chain, like formyl and carboxyl groups), there is no need to number it. 9. Arrange everything like this: Group of side chains and secondary functional groups with numbers made in step 3 + prefix of parent hydrocarbon chain (eth, meth) + double/triple bonds with numbers (or "ane") + primary functional group suffix with numbers. Wherever it says "with numbers", it is understood that between the word and the numbers, you use the prefix(di-, tri-) 1. Add punctuation: 2. Put commas between numbers (2 5 5 becomes 2,5,5) 3. Put a hyphen between a number and a letter (2 5 5 trimethylheptane becomes 2,5,5trimethylheptane) 4. Successive words are merged into one word (trimethyl heptane becomes trimethylheptane) Note: IUPAC uses one-word names throughout. This is why all parts are connected. Many laboratory techniques exist for the determination of melting points. A Kofler bench is a metal strip with a temperature gradient (range from room temperature to 300 C). Any substance can be placed on a

section of the strip revealing its thermal behaviour at the temperature at that point. Differential scanning calorimetry gives information on melting point together with its enthalpy of fusion. A basic melting point apparatus for the analysis of crystalline solids consists of a oil bath with a transparent window (most basic design: a Thiele tube) and a simple magnifier. The several grains of a solid are placed in a thin glass tube and partially immersed in the oil bath. The oil bath is heated (and stirred) and with the aid of the magnifier (and external light source) melting of the individual crystals at a certain temperature can be observed. In large/small devices, the sample is placed in a heating block, and optical detection is automated. The measurement can also be made continuously with an operating process. For instance, oil refineries measure the freeze point of diesel fuel online, meaning that the sample is taken from the process and measured automatically. This allows for more frequent measurements as the sample does not have to be manually collected and taken to a remote laboratory. With alcohols, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, or carboxylic acids to give vinyl compounds 1,4-Butynediol is produced industrially in this way from formaldehyde and acetylene. With carbon monoxide to give acrylic acid, or acrylic esters, which can be used to produce acrylic glass. in Gibbs free energy (G) of the material is zero, but the enthalpy (H) and the entropy (S) of the material are increasing (H, S > 0</math>). Melting phenomenon happens when the Gibbs free energy of the liquid becomes lower than the solid for that material. At various pressures this happens at a specific temperature. It can also be shown that: Here T, S and H are respectively the temperature at the melting point, change of entropy of melting and the change of enthalpy of melting. Unlike the boiling point, the melting point is relatively insensitive to moderate changes in pressure because the solid/liquid transition represents only a small change in volume.
[4][5]

If, as

observed in most cases, a substance is more dense in the solid than in the liquid state, the melting point will increase with increases in pressure. Otherwise the reverse behavior occurs. Notably, this is the case of water, as illustrated graphically to the right, but also of Si, Ge, Ga, Bi. With extremely large changes in pressure, substantial changes to the melting point are observed. For example, the melting point of silicon at ambient pressure (0.1 MPa) is 1415 C, but at pressures in excess of 10 GPa it decreases to 1000 C. Melting points are often used to characterize organic and inorganic compounds and to ascertain their purity. The melting point of a pure substance is always higher and has a smaller range than the melting point of an impure substance or, more generally, of mixtures. The higher the quantity of other components, the lower the melting point and the broader will be the melting point range, often referred to as the pasty range. The temperature at which melting begins for a mixture is known as the solidus while the temperature where melting is complete is called the liquidus. Eutectics are special types of mixtures that behave like single phases. They melt sharply at a constant temperature to form a liquid of the same
[6]

composition. Alternatively, on cooling a liquid with the eutectic composition will solidify as uniformly dispersed, small (fine-grained) mixed crystals with the same composition. In contrast to crystalline solids, glasses do not possess a melting point; on heating they undergo a smooth glass transition into a viscous liquid. Upon further heating, they gradually soften, which can be characterized by certain softening points. The freezing point of a solvent is depressed when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a lower freezing point than a pure solvent. This phenomenon is used in technical applications to avoid freezing, for instance by adding salt or ethylene glycol to water. In organic chemistry Carnelleys Rule, established in 1882 by Thomas Carnelley, stated that high molecular symmetry is associated with high melting point.
[7]

Carnelley based his rule on

examination of 15,000 chemical compounds. For example for three structural isomers with molecular formula C5H12 the melting point increases in the series isopentane 160 C (113 K) n-pentane 129.8 C (143 K) and neopentane 18 C (255 K). Likewise in xylenes and also dichlorobenzenes
needed] [disambiguation

the melting point increases in the order meta, ortho and then para. Pyridine has a lower symmetry

than benzene hence its lower melting point but the melting point again increases.with diazine and triazines. Many cage-like compounds like adamantane and cubane with high symmetry have very high melting points. A high melting point results from a high heat of fusion, a low entropy of fusion, or a combination of both. In highly symmetrical molecules the crystal phase is densely packed with many efficient intermolecular interactions resulting in a higher enthalpy change on melting. An attempt to predict the bulk melting point of crystalline materials was first made in 1910 by Frederick Lindemann. The idea behind the theory was the observation that the average amplitude of thermal vibrations increase with increasing temperature. Melting initiates when the amplitude of vibration becomes large enough for adjacent atoms to partly occupy the same space. The Lindemann criterion states that melting is expected when the root mean square vibration amplitude exceeds a threshold value. Assuming that all atoms in a crystal vibrate with the same frequency , the average thermal energy can be estimated using the equipartition theorem as
[9] [8]

where m is the atomic mass, is the frequency, u is the average vibration amplitude, k B is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If the threshold value of u is c a where c is the Lindemann constant and a is the atomic spacing, then the melting point is estimated as
2 2 2

Several other expressions for the estimated melting temperature can be obtained depending on the estimate of the average thermal energy. Another commonly used expression for the Lindemann criterion is
[10]

From the expression for the Debye frequency for , we have

where D is the Debye temperature and h is the Planck constant. Values of c range from 0.150.3 for most materials.
[11

The liquidus temperature, TL or Tliq, is mostly used for glasses, alloys and rocks. It specifies the maximum temperature at which crystals can co-exist with the melt in thermodynamic equilibrium. Above the liquidus temperature the material is homogeneous. Below the liquidus temperature more and more crystals begin to form in the melt if one waits a sufficiently long time, depending on the material. However, even below the liquidus temperature homogeneous glasses can be obtained through sufficiently fast cooling, i.e., through kinetic inhibition of the crystallization process. The crystal phase that crystallizes first on cooling a substance to its liquidus temperature is termed primary crystalline phase or primary phase. The composition range within which the primary phase remains constant is known as primary crystalline phase field. The liquidus temperature is important in the glass industry because crystallization can cause severe problems during the glass melting and forming processes, and it also may lead to product failure. The liquidus temperature can be contrasted to the solidus temperature. The solidus temperature quantifies the point at which a material completely solidifies (crystallizes). The liquidus and solidus temperatures do not necessarily align or overlap; if a gap exists between the liquidus and solidus temperatures, then within that gap, the material consists of solid and liquid phases simultaneously (like a "slurry"). Stoichiometry ( /stkimtri/) is a branch of chemistry that deals with the relative quantities

of reactants and products in chemical reactions. In a balanced chemical reaction, the relations among quantities of reactants and products typically form a ratio of whole numbers. For example, in a reaction

that forms ammonia (NH3), exactly one molecule of nitrogen (N2) reacts with three molecules of hydrogen (H2) to produce two molecules of NH3: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 Stoichiometry can be used to calculate quantities such as the amount of products (in mass, moles, volume, etc.) that can be produced with given reactants and percent yield (the percentage of the given reactant that is made into the product). Stoichiometry calculations can predict how elements and components diluted in a standard solution react in experimental conditions. Stoichiometry is founded on the law of conservation of mass: the mass of the reactants equals the mass of the products. Reaction stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships among substances as they participate in chemical reactions. In the example above, reaction stoichiometry describes the 1:3:2 ratio of molecules of nitrogen, hydrogen, and ammonia. Composition stoichiometry describes the quantitative (mass) relationships among elements in compounds. For example, composition stoichiometry describes the nitrogen to hydrogen (mass) relationship in the compound ammonia: i.e., one mole of nitrogen and three moles of hydrogen are in every mole of ammonia. A stoichiometric amount or stoichiometric ratio of a reagent is the amount or ratio where, assuming that the reaction proceeds to completion: 1. all reagent is consumed, 2. there is no shortfall of reagent, and 3. no residues remain. A nonstoichiometric mixture, where reactions have gone to completion, will have only the limiting reagent consumed completely. While almost all reactions have integer-ratio stoichiometry in amount of matter units (moles, number of particles), some nonstoichiometric compounds are known that cannot be represented by a ratio of welldefined natural numbers. These materials therefore violate the law of definite proportions that forms the basis of stoichiometry along with the law of multiple proportions. Gas stoichiometry deals with reactions involving gases, where the gases are at a known temperature, pressure, and volume, and can be assumed to be ideal gases. For gases, the volume ratio is ideally the same by the ideal gas law, but the mass ratio of a single reaction has to be calculated from the molecular masses of the reactants and products. In practice, due to the existence of isotopes, molar masses are used instead when calculating the mass ratio.

"Stoichiometry" is derived from the Greek words (stoicheion, meaning element]) and (metron, meaning measure.) In patristic Greek, the word Stoichiometria was used by Nicephorus to refer to the number of line counts of the canonical New Testament and some of the Apocrypha. Stoichiometry rests upon the law of conservation of mass, the law of definite proportions (i.e., the law of constant composition) and the law of multiple proportions. In general, chemical reactions combine in definite ratios of chemicals. Since chemical reactions can neither create nor destroy matter, nor transmute one element into another, the amount of each element must be the same throughout the overall reaction. For example, the amount of element X on the reactant side must equal the amount of element X on the product side. Stoichiometry is often used to balance chemical equations (reaction stoichiometry). For example, the two diatomic gases, hydrogen and oxygen, can combine to form a liquid, water, in an exothermic reaction, as described by the following equation:

Reaction stoichiometry describes the 2:1:2 ratio of hydrogen, oxygen, and water molecules in the above equation. The term stoichiometry is also often used for the molar proportions of elements in stoichiometric compounds (composition stoichiometry). For example, the stoichiometry of hydrogen and oxygen in H2O is 2:1. In stoichiometric compounds, the molar proportions are whole numbers. Stoichiometry is not only used to balance chemical equations but also used in conversions, i.e., converting from grams to moles, or from grams to millilitres. For example, to find the number of moles in 2.00 g of NaCl, one would do the following:

In the above example, when written out in fraction form, the units of grams form a multiplicative identity, which is equivalent to one (g/g=1), with the resulting amount of moles (the unit that was needed), is shown in the following equation,

Stoichiometry is also used to find the right amount of reactants to use in a chemical reaction (stoichiometric amounts). An example is shown below using the thermite reaction,

This equation shows that 1 mole of aluminium oxide and 2 moles of iron will be produced with 1 mole of iron(III) oxide and 2 moles of aluminium. So, to completely react with 85.0 g of iron(III) oxide (0.532 mol), 28.7 g (1.06 mol) of aluminium are needed.

[edit]Different stoichiometries in competing reactions Often, more than one reaction is possible given the same starting materials. The reactions may differ in their stoichiometry. For example, the methylation of benzene (C6H6), through a Friedel-Crafts reaction usingAlCl3 as catalyst, may produce singly methylated (C6H5CH3), doubly methylated (C6H4(CH3)2), or still more highly methylated products, as shown in the following example,

In this example, which reaction takes place is controlled in part by the relative concentrations of the reactants. [edit]Stoichiometric coefficient In layman's terms, the stoichiometric coefficient (or stoichiometric number in the IUPAC nomenclature ) of any given component is the number of molecules which participate in the reaction as written. For example, in the reaction CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O, the stoichiometric coefficient of CH4 would be 1 and the stoichiometric coefficient of O2 would be 2. In more technically-precise terms, the stoichiometric coefficient in a chemical reaction system of the i th component is defined as
[1]

or

where Ni is the number of molecules of i, and is the progress variable or extent of reaction (Prigogine & Defay, p. 18; Prigogine, pp. 47; Guggenheim, p. 37 & 62).

The extent of reaction can be regarded as a real (or hypothetical) product, one molecule of which is produced each time the reaction event occurs. It is the extensive quantity describing the progress of a chemical reaction equal to the number of chemical transformations, as indicated by the reaction equation on a molecular scale, divided by the Avogadro constant (it is essentially the amount of chemical transformations). The change in the extent of reaction is given by d = dnB/nB, where nB is the stoichiometric number of any reaction entity B (reactant or product) an dnB is the corresponding amount. The stoichiometric coefficient i represents the degree to which a chemical species participates in a reaction. The convention is to assign negative coefficients to reactants (which are consumed) and positive ones to products. However, any reaction may be viewed as "going" in the reverse direction, and all the coefficients then change sign (as does the free energy). Whether a reaction actually will go in the arbitrarily-selected forward direction or not depends on the amounts of the substances present at any given time, which determines the kinetics and thermodynamics, i.e., whether equilibrium lies to the right or the left. If one contemplates actual reaction mechanisms, stoichiometric coefficients will always be integers, since elementary reactions always involve whole molecules. If one uses a composite representation of an "overall" reaction, some may be rational fractions. There are often chemical species present that do not participate in a reaction; their stoichiometric coefficients are therefore zero. Any chemical species that is regenerated, such as a catalyst, also has a stoichiometric coefficient of zero. The simplest possible case is an isomerism
[2]

in which B = 1 since one molecule of B is produced each time the reaction occurs, while A = 1 since one molecule of A is necessarily consumed. In any chemical reaction, not only is the total mass conserved, but also the numbers of atoms of each kind are conserved, and this imposes corresponding constraints on possible values for the stoichiometric coefficients. There are usually multiple reactions proceeding simultaneously in any natural reaction system, including those in biology. Since any chemical component can participate in several reactions simultaneously, the stoichiometric coefficient of the ith component in the kth reaction is defined as so that the total (differential) change in the amount of the ith component is Extents of reaction provide the clearest and most explicit way of representing compositional change, although they are not yet widely used. With complex reaction systems, it is often useful to consider both the representation of a reaction system in terms of the amounts of the chemicals present { Ni } (state variables), and the representation in terms of the actual compositional degrees of freedom, as expressed by the extents of reaction { k }. The

transformation from a vector expressing the extents to a vector expressing the amounts uses a rectangular matrix whose elements are the stoichiometric coefficients [ i k ]. The maximum and minimum for any k occur whenever the first of the reactants is depleted for the forward reaction; or the first of the "products" is depleted if the reaction as viewed as being pushed in the reverse direction. This is a purely kinematic restriction on the reaction simplex, a hyperplane in composition space, or N-space, whose dimensionality equals the number of linearlyindependent chemical reactions. This is necessarily less than the number of chemical components, since each reaction manifests a relation between at least two chemicals. The accessible region of the hyperplane depends on the amounts of each chemical species actually present, a contingent fact. Different such amounts can even generate different hyperplanes, all of which share the same algebraic stoichiometry. In accord with the principles of chemical kinetics and thermodynamic equilibrium, every chemical reaction is reversible, at least to some degree, so that each equilibrium point must be an interior point of the simplex. As a consequence, extrema for the 's will not occur unless an experimental system is prepared with zero initial amounts of some products. The number of physically-independent reactions can be even greater than the number of chemical components, and depends on the various reaction mechanisms. For example, there may be two (or more) reactionpaths for the isomerism above. The reaction may occur by itself, but faster and with different intermediates, in the presence of a catalyst. The (dimensionless) "units" may be taken to be molecules or moles. Moles are most commonly used, but it is more suggestive to picture incremental chemical reactions in terms of molecules. The N's and 's are reduced to molar units by dividing by Avogadro's number. While dimensional mass units may be used, the comments about integers are then no longer applicable. [edit]Stoichiometry matrix In complex reactions, stoichiometries are often represented in a more compact form called the stoichiometry matrix. The stoichiometry matrix is denoted by the symbol, .

If a reaction network has n reactions and m participating molecular species then the stoichiometry matrix will have corresponding m rows and n columns. For example, consider the system of reactions shown below: S1 S2 5S3 + S2 4S3 + 2S2 S3 S4 S4 S5.

This systems comprises fourreactions and five different molecular species. The stoichiometry matrix for this system can be written as: where the rows correspond to S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5, respectively. Note that the process of converting a reaction scheme into a stoichiometry matrix can be a lossy transformation, for example, the stoichiometries in the second reaction simplify when included in the matrix. This means that it is not always possible to recover the original reaction scheme from a stoichiometry matrix. Often the stoichiometry matrix is combined with the rate vector, v to form a compact equation describing the rates of change of the molecular species:

[edit]Gas stoichiometry---- wrist band/transformer Gas stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship (ratio) between reactants and products in a chemical reaction with reactions that produce gases. Gas stoichiometry applies when the gases produced are assumed to be ideal, and the temperature, pressure, and volume of the gases are all known. The ideal gas law is used for these calculations. Often, but not always, the standard temperature and pressure (STP) are taken as 0C and 1 bar and used as the conditions for gas stoichiometric calculations. Gas stoichiometry calculations solve for the unknown volume or mass of a gaseous product or reactant. For example, if we wanted to calculate the volume of gaseous NO2 produced from the combustion of 100 g of NH3, by the reaction: 4NH3 (g) + 7O2 (g) 4NO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) Developing a strategy can be difficult, but here is one way of approaching a problem like this. 1. Count the number of each atom on the reactant and on the product side. 2. Determine a term to balance first. When looking at this problem, it appears that the oxygen will be the most difficult to balance so we'll try to balance the oxygen first. The simplest way to balance the oxygen terms is: Al + 3 Fe3O4---> 4 Al2O3+ Fe Be sure to notice that the subscript times the coefficient will give the number of atoms of that element. On the reactant side, we have a coefficient of three (3) multiplied by a subscript of four (4), giving 12 oxygen atoms. On the product side, we have a coefficient of four (4) multiplied by a subscript of three (3), giving 12 oxygen atoms. Now, the oxygens are balanced. 3. Choose another term to balance. We'll choose iron, Fe. Since there are nine (9) iron atoms in the term in which the oxygen is balanced we add a nine (9) coefficient in front of the Fe. We now have: Al +3 Fe3O4---> 4Al2O3+ 9Fe

4. Balance the last term. In this case, since we had eight (8) aluminum atoms on the product side we need to have eight (8) on the reactant side so we add an eight (8) in front of the Al term on the reactant side. Now, we're done, and the balanced equation is: 5. Sometimes when reactions occur between two or more substances, one reactant runs out before the other. That is called the "limiting reagent". Often, it is necessary to identify the limiting reagent in a problem. Example: A chemist only has 6.0 grams of C2H2 and an unlimited supply of oxygen and he desires to produce as much CO2 as possible. If she uses the equation below, how much oxygen should she add to the reaction? 6. 2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) ---> 4CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) 7. To solve this problem, it is necessary to determine how much oxygen should be added if all of the reactants were used up (this is the way to produce the maximum amount of CO2). First, we calculate the number of moles of C2H2 in 6.0 g of C2H2. To be able to calculate the moles we need to look at a periodic table and see that 1 mole of C weighs 12.0 g and H weighs 1.0 g. Therefore we know that 1 mole of C2H2 weighs 26 g (2 12 grams + 2 1 gram). 1 mol C2H2 6.0 g C2H2 x (24.0 + 2.0)g C2H2 8. Then, because there are five (5) molecules of oxygen to every two (2) molecules of C 2H2, we need to multiply the result by 5/2 to get the total molecules of oxygen. Then we convert to grams to find the amount of oxygen that needs to be added: 5 mol O2 0.25 mol C2H2 x 2 mol C2H2 x 1 mol O2 32.0 g O2 = 20 g O2 = 0.25 mol C2H2

The disiloxane and the TMEDA are positioned on crystallographically independent inversion centres. The disiloxane linkage is linear and the OH groups are anti. The Si-O bonds in the siloxane linkage and the silanol groups are 1.602(2) and 1.599(4) respectively. The silanol and the amine molecules are linked ... ... ... ... via OH N hydrogen bonds (O N, H N, 2.73 and 1.84 , OH N, 169 [ring]) to form a polymer chain in the crystallographic 1 bar1 0 direction. There are small distortions from optimal tetrahedral geometry at silicon, with angles ranging between 105.8(2) and 112.8(2) [ring].

MVBCQ-B3VPW-CT369-VM9TB-YFGBP SERIAL=RFFTV-J6K7W-MHBQJ-XYMMJ-Q8DCH ACTIVATION=350524-786676-355405-539101-846140-962852-347854-594240 9JBBV-7Q7P7-CTDB7-KYBKG-X8HHC Windows7 Professional Key 3YHKG-DVQ27-RYRBX-JMPVM-WG38T Windows-7 32-bit Serial Key Free MVBCQ-B3VPW-CT369-VM9TB-YFGBP

Tum bin!!! [coz true friendship never ends]

Kal honge ye raaste alag Aur ye manzilein bhi alag Saath the jo ab tak,wo dur chal pade ab Mastiyon ka ye safar honge ab khatam Yaadein bas reh jaengi aakhon mein Kaun poori kar paega kami jo saanson mein Hasi ka ye safar, sang jiye ye pal Jaise ho jaegi ek zindagi ab khatam Tum bin chalna ab padega, tanha ye safar Jaane naya saathi ab milega kis dagar Tum bin yaadon mein har pal rhegi ek aas Yaaron k bin kaise poori hogi ye pyaas Lafzon mein, bayaan na ho Ye doori, ab kam naa ho Halki si barsaton mein Inn bheege jazbaaton mein Yaadein bas reh jaengiunn beete lamho ki Anjaane yun ho gye Jaane kahaan kho gye Kaisa hai ye asar Mujhko bhi naa hai khabar Raatein na kat paengichahat ek reh jaegi Har pal wo baatein krnaek si aahein bharna Sang wo sapno ka safaryaadon ki ek hi dagar Mann mein leke ek hi khwaabjeeye the hum saath saath Sard si aahon meinansuon ki chhaon mein khushi ki baahon meindard bhari saanson mein Tum bin chalna ab padega, tanha ye safar Jaane naya saathi ab milega kis dagar Tum bin yaadon mein har pal rhegi ek aas Yaaron k bin kaise poori hogi ye pyaas Tum bin