CHAPTER 1

THE SCIENCES OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY INTRODUCTION Welcome to the wonderful world of Sociology and Anthropology. Module 1 will introduce you to the definitions, emergence of the two disciplines, scope, fields and methods of Sociology and Anthropology. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this module, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Define sociology and anthropology. Show the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology. Discuss the emergence of Sociology and Anthropology. Identify the scope, fields and methods of Sociology and Anthropology. Enumerate the important persons in Sociology and Anthropology. Appreciate the impact of Sociology and Anthropology in our lives.

PERSONAL OBJECTIVES In as much as you will be reading this in the privacy of your homes, it is very important that you set your own personal objectives. This is to fully maximize your efforts. Its just like creating a contract for yourself.

My own learning objectives are:

1. _________________________________ 2. _________________________________ 3. _________________________________ 4. _________________________________ 5. _________________________________ _________________________________

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Before you proceed reading this module, try to ask yourself this question: What is Sociology? What is Anthropology. On a blank sheet of paper, write your answers to the two questions. Do not try to look at the definitions that I will be giving you. Later on, try to compare it with the definitions which I will be giving you. What is Sociology? The literature of Sociology abounds with various definitions of the term. Literally, Sociology is a combination of a Latin word, socius meaning associate and the Greek word logos which means science. Thus, Sociology is the science or the study of associates or more broadly the science of human society. Technically, Sociology is the scientific study of human societies and social behavior. Sociologists look into the social patterns or the regularities of everyday experiences that influence individual attitudes and behaviors. Sociology does not use subjective feelings and thoughts to explain poverty in the Philippines, high incidence of crime, falling in love or prejudice or discrimination. As a science, Sociology relies on empirical data to explain social phenomena. The sociological perspective seeks to explain the foundations of human behavior by examining how such behavior is patterned as well as by discovering which factors, or social forces , might be causing these social patterns.(Hunt et. al. 1987:13) Sociologists employ sociological imagination to examine personal experiences in the context of the larger social structure. This type of thinking is what distinguishes Sociology from the other social sciences. C.Wright Mills (1959) coined the term sociological imagination which is the ability to perceive relationships between personal experience and the broader social environment. According to Mills, if we are to more fully understand people including people - we must see them as caught in social forces beyond their personal control. By sociological imagination, the individual(not simply sociologists) is able to understand the connection between his/her immediate, personal settings and the remote, impersonal social world that sorrounds and shapes him/her. A key element in the sociological imagination is the ability to view ones own society as an outsider would, rather than from the limited perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. (Schaeffer and Lamm,1992:6) Sociological imagination can help us understand why movie stars win over those other professionals in elective positions or why text messaging is very popular among teen-agers. Further, sociological imagination allows us to bridge the link between decisions of the government and our personal experiences.

What is Anthropology? Let us discuss next the discipline of Anthropology. Literally, Anthropology comes from the two Greek words: anthropos meaning man and logos meaning study or science. Combining the two terms would mean that anthropology is the study of man. This literal definition is very broad since this definition would encompass other disciplines that study man like Sociology, Psychology, Political Science, Economics, History, Biological Science and others. It is true that Anthropology differs from other disciplines because it is broader in scope both geographically and historically. Anthropology is concerned explicitly and directly with all the varieties of people throughout the world not only those close at hand or within a limited area. It is interested in people of all periods. Beginning with the earliest humans, who lived perhaps a million years ago, anthropology traces human development until the present. Every human society is of interest to anthropology. It seeks to find answers on questions that continue to confront man. Anthropologists are motivated by the belief that any suggested generalization about human beings, any possible explanation of some characteristic of human culture or biology, should be known to apply widely, we are entitled or even obliged to be skeptical about it. Before, people have the notion that everybody should drink milk in order to be healthy. That people who do not drink milk are poor or they lack the proper information. Anthropologists had known for years that in many parts of the world where milking animals are kept, people do not drink milk; rather they sour it before they drink it or make it into cheese. Why? This is because many people lack lactase which is an enzyme that breaks down lactose, the sugar in milk. These people cannot digest milk properly and drinking the milk will make them sick causing bloating, cramps, stomach gas and diarrhea. Studies have shown that milk intolerance is found in many parts of the world. This condition is common in adulthood among Orientals, southern Europeans, Arabs and Jews, West Africans, Eskimos and North and South American Indians as well as American Blacks. Because anthropologists are acquainted with human life in an enormous variety of geographical and historical settings, they are often able to correct or clarify beliefs and practices generally accepted by their contemporaries. Another distinguishing feature of the discipline is its holistic approach to the study of human beings. Anthropologists not only study all varieties of people; they also study many aspects of human experience. For example when describing a group of people he or she has studied, an anthropologist might discuss the history of the area in which the people live, their physical environment, the organization of their family life, the general features of their language, the groups settlement patterns, political and economic systems, religion and styles of art and dress. In the past, individual anthropologists tried to be holistic and cover all aspects of the subject. Today, as in many other disciplines, so much information has been accumulated that anthropologists tend to specialize in one topic or area. Thus, one anthropologist may investigate the physical characteristics of our prehistoric ancestors. Another may study the biological effect of the environment on a human population over time. Still another will concentrate on the customs of a particular group of people. Despite this specialization, however, the discipline of Anthropology retains its holistic orientation in that its many different specialties, taken together, describe many aspects of human existence, both past and present, on all levels of complexity.

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES Here I present to you the disciplines that are classified under the social sciences. DISCIPLINES Sociology DEFINITIONS The study of human social relationships; in other words, what society is like, and what happens when humans interact, as in gangs, families and other groups. The study of individuals, their behavior, and mental processes, including behavioral disorders, personality formation and perception. The study of the production and distribution of goods and services, including different kinds of systems organized to accomplish these basic tasks, such as capitalism or socialism, as well as more specific aspects of those systems, such as money, business organization and labor. The study of power and its uses, including government and voting The study of human culture and physical variations. Cultural anthropology deals with the different ways that various peoples adapt to their environments; physical anthropology focuses on racial differences among prehistoric and contemporary humans. The scientific study of the past

Psychology

Economics

Political Science Anthropology

History

Adapted from Nessmith, William C. Thinking Sociologically. Florida: Harcourt Brace and Company. 1995. THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology is considered one of the youngest of the social sciences. It emerged as a discipline in the 18th and 19th which is characterized as a period of sweeping changes. There were four major changes that spurred the development of Sociology. First is the changes in the realm of political philosophy and governments. As the kings of Europe extended their rule over larger and larger territories, they began to create bureaucracies to administer their realms. As a result, the common people began to feel more distanced from their rulers. Hence, popular support for monarchies began to weaken. Early sociologists strove to understand these major changes and their implications. Include a discussion on the French Revolution in 1879.

Second, economic transformations occurred. European economies grew very rapidly; as a result, rural residents who were no longer needed on the farm flocked to the cities, where factories were appearing very rapidly. Early sociologists helped explained this transition from a very localized farm economy to a much larger-scale factory economy. Stress the industrial revolution. Third, sociologists examined the wide diversity of human customs and values. As a result, people began to see the European way of life was not shared by everyone and was not necessarily the best way. European wanted to learn from people in other cultures. Fourth, early sociologists helped people understand how citizens were beginning to think about themselves and their world. A rational view of human beings became more predominant. In general, the major social changes of the 18th and the 19th centuries provided much of the push that led to the emergence of sociology. Before the emergence of sociology as a scientific study, several social philosophers hoped that one day a systematic study of society would emerge. One of these thinkers is Auguste Comte (1798 1857) who coined the term sociology believed that a theoretical science of society and systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society. With the unstable condition of Europe during his time, Comte believed that the study of society can be improved. He called for a scientific study of the society The next important person that contributed to the development of sociology is Emile Durkheim (1858 1917). He is best known for his study on suicide. Among the works of Durkheim was on how religion reinforces group solidarity. He was also concerned with social solidarity, the underlying social forces that bind people together. He conceptualized two basic forms of social solidarity: mechanical solidarity which is based on a strong sharing of beliefs, values and customs and organic solidarity which is based on a complex division of labor and characterizes modern societies. Durkheim stressed that the study of society takes place at a different level from the study of individuals. Regarding what holds society together, Durkheim;s perspective was highly functional. Regarding the relationship between the individual and the society, his perspective was highly structural. Durkheim was preoccupied with the idea of social integration. He emphasized the importance of religion as a primary source of social solidarity. He urged other sociologists to focus on objective facts. In his classic study on suicide in 1897, he explained European suicide rates in terms of social facts. When workers are specialized with their work, it can led to a state he called as anomie. It refers to a loss of direction that is felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has becom effective. The state of anomie occurs when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction, often during a time of profound social change. In a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the demands of the new social environment that they may resort to suicide. Max Weber (1864 1920) is another important figure that contributed to the scientific study of society. He pointed out that much of our social behavior cannot be analyzed by the kinds of objective criteria we use to measure weight or temperature. To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions how they themselves view and explain their behavior. Weber is famous for his study on bureaucracy. He was influenced by the late 19th century admiration for scientific progress.

Weber accordingly added a foundation stone to societys scientific methodology. He taught that researchers ideally should be value free and not let their personal biases creep into their interpretations. He also pionerred the use of models or ideal types as tools for making well-founded generalizations about a complex and ever-changing social reality. His models of bureaucracy and class served as abstract building blocks or self-contained modules for constructing an image of the social world. Weber also believed that the most fundamental trend in modern society was an increasing rationalization of social action and social institutions. Karl Marx (1818 1883) is another important person that contributed to the development of sociology. He was critical of existing institutions . He believed that the most significant feature of industrial societies was their capitalistic bent; the means of production were owned privately and were used to maximize profits. This system generated conflict between the capitalists (the owners of land, factories and machines) and the proletariat (the workers who actually produced the economic goods). Marx believed that the interest of the two groups were inherently contradictory. Over time the workers would develop class consciousness, a sense of their shared interests and plight. This consciousness would result eventually in the overthrow of the capitalist system and the establishment of a classless society in which wealth would be distributed equally. In the beginning, sociology had a social philosophy perspective which continued up to the 1950s. In 1896, sociology was introduced by Fr. Valentin Marin OP as a subject in the curriculum of criminology in 1896 at the University of Santo Tomas. In 1911, the University of the Philippines it was initiated by Pres. Murray Bartlett and A.E. W. Salt. In 1920, Serafin Macaraig, the first Filipino to obtain a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin, introduced the social problem perspective. In the 1950s the scientific perspective slowly made its presence felt into the field with the putting up of educational exchange programs and local scholarships and the holding of seminars and conference on social science. A number of Filipinos studied in the United States and England and imbibed the theoretical and research orientations of the West, such as the structural-functionalism and symbolic interactionism. Modern Sociology in the Philippines started only in the Philippines after World War II. In 1952, the Philippine Sociological Society was organized. This marked an important milestone in the development of Philippine sociology. It published a journal, the Philippine Sociological Review . THE EMERGENCE OF ANTHROPOLOGY The emergence of anthropology has something to do with the age of discovery and exploration from the 15th to the 18th centuries in which the European explorers came into contact with the people who were different from them and whose behaviors and beliefs they labeled as strange. The first anthropological accounts came from the records of the explorers, missionaries and colonial officials. Discoveries of flint tools and other artifacts in Western Europe in the early 19th century gave evidence of the existence of man a million years ago. These discoveries happened at a time when advances in chemistry and physics were made, arousing an interest in scientific inquiry. (Haviland,1978:24)

Modern anthropology in both its physical and cultural aspects started only around the 20th century. Among its pioneers were Lewis Morgan, sir Edward Tylor and Herbert Spencer. An evolutionary view of humanity and human behavior was the dominant theme of the early anthropologists, who were called the armchair theorists. The turn for a higher level of research through the use of careful and thorough gathering of data about individual cultures was nade by Franz Boas and alfred Kroeber, who were followed by Bronislaw Malinowski, A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, Ralph Linton and others. In the Philippines, Anthropology began as a practical activity of colonizers in the service of religion and government. The early ethnographic accounts provided by the Spanish chroniclers like Pigafetta, Loarca, Plasencia, Chirino and others are still being used for historical and comparative studies on Philippine society and culture. In the 19th century, archeological explorations were made by a Frenchman, alfred marche who did some archeological diggings in Marinduque. Jose Rizal and Trinidad Pardo de Tavera later contributed to ethnolinguistics and the study of folklore. During the American period, the American government became interested in the various ethnic groups of the country out of curiosity and for religious, humanistic and political reasons. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was established and was later replaced by the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines. Field studies were made on a number of tribal people by american anthropologists like H. Otley Beyer, Albert Jenks and Roy Franklin Barton. Anthropology became an academic discipline in the University of the Philippines by Beyer where it was patterned after the American model. After World War II, the training of anthropology was boosted by the inauguration of the Philippine Studies Program of the University of Chicago. Because of this, a number of Filipino anthropologists were trained under the program. In 1960, the Research Foundation of the Philippine Anthropology and Archaeology was put up, giving greater impetus for research. In 1978, the anthropological Association of the Philippines (UGAT Ugnayan pang agham Tao) was established. THE RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Both sociology and anthropology are interested in the study of human society. They share interest in social relationships, organization and behavior. Sociology studies society and the processes that are happening while anthropology tackles on culture. It is also important to note that society and culture are not separate. Where there is no society there is no culture. Culture is a creation of people living and interacting. Although culture is studied in anthropology, sociology also studies culture in its effort to analyze and understand society. In terms of themes, both share like the structural method which is used by Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton, two known sociologists which was first given importance by the

theories of Bronislaw Malinowski, Ralph Linton and AR Radcliffe-Brown, who are anthropologists. Both sociology and anthropology are interested in the issues and problems that continue to plague society such as the continued increase in population, poverty, environmental degradation, pollution and others. However, important differences between these two disciplines arose from the kinds of societies each traditionally studied. Initially sociology focuses on the Western society that can be said as industrial while anthropology focuses on the non-industrial society. The latter is characterized as primitive and which has come to the attention of anthropologists as a result of colonization. In terms of the methods in collecting data for their study, sociologists rely on questionnaires and other means of gathering masses of quantifiable data. Similarly statistical techniques and sampling methods have been considered to be basic to sociology whereas these methods are not common to anthropology. Traditional anthropologists studied small, non-literate population and relied heavily on the methods appropriate to the context. The method that they employ is participant observation. This technique is an ethnographic technique that is taking part in the events one is observing, describing and analyzing. With increasing interdisciplinary communication, anthropology and sociology are converging. Nowadays, anthropology is also focusing on the industrial society that traditionally has been the domain of sociology while the latter is engaging in studies in societies where anthropology once studied. As industrialization spreads, anthropologists are now studying these societies where they study diverse topics including the decline of the rural society, life in the city especially in the slum or squatter areas and the role of mass media in creating national culture patterns. THE FIELDS OF SOCIOLOGY The various areas of concern of sociology are as follows (Hauser, 1962:909-914): 1. Social Organization this involves the study of social groups, social institutions, ethnic relations, social stratification, social mobility, and the bureaucracy. It includes the sociology of the family, economy, work, agriculture, industry, religion, law, politics and education. 2. Social Psychology studies human nature and personality as the product group life. It looks into the influence of group life to the development of personality. Concepts like social attitudes and collective behavior are studied in this field. 3. Social Change studies the social and cultural changes and the attendant problems that may occur. It studies social problems such as crime, changes in the family, ethnic problems brought about by societal changes, population problems etc. 4. Human Ecology studies human behavior of a given population in relation to its environment and the emergence of the spatial relations between the people and the environment. 5. Population analyzes population number, composition, change and quality as they influence and are influenced by the social, economic and political orders.

6. Theories and Methods in Sociology this includes theory building and testing the applicability of the principles of group life as the bases for the prediction and control of mans social environment. 7. Applied Sociology this makes use of the findings of pure sociological research on the various aspects and problems in daily life. THE FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY There are two broad classifications of the subject matter in anthropology: 1. Physical Anthropology (Biological Anthropology) this traces the evolutionary development of man and studies the biological variation within the species. The biological anthropologist concentrates on the history of mans physical characteristics, the processes by which the biological changes occur, and the resultant human variation. A knowledge of human variation is important in the understanding of human adaptation, a central problem for both physical and cultural anthropology. A. Human Paleontology studies the emergence of humans and their later evolution. B. Human Variation investigates how and why contemporary human populations differ in physical and biological characteristics. 2. Cultural Anthropology this area studies the origin and history of mans societies and culture. The evolution and development of culture per se and of different societies and cultures or their distinctive lifeway are explored. A. Archeology reconstructs events of the human past since the beginning of the development of culture. It involves the study of ancient peoples and the past phases of present day civilization. Evidences of the ways by which culture grows, develops, and interacts with one another are gathered. Material objects like tools, pottery and other relics are studied with a view of explaining human behavior. B. Linguistics studies languages of the present and make inferences about those of the past. Through linguistics, anthropology is better able to understand how people perceive themselves and the world around them. C. Ethnology concentrates on the diverse cultures of the present. An analysis of the structure and functioning of humans is made and the role of the individual in society and the development of personality as related to cultural tradition are looked into. Similarities and differences between cultures are investigated and explained. PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY Sociologists view society in different ways. Some see the world as stable and ongoing entity. They are impressed with the endurance of the family, organized religion and other social institutions. Some see society as composed of groups in conflict, competing for scarce resources. To other sociologists, the most fascinating aspects of the social world are the everyday, routine interactions among the individuals that we sometimes take for granted.

These differing perspectives of society are all ways of examining the same phenomena. The three perspectives that I will be presenting are the most widely used by sociologists. 1. Functionalism for the functionalists, society is like a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. This perspective emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. Among the sociologists who can be classified under this perspective are Durkheim, Max Weber and Talcott Parsons. 2. Conflict Theory for those who believe in this perspective, they see the social world in continuous struggle among competing groups for scarce resources. Conflict can be both violent and non-violent. Karl Marx is one of the proponents of this perspective. 3. Interactionism this perspective generalizes about fundamental everyday forms of social interactions. This framework views human beings as living in a world of meaningful objects. These objects may include material things, actions, other people, relationships and even symbols. Interactionists see symbols as an especially important part of human communication. This perspective also includes other types of non-verbal communication.

REFERENCES Darnell, Regna. Readings in the History of Anthropology. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, Inc. 1974. Ember, Carol R. and Ember, Melvin. Anthropology.5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1988. Fried, Morton H. Readings in Anthropology. Vol. 1. New York: Vail-Ballou Press, Inc. 1959. Haviland, William A. Anthropology. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1978. Kottak, Conrad Phillip. Anthropology:The Exploration of Human Diversity. 5th ed. USA: McGraw-Hill, 1911. 1911. Nessmith, William C. Thinking Sociologically: An Introduction To The Discipline. Florida: Harcourt Brace and Company. 1995. Schaeffer, Richard T. and Robert P. Lamm. Sociology. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1992. Wagenaar, Theodore C. and Thomas F. Gieryn. Readings and Review for Sociology. 5th ed.