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Electromagnetic Radiation A system of conductors/material media which is connected to a power source so as to produce a time varying electromagnetic field in an external region will radiate energy. When this system is arranged so as to optimise the radiation of energy from some portion of the system while at the same time minimising/suppressing radiation from the rest of the system, that portion of the system is called an antenna. Antenna Fundamentals An antenna acts as a transducer for converting a movement of charge on a conductor into electromagnetic waves propagating in free space (transmitter function) and the reverse process (receiver function). It is assumed that the antenna is connected to a known power source by means of a transmission line/waveguide. Reception and transmission antennas have similar characteristics and therefore the two words will be used synonymously and sometimes the same antenna is often used for both purposes. The antenna is an integral part of any radio communication system and thus its design is of paramount importance to a Radio Engineer. Vector () and Scalar ( ) Potentials The electric and magnetic fields are so closely inter-related that one can never be defined without the other unlike in electrostatics and magnetostatics. This relationship is shown in Maxwells equations of electromagnetics.
E = B t

(1)

H =

D +J t

(2) (3) (4)

D = B = 0

Note: In a material media with electrical properties r and r, the constitutive electric and magnetic field equations are re-written as:

D = r o E B = r o H
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In electromagnetic waves, the magnetic and electric are related to the vector () and scalar () potentials. These are in turn also related to their sources which are: current density (J) and charge density (). Consider the distribution of charge density, (r,t) which varies with space and time. The relationship between the charge density and current density is manifested in the continuity equation.

J ( r, t ) =

( r , t ) t

(6)

We wish to relate the magnetic and electric fields to their sources, i.e. current density, J and charge density, . However, equations 1 and 2 are coupled in a complex fashion, with the result that it is difficult to relate H and E to J and directly. Taking the curl of 1 and 2 with substitutions of Maxwells equations yields:
E = H = 2 E J 2 t t 2 H + J t 2

(7) (8)

2 Using the vector identity: F = F F and equation 3 in equations 7 & 8:

2 E 2 H

2 E J = + 2 t t 2 H = J t 2

(9) (10)

The LHS of equations 9 & 10 are travelling wave equations.

In order relate the vector () and scalar () potentials to the sources J and , it is necessary to make use of supporting functions, i.e. F 0 and ( V ) 0 Therefore the vector potential, is defined as:
B = A

(11)
2

Thus from eq. 1 & 11

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E =

A t

(12)

A =0 E + t

(13)

Hence,
E+ A = t

(14)

Equations 2, 3 and 14 are used to show how and are related to their respective sources J and . Using equation 2 and 11, we obtain:
1 E A = +J t

(15)

Note: All the vectors have space and time functional relationships, i.e. (r,t).

Using 14 and 15 together with the above vector identity gives:

1 2 A ( A) 2 A = 2 + J t t

(16)

Using 3 and 14 also gives:

A 2 = t

(17)

The partial differential equations 16 and 17 are coupled since each of them contains and . Since A is already known, its also necessary to determine A in order to define completely. A vector field is completely specified only if its curl and divergence are defined. The Lorentz gauge condition (equation 18 below) defines completely and is used to decouple and .
A + =0 t

(18)

Substituting 18 in 16 gives:
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2 A A 2 = J t
2

(19)

Substituting 18 in 17 gives:
2 2 = t
2

(20)

Consider the following cases; Case 1: is independent of time, then

2 = 1 = , such that 4

Case 2: = 0, then
2 2 = 0 , such that ( r , t ) = f ( r vt ) + g ( r + vt ) t 2

where f and g are arbitrary functions. The solutions of equation 19 and 20 are given as:
rr Jr ,t v A( r , t ) = 4 rr r r r , t v 1 ( r, t ) = 4 r r

(21)

(22)

Where t = t

r r v

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Equations 21 and 22 say that sources which had the configurations J and at a t (previous time instant) produce a potential and at a point P at time t which is later than the time t by an amount that takes into account the finite velocity of propagation of waves in the medium. Because of this time delay aspect of the solutions, the potentials and are known as Retarded Potentials and the phenomenon itself is known as Retardation. These retarded potentials give rise to fields only after their sources are brought into existence. The solutions to 19 and 20 remain unchanged if we change v to v, i.e.
r r Jr ,t + v A( r , t ) = 4 r r r r r , t + v 1 ( r, t ) = 4 r r

(23)

(24)

This shows that the solutions to 19 and 20 have two parts, i.e. two waves travelling in opposite directions. The potentials in 23 and 24 are called Advanced Potentials and they give rise to fields only before the current and charge distributions are brought into existence. However, in all physical phenomena, effects should occur after their cause. Consequently Advanced Potentials are outside the scope of this work. For time harmonic variation of current and charge density, the expressions for the retarded potentials are given as:

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A( r ) = 4
1 4

J ( r ) e

j r r

r r

(25)

( r) =

( r ) e j r r r r

(26)

2 Where = = v = is wave number

Once the retarded vector and scalar potentials are obtained, then the magnetic and electric fields at a point away from the sources J and can also be obtained using equations 11 and 14.

Radiation from a Current Element Characteristics of a Current Element

It should be of negligible thickness and if its length is dl, then dl << . The current in the element should vary harmonically with time and have a constant amplitude along the length of the element.

A constant current element of infinitesimal length can not be realised practically but its however important to study its radiation characteristics as a foundation to understand how antennas work. This infinitesimal length current element is called a Hertzian dipole. The dipole we consider is a cylindrical tube of length dl and we wish to find the vector potential at a point P(r,,).

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Figure Assuming the current density on the cylindrical tube to be only in the z-direction then the resultant vector potential at P is also in the z-direction and is given by equation 25, i.e.

Az ( r ) = 4

J z ( r ) e

j r r

r r

(27)

The position vector to any point on the cylindrical tube is denoted as r. If the radius a, of the tube is very small in comparison to the wavelength , such that a<<1 and also the length of the element is infinitesimally small, then it is proper to omit r in equation 27. Thus:
Az ( r ) =

e jr 4

J z ( r ) r

(28)

The current density integrated over the cross-section of the cylindrical tube gives the total current Io which we assumed to be constant along the length of the current element. Thus

J ( r ) = I
z

dl

(29)

Hence
Az ( r ) =

( I o dl ) jr e 4r

(30)

Iodl is called the moment of current (current moment). Expressing the vector potential at P in spherical coordinates we obtain:
Ar ( r ) = Az ( r ) cos =

( I o dl ) jr e cos 4r ( I o dl ) jr e sin 4r

(31a)

A ( r ) = Az ( r ) sin =

(31b) (31c)

A ( r ) = 0
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Thus:
A( r ) =

( I o dl ) jr e cos a r sin a 4r

(32)

The scalar potential can now be easily obtained from the vector potential by considering the harmonic time variation equation of the Lorentz gauge condition, i.e.:

( r) =

1 A( r ) j

(33)

Hence,

( r) =

( I o dl ) e jr cos j
j 4

1 + 2 r r

(34)

Magnetic and Electric Fields from a Current Element The magnetic and electric fields due to the current element can now be easily obtained from the vector and scalar potentials obtained above, i.e.
H (r) = 1 A( r )

(35)

Thus:
H (r) =

( I o dl ) e jr
4

j 1 sin + 2 r r

(36)

Also
E( r ) = 1 H (r) j

(37)

Thus:
E( r ) = 1 j 1 ( I o dl ) e jr ( I o dl ) e jr 1 1 a r + cos 2 + sin 3 r r + r 2 + jr 3 a (38) 2 4 j r
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where = points.

, is the intrinsic impedance of the media between the source and observation

It is recognised that the magnetic and electric field components involve inverse terms of r, r
3

and r . Since the antennas primary function is to radiate energy to distant points, it is possible and valid most of the time to ignore the components that do not contribute to energy radiation. In this case, we can neglect the higher order terms for large distances, and thus call these fields (that are inverse functions of r) radiation fields. These are given as:
H (r) = j E( r ) =
2

( I o dl ) e jr
4r

sin a

(39)

( I o dl ) e jr j sin a 4r

(40)

The inverse r term is called the induction field and this term dominates at short distances (i.e. r<<). Essentially it is the field you find near the source (current element). At r>>, the radiation field dominates. It is possible to determine the Induction field from the Biot-Savart law. In the case of the electric field, the inverse r term represents the electric field intensity of an electric dipole. The inverse r term is called the electrostatic field term. Since we are dealing with antennas, both the induction and electrostatic field terms will be dropped. On close examination of H(r) and E(r), the inverse r and r terms are equal in magnitude when;
2 3 2

1 = v r
Therefore;
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r=

v = 2 6

(42)

Far-zone and Near-zone Fields The far zone and near zone are defined respectively by the inequalities r >> 1 and r << 1. The terms of the fields whose amplitudes vary as the inverse of r are called the far-zone fields, i.e.
H (r) = H o e j r a r E o e j r a r

(43)

E( r ) =

(44)

where
H o = Eo = j

( I o dl )
4

sin

(45)

Its observed that the ratio of the magnitude of the far-zone electric field to the magnitude of the far-zone magnetic field is equal to the intrinsic impedance, of the medium, i.e.
E( r ) H (r) =

(46)

For a lossless medium, the intrinsic impedance is real. The electric and magnetic vectors are thus both in time phase and space phase. The electric field, magnetic field and the direction of propagation form a triad of mutually perpendicular right handed system of vectors; thus in the far-zone the fields due to a current element constitute a plane transverse electromagnetic wave (TEM mode) In the near-zone, the exponential e is expanded into a power series in r and since r << 1;
-jr

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H ( r ) =

( I o dl )
4r 2

sin

(47)

Er ( r ) = E ( r ) =

( I o dl )
2r 3

cos

(48)

( I o dl )
4r 3

sin

(49)

Therefore the fields in the near-zone are equivalent to the field obtained due to a current element by application of the laws of magnetostatics.

Power Radiated by a Current Element & Radiation Resistance The power flow per unit area (power density) at the point P due to a current element will be given by Poyntings vector at that point.
P = E H W / m2

(50)

The time-averaged power density is then obtained from;

P av = 1 1 P = E H (W / m 2 ) 2 2

(51)

Since the far-zone fields of the current element are perpendicular to each other, then;
P av = 1 ( I o dl ) sin EH = 2 32 r
2

(52)

Hence,
P av =

( I o dl ) sin ar 32 r
2

(53)

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Then the total power radiated, Prad (W) by the current element is obtained by carrying out the integration of the time-averaged power density over the closed spherical shell surrounding the element, i.e.
Prad = P av ds = av r 2 sin dd a r P
s

(54)

Fig. X: Current element at the centre of the sphere Making the necessary substitutions, the total power is given as;
Prad

( I dl ) ( ( I o dl ) ) 2 = o = 12 3

(55)

Prad is observed to be a real quantity which shows that the far-zone fields of the current element give rise to transport of time-averaged power only. Io in 55 is the peak value (amplitude) of the current, which can be expressed in terms of the r.m.s (root mean square) value of the current, Ir.m.s i.e.
I o = 2 I r .m. s

(56)

Thus
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Prad =
2

2 I r2.m.s 3

dl

(57)

The coefficient of I r.m.s in 57 has the dimensions of resistance and is called the radiation resistance, Rrad of the current element (antenna), i.e.
Prad = Rrad I r2.m.s

(58)

where
Rrad 2 dl = 3
2

(59)

In free space, = 120 and so Rrad is given as:

Rrad dl = 80
2 2

(60)

Antenna Properties There are several properties/characteristics that determine the operation of all antennas in any wireless communication network. The following are some of these properties; Antenna Power Gain, g Antenna gain g, is the measure of the antennas ability to radiate the power that has been input into its terminals into the media surrounding it (i.e. free space). It is defined as a ratio of the radiated power density at a given point P, distant r from the test antenna, to the radiated power density at the same point due to an isotropic antenna, both antennas having the same input power. G=

(61)

Where and represent the radiated power densities at a distance r from the test and isotropic antennas respectively. Antenna Directive Gain, gd
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Antenna directive gain, gd is the measure of the antennas ability to concentrate the radiated power/energy in a particular direction (,). It is defined as the power density at a point P in a given direction, distant r from the test antenna, to the power density at the same point due to an isotropic antenna radiating the same total power. The maximum value of the directive gain of an antenna is commonly referred to as the antenna directivity, D. Antenna gain and directive gain seem quite similar but they slightly differ and are related to each other through equation 62, where k is the efficiency factor. Antenna gain is usually less than directive gain because of the losses that occur within the antenna. g = kg d Radiation Pattern The radiation pattern from an antenna is a three dimensional plot of the radiated power density from an antenna (at a given distance r) as the directional parameters ( and in spherical coordinates) are varied. The radiation pattern will always give an indication of the direction in which maximum power is radiated from an antenna. The radiation patterns of an antenna can either be field or power patterns and their shapes vary with the different antenna types. The figure below shows the power pattern for the hertzian dipole antenna (current element). (62)

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Fig. Y: a) Generic Dipole Elevation Pattern b) Generic Dipole Azimuth Pattern c) 3-D Radiation Pattern. Polarisation This is the orientation of the far-zone electric field vector within the radiated electromagnetic wave from an antenna. It describes the locus of the tip of the electric field vector. If this locus is a straight line constantly parallel to a constant direction then the polarisation is linear. Circular or elliptical polarisations are obtained when the loci are either circular or elliptical respectively. Depending on the antenna design, different antenna polarisations can be achieved with each having its merits and demerits. However, its important to note that in any wireless system design the transmitting and receiving antennas should always have the same polarisation. Antenna Bandwidth, BW This is the range of frequencies (centred about the resonant/design frequency, fC) that can be used by antennas to radiate electromagnetic waves. At resonant frequencies, the antenna has zero input reactance and will radiate/deliver maximum power due to the fact that matching has been achieved at this frequency. Depending on the application, some antennas are designed with narrow bandwidth (i.e. narrowband antennas) while others may have wider bandwidth (i.e. broadband antennas). The percentage bandwidth of an antenna can be obtained using
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equation 2 from the plot of the reflection coefficient S11, against frequency shown in figure Z below f fL 100 % BW = H f C (63)

Where fH and fL are determined by S11th -5db (VSWR = 2) which accounts for approximately 88.9% of the power being radiated (transmitted/received) by the antenna. Effective Area, Aeff
S11 This is the (dB) of 0 antenna onto which the power density of a radiated electromagnetic area an

wave is incident. Equation 3 gives the relationship between the effective area of an antenna Aeff,
S11th and the antennas gain G, [8].

Aeff =

2 g 4

(3)

where is the operating center wavelength of the antenna.

fL The product of this area with the power density , gives the power received Pr, by an antenna Freq (Hz) fC fH

from a passing wave. The effective area therefore measures the antennas ability to extract electromagnetic energy from an incident/radiated electromagnetic wave. Fig. Z: S11 vs Freq characteristic of patch antenna

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