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=
, rad/s
and also f 2 = , rad/s
Then, equation 1.9 can be witten as
e = E
p
sin t (1.10)
8
At the end, alternating voltage and current can be formed as
e (t) = E
p
sin t (V)
i (t) = I
p
sin t (A)
1.4 Average and R.M.S. values for sinusoidal voltage and current
Average Value
The average values for the sinusoidal voltage and current are zero since they are symmetrical as the
area above the horizontal axis is equal to the area below the axis. But for the half cycle of sine wave
we can get the average value by defining the area under the curve and divide by the length of base.
Average value =
base of length
curve under area
_ _
_ _
Area = |
p p p
I I d I 2 cos sin
0
0
= =
}
0
Ip
t
0
Ip
t 2t
Iave
( )
p
p
ave
I
I
I 637 . 0
2
2 2
= =
t R I
m
2 cos 1
2
1
2
= t
R I R I
m m
2 cos
2 2
2 2
(1.14)
To get the average value of P(t), the term cos 2 t will be zero, thus equation 1.14 becomes
P
ave
=
2
2
R I
m
(1.15)
Then equate equation 1.13 and 1.15 and R can be cancelled
2
2
2 m
I
I =
m
m
I
I
I 707 . 0
2
2
= = (1.16)
Now , the effective or rms value is defined as
m
m
I
I
I 707 . 0
2
= = (1.17)
Similarly, the effective value for voltage is
m
m
V
V
V 707 . 0
2
= = (1.18)
I
m
2
R
E R
i P
t
P
ve
=
2
2
R I
m
Figure 1.4(c)
P(t)
11
1.5 Introduction to phasor
A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle information of a sinusoidal
function. The reason of using this concept is to reduce any complex calculation in ac measurement
since there will be inductive and/or capacitive elements involving in the circuit.
Since the rotation of coil will create an angular movement that yields the sinusoidal waveform, basic
illustrative explanation can be observed as in Figure 1.5(a-e).
i. ii.
Figure 1.5(a)
Figure 1.5(b)
12
Figure 1.5(c)
Figure 1.5(d)
Figure 1.5(e)
13
1.6 Representation of an alternating quantity by a phasor
It is important to note that when alternating voltages and currents are represented by phasor as the
generated waveforms are assumed sinusoid. The phasor transformation can be done as follows:
e (t) = E
p
sin et e = E
p
Z 0 (V)
i (t) = I
p
sin et I = I
p
Z 0 (A)
Lets consider Figure 1.6(a ) and 1.6(b).
Phase different
Phase different is defined as an angular displacement between different waveforms of the same
frequency. There are three terms that will be involved to define any redundancy of two waveforms of
the same frequency. There are in phase , lead(s) and lag(s). Lets consider the illustration below:
Figure 1.6(a )
i = I
m
sin(et + u ) = I
m
Z u
i = I
m
sin(et - u ) = I
m
Z -u
Figure 1.6(b)
14
However, the term Out of phase can be defined when we find the situation as in Figure 1.6(f). Both of
the waveforms are out of phase each other at an angle of 180
In phase:
V and I are in phase since the angular displacement is
zero.
Figure 1.6 (c )
Lead:
V is leading i for certain amount of angular displacement, u.
Or
Lag:
i is lagging V for certain amount of angular displacement, u.
Figure 1.6(d)
Lead:
i is leading V for certain amount of angular displacement, u.
Or
Lag:
V is lagging i for certain amount of angular displacement, u.
Figure 1.6(e)
V
i
Figure 1.6(f)
15
Phasor representation of quantities differing in phase
Many waveforms can be represented in a phasor diagram either they are in phase or not. s As for
example let us consider how two waveforms can be represented in a phasor diagram as in Figure
1.6(g) below:
Analysis from Figure 1.6(g):
OA and OB represents the maximum value of current and voltage. The angle | between OA and OB
must be same as in (ii). At point 0 in (ii), OA lies along the horizontal axis, the value of current is
zero but not for the voltage where OB can be projected to the vertical axis.
After the phasors OA and OB have rotated through an angle u, they become OA
1
and OB
1
at new
position . If the instantaneous value of the current is represented by
I = I
m
sin u
Then the instantaneous value of the voltage is represented by
V = Vm sin (u + C )
Where I
m
= OA and V
m
= OB
Example 1.6(a)
Voltage and current are out of phase by 40 , and voltage lags. Using current as the reference, sketch
the phasor diagram and the corresponding waveform.
Figure 1.6(g)
i ii
16
Solution:
Since current is the reference, place its phasor in the 0 position and the voltage phasor at -40.
Figure 1.6(h) shows the phasors and corresponding waveforms.
Example 1.6(b)
Given v= 20 sin (et + 30) and I=18 sin (et - 40), draw the phasor diagram, determine phase
relationships, and sketch the waveforms.
Solution: The phasors are shown in Figure 1.6(i:a) and we can see that v leads I by 70 and it can be
projected to as in (b).
i(t) = Im sin et
v(t) = Vm sin(et - 40)
Im
Vm
j e
40
40
v(t) = Vm sin(et - 40)
Im
Vm
j e
40
40
17
1.7 Addition and subtraction of sinusoidal alternating quantities
Let there are two ac voltages having the same frequency but differing in phase by an angle C are
transformed into the phasor diagram as in Figure 1.7( a).
Example 1.7(a)
The instantaneous values of two alternating voltages are represented respectively by v1=60 sin u (V)
and V2= 40 sin (u - t/3) (V). Derive an expression for the instantaneous value of :
Figure 1.7 (a ) : Addition of
phasors
Figure 1.7(b) : Substraction
of phasors
OA = V1 sin u (V)
OB = V2 sin (u + |) (V)
OC = Phasor summation
of OA and OB
OA = V1 sin u (V)
OB
1
= V2 sin (u + | - 180) (V)
OD = Phasor differences of OA
and OB
1
18
(a) the sum;
(b) the difference of these voltage
Solution:
(a) First of all we need to draw the addition of phasors as in Figure 1.7(c).
by assuming the corresponding u= 0, i.e OA is drawn to scale along the x-axis to represent 60V and
OB is drawn t/3 radians or 60behind OA to represent 40V. The diagonal OC drawn on OC and OB
represents the phasor sum of OA and OB.
Horizontal component:
For OA = 60 V
OB, OD = 40 cos 60 = 20 V
Resultant horizontal value = OA + OB = 60 + 20 = 80
Vertical component:
For OA, = 0 V
OB, BD = -40 sin 60 = -34.64V
Resultant vertical value = OA + OB = -34.64
Note: The sign value indicates that the resultant vertical component below the horizontal axis
and that the resultant voltage must be lag relative to the reference phasor OA.
Then OC = \ (80)
2
+ (-36.64)
2
= 87.2 V
C = tan
-1
( EC / OE ) = 23.5
The instantaneous value of resultant voltage is
v = 87 sin (u - 23.5) (V)
(b) Again First of all we need to draw the subtractions of phasors. Since we are going to get the
phase difference and assuming OA as reference phasor, the phasor OB is reflected to 180
becomes OB
1
to show the V
Oc
= V
Oc
-
V
OB1
Figure 1.7(c)
19
\
Horizontal component:
For OA = 60 V
OB1, OE = - 40 cos 60 = -20 V
Resultant horizontal value = OA + OB = 60 + (-20) = 40
Vertical component:
For OA = 0 V
OB1, BD = 40 sin 60 = 34.64V
Resultant vertical value = OA + OB = 34.64
Then OC = \ (40)
2
+ (36.64)
2
= 52.9 V
C = tan
-1
( DC / OD ) = 40.9
The instantaneous value of resultant voltage is
v = 52.9 sin (u + 40.9) (V)