Ann. Rev. Fluid M echo 1979.

11 : 35-66
Copyright 1979 by Annual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved
L^N^L ^YLb
D. Dowson and C. M. Taylor
Institute of Tribology, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, England
INTRODUCTION
x8134
Cavitation is the disruption of what would otherwise be a continuous
liquid phase by the presence of a gas or vapour or both. The phenomenon
has been examined by scientists and engineers for a century or more, and
although this review concentrates on cavitation in bearings, there have
been many studies outside the feld of lubrication. Most of these have
been concerned with aqueous systems, and the erosive damage to
surfaces bounding a cavitating fow has received much attention. Com
ponents that have proved susceptible to cavitation erosion damage
include pump impellers, valves, marine propelle
r
s, pipes, and cylinder
liners. Another nontribological problem that has attracted attention in
recent times is the oscillation of a hydrofoil, which may be induced by
cavitation.
In his classical paper identifying the mechanism of hydrodynamic
pressure generation in lubricating flms, Reynolds ( 1886) clearly recog
nized the possible infuence of cavitation on bearing behavior. The
formation of cavities and their disposition afects the pressure generated
in a continuous thin flm and hence the integrated quantities such as the
load capacity of bearings. Work by tribologists in this century has
resulted in the development of cavitation models that make it possible
to predict the performance of liquid-flm bearings with acceptable
engineering accuracy for the majority of applications. However, it is true
to say that the physical understanding of cavitation in bearings is still not
satisfactory.
Two basic forms of cavitation in lubricating flms are recognized:
gaseous and vaporous.
Gaseous Cavitation
The most common way in which gas (air) cavities arise in a lubricant is
due to ventilation from the surrounding atmosphere whenever subambient
35
0066-4189/79/0115-0035$01.00
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Quick links to online content
Further
ANNUAL
REVIEWS
36 DOWSON & TAYLR
pressures occur. However, the emission of dissolved gases from solution
when the liquid pressure falls below the saturation pressure is another
apparent mechanism by which gas cavities may be formed. Typically,
mineral oils contain dissolved air with a saturation pressure near to
atmospheric. While in many regards ventilation and gas release result in
similar behavior in lubricant flms, and indeed no distinction is usually
made in analytical work, in practice the appearance of gas streamers
occurring because of such phenomena can be diferent, particularly for
transient situations.
The growth of air bubbles trapped in oleophobic surface crevices is
another way in which gas cavities can form in bearings, although little
attention has been given to this possibility.
lapoos cactatoo
If the pressure in a lubricant falls to its vapor pressure, the lubricant may
boil at ambient temperature. Vapor-flled cavities will be formed and
these may later collapse, causing cavitation erosion. The occurrence of
vaporous cavitation in bearings is normally restricted to situations in
which the loading is dynamic, for example in the main bearings of diesel
engmes.
The phenomenon of cavitation in bearings is discussed through a
consideration of the following main areas: the physical nature of cavita
tion in bearings; boundary conditions on cavitation regions; the forma-
. tion of inlet flms in nonconformal contacts; and cavitation erosion. An
historical perspective and discussion of basic lubrication theory appro
priate to the subject of this paper may be found in Dowson & Taylor
(1975). However, it is appropriate to note a form of the Reynolds
equation governing the pressure generated in a lubricant flm for an
incompressible, Newtonian fuid with laminar fow,
[h3 8
P
] + [h3 8
P
]
" 6(UI + U2)
8h +
l
lh
,
8x 1 ox oy 1 oy ox ot
where p is the pressure, taken to be constant across the thin flm, h is flm
thickness, 1 is dynamic viscosity, V
I
and U
2
are fxed surface speeds in
the x coordinate direction, and the axes are chosen such that there are
no surface velocities in the y coordinate direction. In solving the Reynolds
equation we must apply boundary conditions at the interfaces between
the continuous lubricant flm and the gaseous regions (the cavitation
boundaries). Alternative boundary conditions lead to diferences in the
predicted pressure profles. In Figure 1 the variation of pressure distribu
tion in an infnite-width journal bearing with diferent rupture boundary
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 37
conditions is shown. The flm rupture conditions according to Reynolds
and Floberg are discussed fullY,later in the paper. The mathematical
formulation of the Sommerfeld ( 1904) noncavitating boundary condition
I
S
p
= at c = 0, 2n,
while that for the Gumbel (or half-Sommerfeld) condition ( 1921) is
p
= at c = 0, n;
PRESSURE
p = for n < c < 2n .
(0)
SOMMERFELD
(b)
------------- GUMBEL
o 180'
I
MINIMUM FILM THIKNESS
(c)
REYNOLDS
(d)
SEPARATION
AND
FLOBERG
360'
Figure 1 Pressure distribution in an infnite-width journal bearing with diferent cavitation
boundary conditions at rupture.
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38 DOWSON & TAYLOR
THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF CAVITATION
IN BEARINGS
Here we concern ourselves with gaseous cavitation under steady-state
operating conditions. Some physical evidence relating to cavitation
erosion in bearings is reserved for later consideration.
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated with supreme clarity that under
conditions of slow viscous fow, a wedge-shaped lubricant flm, such
that fow proceeded on average into the convergence, was essential if
load-supporting pressures were to be generated. This concept of the
"physical wedge" is the essence of hydrodynamic lubrication theory.
Many machine elements, however, present to the lubricating flm not
only a converging form but also a divergent section. Such machine
elements include journal bearings, gears, rolling-element bearings, and
some thrust bearings. The necessary convergent wedge is certainly
present, but in the divergent space subambient pressures would occur
in the lubricating flm should it remain intact. The general form of
(a)
f
(b)
U
SATURATION PRESSURE t-
PAMBIENT)
VPOUR PRESURE
Figure 2 Pressure distribution in convergent-divergent lubricating flm: (a) generalized
bearing geometry; (b) pressure distribution in continuous, incompressible lubricant.
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 39
pressure profle associated with a fuid of constant density that does not
rupture in a convergent-divergent clearance space is shown in Figure 2.
The sub ambient pressures predicted in the divergent clearance space
give rise to the forms of cavitation described in the Introduction. The
situation shown in Figure 2 is representative of rolling and sliding
contacts, but similar efects are encountered if the separation of the
bearing surfaces changes with time. In this case superambient pressures
are generated on the approach phase, while separation of the solids tends
to subject the flm to subambient pressures which will, but for the most
unusual of cases, cause cavitation.
Under steady-state rolling and/or sliding motion conditions it is
normally found that the pressure throughout most of the divergent region
is essentially constant and equal to or just slightly below ambient pres
sure. In most cases the reason for this situation is that the flm is open to
the atmosphere. However, it is appropriate to note also that with most
bearings the lubricant is normally exposed to ambient pressure for long
periods of time, thus ensuring that the saturation pressure of any dis
solved air is very nearly ambient. Thus air will come out of solution
should the pressure fall below the saturation value, thereby limiting a
further decrease.
Cavitation in fuid-flm bearings does not necessarily have a deleterious
efect upon the load-carrying capacity of bearings. This may be readily
understood with reference to Figure 2. If the lubricant does not rupture
then the force component normal to the surface motion, or load capacity,
will be zero since the convergent and divergent portions of the flm will
make equal and opposite contributions. However, if gas release or
ventilation ensures that the pressure in the divergent clearance space
remains close to the saturation pressure, it is immediately apparent that
there will be a net force component normal to the surfaces. In this case
the load-carrying capacity results entirely from the occurrence of flm
rupture. In the case of the liquid-flm journal bearing the noncavitating
situation does not mean that zero load capacity results. The pressure
distribution will be anti symmetrical about the position of minimum flm
thickness (Figure la), and a resultant load-bearing capacity normal to
the line of journal and bearing centers will be obtained. It is for this
reason that the light loading of a journal bearing causes the shaft to
move normal to the direction of the applied load.
Much of this paper is devoted to the boundary conditions to be
applied to the governing hydrodynamic equations. Several theoretical
approaches have been made to consider this problem in the past half
century, but only recently have serious attempts been made to reconcile
the physical understanding of the phenomenon with mathematical
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40 DaWSON & TAYLOR
analysis. It is therefore important to establish an appreCIatIOn of the
appearance of two-phase fow situations that can be observed in the
divergent regions having at least one transparent member.
Figures 3-7 show the appearance of cavities in four diferent forms of
sliding bearing and in one situation in which a steel ball was moving
normally away from a plane glass surface in the presence of a lubricant.
Some broad comments on the overall appearance of the ruptured
Figure 3 Cavitation with a spherical cap near a moving plane surface (motion left to
right).
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 41
regions are made below; however, detailed remarks on the behavior
and disposition of the cavities are reserved for later consideration.
Gas bubbles in the divergent region of a lubricating flm formed
between a stationary perspex convex lens and steel surface sliding from
left to right (after Dowson 1957) are shown in Figure 3. The gas present
has split up into a number of discrete bubbles or "fngers" separated by
narrow continuous streams of oil. Cross-flm curvature of the rupture
boundary can be seen. A similar confguration of "fngers" in the thick
flm region of a reversed stepped-parallel surface-slider bearing has
been observed by Makeham ( 1968) and is shown in Figure 4. The plane
surface motion is here again from left to right, the gas cavities forming
as the fow enters the thick-flm region from the thinner leading parallel
portion. As the sliding speed was increased Makeham noted that the
number of bubbles per unit width increased until, suddenly, all the bubbles
coalesced into a sheet of air extending across the full width of the
bearing.
The appearance of cavitated regions in journal bearings has been
studied extensively by many including Cole & Hughes (1956). A repre
sentative picture, after Smith ( 1975), is shown in Figure 5 with the journal
movement from bottom to top as viewed through the stationary perspex
Figure 4 Cavitation in a reversed-stepped parallel-surface thrust bearing (plane surface
moving left to right).
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42 DOWSON & T AYLOR
bush. Both flm rupture and reformation may clearly be seen in this
fgure. With this geometry, as with that of the spherical convex lens
against a sliding plane used by Dowson (1957), a quasi-static formation
is often evident. That is, there is a slow lateral movement of the bubbles
with peeling-of at the ends, which is accompanied by subdivision of the
central bubbles. The peeled-of bubbles generally move to the rear of the
cavitated region where they coalesce with the main body of gas. One
factor responsible for this quasi-static behavior is no doubt geometric
imperfections, for example axial misalignment in the journal bearings.
A convenient apparatus for the study of cavitation in nonconformal
contacts consists of a fat transparent sheet on top of a partially or totally
submerged rotating drum. The most common appearance of the cavita
tion region is shown in Figure 6. Here the surface motion is from left to
right and, as can be seen, the oil streams separating the bubbles get
narrower and narrower before terminating in an open ring. Alternative,
but more unusual, confgurations of the cavitating region are gas bubbles
completely separated by thin oil streams or a complete sheet of air
stretching across the bearing width and attached to the stationary fat
sheet (see Dowson & Taylor 1975).
Figure 5 Cavitation in a journal bearing (shaft motion bottom to top).
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 43
Figure 6 Cavitation between a rotating cylinder near a stationary plane (motion left to
right).
The fnal illustration in this section, Figure 7, shows the beautiful
"fower-like" appearance of a gas-flled cavity surrounded by oil between
a separating steel sphere and plane (Dowson 1 968). This photograph
represents one frame of a sequence taken by a high-speed movie camera.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE CAVITATING
REGION
The cavitation boundary conditions are discussed under three main
headings: flm rupture, flm reformation, and bubble patterns. These
three sections deal with steady-state operating conditions, and brief
consideration is then given to boundary conditions for dynamic situations.
Film Rupture
It is apparent that if gaseous cavitation does occur, for example in a
journal bearing, the Sommerfeld-type solution for pressure distribution
in the lubricating flm is inadequate. The same is true of the half
Sommerfeld solution feld applied by Gumbel, which implies flm rupture
at the minimum flm-thickness position. However, for many circumstances
the load capacity predicted by the half-Sommerfeld solution may not be
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44 DOWSON & TAYLOR
in error by a considerable amount, say typically only 1 5, compared to
the more precise Reynolds boundary condition solution discussed below.
Thus the Gumbel approximation is still widely employed, particularly
in theoretical problems where an analytical solution of the lubricating
flm equation is required, this being only one part of the computational
problem in hand.
The defnition of adequate flm-rupture conditions is still a matter for
discussion. This is particularly true for low-load situations where sub
ambient pressures may be sizeable in absolute magnitude compared
with superambient pressures. For reasonably precise solutions of the
complete problem there are at present three types of rupture boundary
condition that might be applied.
Figure 7 Cavitation as a sphere separates from a submerged stationary plane.
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 45
THE REYNOLDS CONDITION This flm rupture boundary condition was
appreciated by Reynolds (1886), suggested by Gumbel (1921), but frst
formulated mathematically by Swift (1931) and Stieber (1933)0 Although
Swift and Stieber derived the condition from diferent standpoints, it is
perhaps most easily formulated from considerations of flow continuityo
For a two-dimensional fow situation the lubricant fow rate just before
flm rupture (Figure 8a) is given by
h3 dp (Ui + U2)h
- --+--,--
121 dx 2
In the cavitating region, where the familiar fnger pattern of air cavities
develops, the pressure is usually taken to be constant and normally
LINE OF FILM RUPTURE
SURFACE MTIO
(Q) PLAN VIEW OF TWO DIMENSIONAL F ILM RUPTURE
z
U=O
: . REVERSE F LOW REGION
. " . . .
.
. . '. . . .
'
.
' ,
SEPARATION POINT (u = =O)
(b) SEPARATIOr FROM A STATIONARY SURFACE (FULL FLUID FILM)
U
'."o>

_ : .* : 00.:0
RUPTURE INTERFACE
;;jJ;; );
(e) SEPARATION WITH A LIQUID-GAS INTERFACE (COYNE AND ELROD)
Figure 8 Models used in deriving various film-rupture boundary conditions.
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46 DOWSON & TAYLOR
ambient, so that only Couette fow need be considered. Thus just after
flm rupture, assuming that the cavities occupy a very small fraction of
the total bearing width at this point (i.e. the cavities are "pointed"), the
fow rate per unit width is
Comparing fows before and after rupture leads to the condition that
the pressure gradient at the inception of the cavitated 'region must be
zero. The argument can be extended to three-dimensional fows giving
the boundary conditions,
o
p
"
o
p
" 0
ox oy ,
P = P
cavity
The continuity analysis shows the incorrectness of Gumbel's boundary
condition, which has a negative pressure gradient at the cavitation inter
face. Prandtl (1937) has pointed out that the concept of minimum fow
leads to the same boundary condition.
THE SEPARATION BOUNDARY CONDITION The experimentally observed
occurrence of a subcavity pressure loop in bearings before the cavitation
region lead to the idea that fow separation might be playing a role in
flm rupture (Hopkins 1957, Birkhof & Hays 1963). Such a concept
implies that a considerable proportion of the lubricant fow will be
carried away either under or over the cavitating region by the moving
surfaces (Figure 8b), unlike the situation with the Reynolds boundary
condition where it is assumed that all the fow passes between the air
cavities.
Separation is considered to take place from the stationary surface
of a bearing in the divergent region when du/dz, the cross-flm velocity
gradient, is zero. From the Navier-Stokes equations of motion this
implies, for the two-dimensional fow situation, a pressure gradient
The pressure gradient, together with the chosen boundary value of pres
sure, can be applied to determine approximately the location of the
rupture interface. The reverse fow region that develops downstream of
separation indicates a mechanism whereby suspended gas bubbles could
be directed to form a cavity pattern.
Application of the pressure-gradient condition given by the above
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 47
equation can only be considered approximate since the full fuid flm is
assumed and no development of the lubricant-cavity interface considered.
Coyne & Elrod ( 1970, 1971) have remedied this defect i a detailed
planar analysis that can take account of the efects of surface tension,
gravity, and fuid inertia. They determine the rupture interface of a
separating flm (Figure 8c) and by a continuity argument translate this
into a boundary condition at rupture on pressure gradient. For the case
where gravity and fuid inertia efects are negligible the boundary
condition is
dp
6Y
U
(l_ia)
d
x h
2
h '
where ha is the asymptotic flm thickness downstream. With a wetting
angle of 90 between the cavity and stationary surface we have
ha
(3YU)113
h f T '
where T is the surface tension between the lubricant and air. It will be
noticed that the boundary condition on the pressure gradient depends
upon a surface tension parameter, YU IT, (the ratio' of viscous to surface
tension forces) mentioned previously by G. L Taylor ( 1963).
The second boundary condition on pressure detailed by Coyne and
Elrod is
T
p * -+ Ip,
Ro
where Ro is the radius of curvature of the free flm at the separation
point and Ip is a measure of the pressure change across the transition
region from the lubrication type fow just upstream of the cavity.
The consideration of separation in three-dimensional fow situations
is still a phenomenon that is not well understood. Dowson et al (1976)
have, however, applied the three-dimensional separation boundary
condition that characterizes the rupture location as being the line along
which the velocity and velocity gradient normal to the locus are both
zero. This is analagous to Prandtl's two-dimensional separation
criterion and results in a boundary condition as follows if the pressure
along the locus is zero,
op op ox 21U
ox
-
oy
'
oy =y.
It is also worthy of note that separation of the fow can occur where
both boundary surfaces of a contact are in motion. This leads to a
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48 DOWSON & TAYLOR
boundary condition on pressure gradient for rupture, assuming a
situation of full-fuid flm lubrication, which is a function of both surface
velocities, namely,
dp

2'1
(
U1/2 + Ul/2
)
2
d
x
h
2 1
2
Taylor (1974a) has suggested that such a situation could form a basis for
distinguishing between the alternative rupture boundary conditions.
FLOBERG
'
s BOUNDARY CONDITION Floberg ( 1965, 1 968, 1 972) assumed
all the lubricant fow after rupture to be carried away in between the air
cavities. However, by assuming no net fow into a cavity, he arrived at a
rupture boundary condition that defned the shape of a single cavity
(as opposed to the locus of the noses of all cavities). This rupture condition
is
The usual boundary condition on pressure (Pgauge " 0) may be taken,
or the pressure drop across the interface due to surface tension may be
considered. A subcavity pressure loop upstream of the fnger is obtained
with this boundary condition as with the pressure distribution assuming
separation to take place.
Floberg relates his analysis to the minimum pressure occurring in the
lubricant flm, and for a liquid with a capability of sustaining a known
subatmospheric pressure, he determines the number of striations or
streamers in a width unit. The subatmospheric pressure, as with a
separation boundary condition, could conceivably be tensile. Other
operating parameters of the bearing required for design purposes may
then be determined. Floberg's analytical results, despite dealing with
individual striations, relate only to bearings of infnite width, since each
adjacent cavity is alike with zero pressure gradient along the line of
symmetry mirroring two cavities.
EXPERIMENTAL AND VISUAL EVIDENCE There is a considerable amount
of experimental and visual evidence that helps to clarify some aspects
of the physics of the rupture process in lubricating flms. Much of this
evidence, particularly of the visual type, is never reported directly in the
literature; however, some major aspects are summarized here.
1 . For bearings that are sustaining moderate or heavy loads (say at
least mean pressures of a few bars) there is an abundance of measured
pressure distributions and load-carrying capacities to confrm that, with
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 49
sufcient engineering accuracy, the application of the Reynolds boundary
condition at rupture is justified. This is not to say that the physical
model or models on which the condition is based are necessarily correct.
In fact, small subambient pressures upstream of the cavitation region
are often reported (e.g. Dowson 1 957). However, their magnitude is small
compared with that of the maximum superambient pressures and hence
their omission in analysis causes negligible error.
2. For bearings operating with low specifc loadings (of the order of
105 N /m
2
), the application of the Reynolds boundary condition can lead
to theoretical predictions of bearing characteristics that are seriously in
error.
3. Floberg (1965) examined theoretically and experimentally the geo
metry of a rotating cylinder lightly loaded against a stationary plane.
He obtained excellent correlation between his analytical and experi
mental results. This is demonstrated in Figure 9 where normalized
pressure, PF, is plotted against axial location, XF, the nip of the contact
being at XF " O. Smith ( 1975), however, obtained for the same geometry
a very good theoretical/experimental agreement using the Coyne and
Elrod rupture boundary condition.
This apparent dichotomy has been noted also by Taylor (1974b) who
compared Floberg's experimental results with predictions using the
Coyne and Elrod boundary condition. The agreement was excellent;
Figure 10 shows this for the same experimental curve presented in Figure
9. The agreement of the experimental results with theoretical predictions
using boundary conditions based on antithetical rupture models is
fortuitous for the designer, while being less satisfactory for those seeking
a deeper irsight into the physics of the phenomenon.
4. Light can be shed on the physical processes at work in flm rupture
for the lightly loaded cylinder-plane geometry by considering visual
evidence. For example, consideration of Figure 6 shows that since the
t 2r-
O-
Figure 9 Comparison between Floberg's theoretical ( ) and experimental ( + ) normalized
pressure distribution for a rotating cylinder lightly loaded against a stationary plane.
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50 DOWSON & TAYLOR
air cavity extends across the whole contact width at some locations, fow
separation must be occurring. This is most graphically demonstrated in
Figure 1 1 after Van de Bergh et al (1975). Also, Van de Bergh ( 1974) has
photographed the collection of dye released upstream of the rupture
region around the nose of a single cavity. This photograph clearly
demonstrated the vortex or eddy region predicted upstream of a rupture
interface by a separation-type analysis. Such visual evidence ofers strong
support to the contention that fow separation is the major mechanism
determining cavity location for lightly loaded lubricated cylinder-plane
contacts.
5. For lightly loaded journal bearings accurate prediction of the flm
rupture location is not as easily achieved as with the cylinder-plane
geometry. At high eccentricity ratios the use of the Coyne and Elrod
rupture boundary condition leads to analytical predictions of cavity
location that agree well with experimental measurements (Smith 1975).
12
-COYN` AND ElD (THEOY)
+ FlOBERG (EXPERIMENTAL)
10
.----
.. ---

08
06
/ \
! \
!
\
04
02
/
"
0
-02
-
0
4
\ I

/
-06
-
3
-2 -1 o
2 XF 3
Figure 10 Comparison between Floberg's experimental (+) distribution of normalized
pressure (Figure 9) and theoretical (-) prediction using the Coyne and Elrod boundary
condition.
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 51
This i s understandable since at high eccentricity ratios the pressure
distribution in a journal bearing is very peaky near the position of
minimum flm thickness, and the contact situation is akin to that of a
cylinder sliding against a plane. At low eccentricity ratios the agreement
using the separation rupture condition is not good (Smith 1975). The
visual appearance of the air cavities at such operating conditions makes
it evident that there is considerable lubricant fow between the cavities.
Thus it is perhaps not surprising that predictions of cavity location using
Floberg's rupture condition fnd better agreement with experimental
observations (Floberg 1 973) for such situations. Hence, across the
spectrum of eccentricity ratios for lightly loaded journal bearings, it
appears possible that more than one physical model of rupture may be
appropriate.
6. If a journal bearing is designed such that the ingress of air from its
surroundings is not possible, say by using side seals, then as the shaft is
rotated air comes slowly out of solution. Small bubbles collect along an
axial line. This line defnes the location of fow separation in the
divergent region, showing that this phenomenon plays a role in locating
the resultant air bubbles in such circumstances. Such bubbles grow
with time, and if the bearing is run for a long time they develop down
stream, forming cavities much as when ventilation occurs.
Figure 11 Side view of a cavity between a stationary plane and cylinder rotating right to
left showing fow separation.
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52 DOWSON & TAYLOR
7. Finally, in certain situations (e.g. Dowson 1 957), it has been
observed that bubbles occasionally detach themselves completely from
the main series of cavities and leave the region entirely. This suggests
that although ventilation provides the bulk of the air in the cavities,
this is being continually supplemented by air coming out of solution
in the sub cavity pressure region. Eventually a bubble becomes unstable
and part of it may be detached and swept away.
Film Reformation
Figure 5, a photograph of the cavitating region in a journal bearing,
clearly shows reformation of the lubricant flm. Many factors may have
a role in the reformation process including the supply conditions of the
lubricant, namely the grooving arrangement and supply pressure. In
relation to the performance of journal bearings it is clear that the
establishment of the full fuid-flm region may be an important parameter.
For example, the distribution of the lubricant and hence its overall
temperature rise may be infuenced by flm reformation. However, com
pared to the attention given to the conditions at rupture, flm reformation
has not been studied deeply.
An analagous situation to the reformation of the flm in a journal
bearing is the inlet conditions pertaining in lubricated contacts such as
gears and rolling-element bearings. These contacts rarely enjoy fooded
lubrication at inlet. A full fuid flm will be formed at some location
because the layers of lubricant on the opposing surfaces combine to form
a "web" (Dowson & Taylor 1975). The study of this two-phase fow at
the inlet of nonconformal geometries has attracted much interest
recently and is considered in its own right in the next section.
Analyses of flm reformation in journal bearings are not extensive.
Floberg has considered both the reformation behind the full cavity
region and behind a single gas cavity. Both reformation conditions have
been considered in a review paper by Floberg (1975), which gives full
references to his work in the area of cavitation in bearings. For the
whole cavity region, continuity at the downstream boundary was shown
to render the following governing equation,
ap ap ax 6'U(hz -hd

ax ay ay
M
where hi and hz are the oil flm thicknesses at rupture and at reformation
at a particular axial location. Considering a single gas cavity the reforma
tion condition is precisely the same as that specifed by Floberg for the
rupture interface of a single bubble, namely,
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op op ox 6IU
ax oy

oy
=
y.
CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 53
Experimental measurements of reformation location behind a full cavity
region have shown good agreement with the theoretical predictions
(Floberg 1975). The form of the equations above governing the location
of reformation according to continuity considerations is worthy of note.
It is not only the same as for Floberg's rupture condition for a single
bubble but also the three-dimensional separation criterion after Dowson
et al ( 1976). The accommodation of an equation of this form at an
interface entails numerical analysis complexities. No completely adequate
scheme has been described to enable such boundary conditions to be
used, although some authors have detailed their method (Dowson et al
1 976, Lebeck 1977).
Coyne & Elrod (1971), while concerning themselves primarily with
their separation rupture condition, commented that their general formu
lation of equations was applicable to flm reformation. Physically this
implies that a lubricant flm of uniform upstream height, he, develops
to fll the entire clearance space. However, it was pointed out that the
same equations that yield at separation a unique flm shape permit an
infnite number of flm shapes at "inlet" or reformation consistent with
given values of ho and the surface tension parameter, IU IT. This non
uniqueness at reformation results from an overspecifcation of the thin
flm fow problem if rupture conditions on pressure and pressure gradient
are also to be satisfed. Fall (1976) has used the Coyne and Elrod
approach in analyzing flm reformation in a journal bearing with the oil
supply pressure as a parameter of the analysis. He obtained some
modest agreement between his theoretical predictions and experimental
measurements for a range of eccentricity ratios and lubricant supply
pressures.
It is clear that the conditions determining lubricant flm reformation
warrant more research effort.
Bubble Patterns
A physically striking feature of cavitation in bearings is the pattern of
situations that arise. The prediction of a number of streamers has
received some attention, although it should be pointed out that this is of
secondary importance as regards bearing performance. G. I. Taylor
(1961), Bretherton ( 1960), and Cox ( 1962) in their studies of the motion
of bubbles in tubes have indicated the importance of the surface tension
parameter, 1U IT, in determining the fow around a bubble. Pearson
(1960) examined the occurrence of "ribbed" surfaces while attempting to
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54 DOWSON & T AYLOR
produce uniform thin layers of viscous fuid by rolling or spreading, and
found that this surface tension parameter, as well as the geometrical
conditions, infuenced the frequency of ribbing.
Figure 12 (Smith 1975) shows three stages of the appearance of the
rupture interface between a lubricated cylinder sliding against a stationary
plane. As the rotational speed of the cylinder increased, the initially
straight rupture face developed an instability, and the frequency of
"ribbing" then increased as the surface speed increased. These observa
tions correlate with those of Makeham (1968) who found that the
number of striations in his reversed-stepped parallel slider bearing
increased as the sliding speed increased. However, at some critical speed
all the bubbles suddenly coalesced into a sheet of air extending across
almost the whole width of the bearing. Pitts & Greiller (1961) and Scott
(1970) have examined theoretically why the number of cavities occurring
should vary. Scott has emphasized that the flm divergence at rupture is
signifcant. For a given rate of divergence Scott predicts that for very
small and very large values of IU IT, a single cavity or sheet may form.
For intermediate values of the surface tension parameter, ribbing will
occur at rupture, with a maximum frequency at some point. This predic
tion is supported by the evidence described above and the trend was
also confrmed by Scott's own empirical work.
Floberg (1965, 1968) has predicted the frequency of striations to be a
function of the normalized minimum pressure of his analysis, which
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 12 Development of "ribbing" in a rupture interface between a rotating cylinder
and stationary plane. The cylinder is moving from left to right at each of the three stages
and has increasing speed from (a) to (c).
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 55
occurs just upstream of the cavity inception. He obtained some measure
of agreement between his experimental observations and theoretical
predictions. This is despite the fact that the surface-tension parameter,
considered infuential in determining streamer frequency by others, is
not considered in Floberg's analysis. However, Taylor (1974b) has shown
that there was an empirical dependence of streamer frequency upon the
parameter YU /T and the flm geometry for Floberg's experiments. Hence
Floberg's correlation with his own theory could well be fortuitous, as
discussed previously.
Savage ( 1977) and Fall (1976) have examined the stability of a uniform
or sheet cavity to small disturbances using a linear perturbation analysis.
Such an analysis permits the formulation of a boundary-value problem
involving the homogeneous Reynolds equation, the solution of which
determines both the pressure feld and striation frequency. Savage
showed that a uniform cavity remains stable providing
d (p +) < 0,
where p is the pressure immediately upstream of the interface and R is
the radius of curvature of the interface. Savage has studied the cylinder/
plane geometry while Fall concentrated upon a wedge-shaped spreader.
An interesting feature of their fndings was that there were two theoretical
solutions for striation frequency when streamers occurred. Both authors
found that the trend of their experimental results indicated that the
larger striation frequency was the correct solution. Savage showed that
the large-striation-frequency solution corresponded to a minimum rate
of energy dissipation, hence providing a physical understanding of his
observations. He commented, topically, that the frequency of streamers
could be plotted as a function of the surface-tension parameter and a
geometric parameter for the cylinder/plane contact, giving rise to an
equilibrium surface corresponding to a fold catastrophe.
Boo1cy coo1|t|oos ]o uyoc|c 5|tct|oos
There has been no extensive study of the boundary conditions appropriate
at rupture and reformation of lubricant flms for non-steady-state
situations. Olsson ( 1965) has examined this case by assuming that the oil
within the cavitated region fows in a number of thin streams spanning
the flm thickness, and by applying continuity conditions at each moving
interface. The thin streams of oil are assumed to be at ambient pressure
and to have a mean fow velocity equal to the mean of the surface speeds.
If the pressure in the full flm cannot fall below ambient then the
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56 DOWSON & T AYLOR
boundary conditions at an interface become
p= 0,
ap
an <
0,
where n is the direction normal to an interface.
Using the above cavitation criteria with the continuity condition, it
can be shown that for a rupture interface ap/an will be equal to zero.
For this case the interface velocity will not exceed the entraining velocity
or mean surface speed. For a reformation boundary ap/an will be less
than zero and the ratio of the interface velocity to entraining velocity
will be greater than unity. Milne (1975) and Elrod & Adams (1975) have
discussed numerical anal ysis techniques to implement the Olsson boundary
conditions. Further work is needed, for example to predict the perform
ance characteristics of a dynamically loaded journal bearing, using these
boundary conditions.
INLET FILM FORMATION IN NONCONFORMAL
CONTACTS
In conventional journal and thrust bearings the clearance space at the
inlet is normally bathed in an ample supply of lubricant and the con
junction is fully fooded. The possibility of flm rupture and reformation
in the lubricating flms in such conformal bearings has been considered
in earlier sections. In many lubricated machine elements like gears,
rolling-element bearings, and cams, which present counterformal con
junctions, it is neither easy nor desirable to food the inlet with lubricant.
In a partially flled inlet an "air-liquid interface" or "inlet boundary"
will be formed, and it is the factors infuencing the nature and location
of this boundary, together with its infuence upon the behavior of the
lubricated conjunction, that form the subject of this section.
Many counter formal conjections can be represented by a cylinder
near a plane as shown in Figure 1 3. It is evident that neither the inlet
nor the cavitation boundaries can be considered in isolation, since the
thickness of the flm of liquid hI on the cylinder entering the inlet
region is determined by cavitation in the divergent clearance space at
the outlet end of the conjunction, while the extent of inlet flling deter
mines the separa
t
ion of the bearing solids and the location of the
cavitation boundary.
Dowson & Whitaker (1965) and Wolveridge et al ( 1971) have analyzed
the infuence of lubricant starvation in the inlet region upon load
carrying capacity for a rigid cylinder near a plane. If it is assumed that
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 57
. h2 = = . .
I
.
Figure 13 Inlet flm formation for a lubricated cylinder near a plane.
pressure will begin to build up immediately afer the inlet flms shown
in Figure 13 have coalesced, bearing operating characteristics can be
related to inlet starvation as defned by the location of the air-liquid
interface. It was found that the efects of starvation became signifcant
only when the pressure build-up commenced close to the line of minimum
flm thickness. Furthermore, although it was possible to relate bearing
performance to the location of the line of pressure build up, there was
no indication of a preferred location in any of the solutions.
Lauder (1966) measured flm thickness and the viscous friction force
on a fat steel plate loaded against a large-diameter rotating fywheel
with lubricant supplied to the inlet side of the conjunction by means of
a jet. He observed that the inlet boundary appeared to adopt a defnite
position for any given load and speed, and subsequent comparison
between the experimental results and theoretical predictions, based upon
assumptions that the inlet was fully fooded or starved according to a
"zero-reverse-fow" boundary condition, provided strong support for the
latter.
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58 DOWSON & TAYLOR
Zero-Reverse-Flow Inlet Boundary Condition
This inlet boundary condition merely states that the air-liquid interface,
which locates the start of the continuous flm of lubricant separating the
bearing solids and also the onset of the hydrodynamic pressures developed
according to the Reynolds equation, coincides with the position at which
liquid within the continuous flm just ceases to fow upstream against the
direction of surface motion. Hence,
d
u
p
=
when
u

dz

0,
p being the pressure, u the local velocity of the lubricant in the direction
of surface motion, and
z
the cross-flm coordinate.
The similarity between this inlet boundary condition, the separation
cavitation boundary condition, and the "separation" reformation bound
ary conditions (Coyne & Elrod 1 971) is at once apparent. For counter
formal conjunctions of cylindrical form, Saman ( 1974) has shown that
the flm thickness under starved lubrication conditions governed by the
zero-reverse-fow criterion will be reduced to 12 or 46% of the fully
fooded value, depending upon whether the surfaces of the solids are
sliding (Ul
=
U; U2
=
0) or rolling (Ul = U2 = U). Saman ( 1974) has also
shown that under elastohydrodynamic conditions these percentages are
32 and 71 respectively. Toyoda (1977) and Sam an (1 974) have shown
that flm thicknesses recorded on a lightly and heavily loaded two-disc
machine by means of capacitance measurements were in reasonable
accord with these predictions.
The infuence of lubricant starvation upon the flm thickness developed
in elastohydrodynamic conjunctions had previously been studied by
Wolveridge et al (1971 ) and Castle & Dowson ( 1972). These wide
ranging studies also considered the infuence of lubricant starvation
upon other features of elastohydrodynamic conjunctions such as aspects
of the pressure distribution, but once again there was no suggestion that
any particular degree of starvation would be preferred in practical
situations.
The actual degree of lubricant starvation in the inlet to a particular
machine element will depend upon many factors. Under some circum
stances the lubricant supply arrangements might permit a greater degree
of inlet flling than that required to meet the zero-reverse-fow condition.
The great utility of the latter is that it represents a limiting condition
that might reasonably be expected to apply if a fxed initial quantity of
lubricant is added to the system, as might occur for example in a rolling
element bearing. Excess lubricant will fow upstream and sideways until
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 59
the zero-reverse-fow situation is achieved as a limiting situation. Saman
( 1974) has investigated this problem experimentally and noted an interest
ing mechanism, whereby side-bands of lubricant on the edges of the
rolling track in a two-disc machine provide a reasonable reservoir of
lubricant, which accommodates the requirement for changing quantities
of lubricant to satisfy the zero-reverse-fow condition as the loads or
speeds change.
Dowson ( 1975) has discussed the inlet boundary condition for rigid
and elastic counterformal conjunctions in some detail. In the absence of
specifc information on the extent of inlet flling, the zero-reverse-fow
condition can be used as a conservative and in many cases accurate
representation of the fow situation. If the extent of inlet flling is known,
the analyses of Dowson & Whitaker (1965), Wolveridge et al ( 1971), and
Castle & Dowson (1972) can be utilized to predict the minimum flm
thickness and other important features of the lubricated conjunction. It
is now possible to apply "cavitation" and "inlet" boundary conditions
to counterformal conjunctions with a similar degree of confdence to
that enjoyed by the application of "cavitation" and "reformation"
boundary conditions to conformal bearing problems.
CAVITATION EROSION
Although there has been a considerable research efort in the feld of
cavitation erosion with aqueous systems, the same is not true as regards
the study of the phenomenon in liquid-flm bearings. This refects not
only the fact that the occurrence of cavitation erosion in bearings has
not been frequently observed, but also that even when it has occurred
its efects have not been serious.
However, in the present decade erosion damage of the plain bearings
of the crank and slider mechanism of internal combustion engines has
become more prevalent. Engine manufacturers in both Europe and the
United States have been experiencing a variety of forms of damage
associated with the cavitation process. The reasons why this should be
so are not entirely clear, but James (1975) has suggested that the uprating
of naturally aspirated diesel engines to a point beyond which turbocharging
becomes technically and commercially attractive, and increased highway
driving, are contributory factors. Cavitation erosion has also been
suggested as a mechanism of damage on lubricated gear teeth, but no
direct evidence of this has been forthcoming.
In general, studies of cavitation erosion in bearings have been of a
pragmatic nature. Purely from observations a number of forms of cavita
tion erosion in bearings have been postulated. Wilson (1975), Conway-
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60 DaWSON & TAYLOR
Jones (1975), and James (1975) have discussed these various forms giving
pictorial evidence of each type. Some of the varieties of cavitation
erosion damage that have been suggested are :
1. Suction erosion, which occurs when the journal (e.g. crankshaf or
crankpin) of a bearing recedes rapidly from a bearing surface.
2. Discharge erosion, which results from the displacement of oil ahead
of a shaft moving radially, giving a fuctuating discharge into the
bearing grooving.
.
3. Flow erosion, which is due to the fow of lubricant across discon
tinuities, for example the edges of grooves, supply holes, or joint face
reliefs. It is suggested by some that damage occurs not only as a result
of the collapse of vaporous cavities formed by a sudden pressure
drop, but also possibly in association with high surface-shear stresses
and erosive particles in a fow.
4. Impact erosion, which can arise when a drilling supplying oil from a
main to a big-end bearing passes from a grooved to an ungrooved
portion of the bearing surface, and may be associated with inertial
efects of the lubricant fow.
5. Dispersed erosion, which appears to occur in association with rippling
of the overlay.
The above categorization of types of cavitation-erosion damage relates
to the mechanics of the operation of dynamically loaded bearings in
internal combustion engines. The detailed physiCS of the processes
involved has not been studied deeply. However, this scheme of forms of
erosion is useful in that diferent types of engines can be identifed as
sufering from various types of cavitation erosion (James 1975). For
example, in slower-speed diesel engines, impact, fow, and dispersed
erosion are found. However, in high-speed automotive diesel engines
the bearings appear to be more susceptible to suction and discharge
cavitation erosion. It is particularly noteworthy that cavitation erosion
in the bearings of spark-ignition engines is rarely found, and that it is
invariably the main or crankshaf bearings that sufer damage in
compression-ignition engines. In addition, with high-speed diesel engines
it is found that naturally aspirated engines are more likely to have
cavitation erosion damage in the bearings than turbocharged diesels. The
same is also true as regards waterside damage to the cylinder liner, and
James ( 1975) has quite reasonably related this to the rougher combustion
of the naturally aspirated engine.
It is not surprising that when engine manufacturers have encountered
cavitation erosion problems in diesel engine bearings, they have resorted
to attempts to cure the problem without trying to understand its
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 61
fundamental nature. Palliatives adopted in the past include the use of
alternative bearing materials ; the alteration of bearing geometry including
grooving ; the adoption of higher oil-supply pressures ; the use of unplated
bearings ; and the application of nonreturn valves in driIIings. However,
the recent acceleration in the occurrence of cavitation erosion problems
in bearings has resulted in increased eforts to obtain a more basic
understanding of the phenomenon as it pertains in the tribological
context. Of course the wealth of experience to be found in the literature
in relation to cavitation erosion in propellors, pumps, hydrofoils etc,
forms a solid foundation on which to build ideas more directly related
to the damage of bearing materials.
A number of workers have used the magnetostrictive oscillation
vibration test to study cavitation erosion of bearing materials (Rachman
1967, Endo et al 1967, James 1975, Dunning & Ruddy 1975). This test
has been widely employed to produce accelerated cavitation erosion
damage in more general engineering situations. In the most common
version of the test the head of the vibrator is located a small distance
200
1 60
1 20
80
WEIGHT
LOSS(mg)
) 4
TIME(HOURS)
Figure 14 Weight loss of bearing materials as a function of time during a vibratory
cavitation erosion test : A, copper-lead, 70% Cu, 30% Pb; B, lead-based white metal ;
C, aluminium-tin, 80% AI, 20% Sn ; D, tin-based white metal ; E, aluminium"tin, 94% AI,
6
% Sn; F, aluminium-silicon, 89% AI, 1 1 % Si.
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62 DOWSON & TAYLOR
from the test material, the whole being submerged in the test liquid. The
frequency of vibration is normally about 1 8 kHz, and cavitation erosion
damage can be produced in bearing materials in a few minutes. There
are many variables that may be infuential in the test, and parametric
studies must be carefully -carried out if a reliable interpretation of, say,
weight-loss results is to be made. For example, any chemical action may
be inhibited by continuous vibration and a "pulsed" vibration might lead
to an enhancement of mechanical forms of damage (Wilson 1975).
Temperature efects must also be closely examined.
However, the vibratory cavitation erosion test can serve a number
of useful purposes. If propeily applied it can be used to grade bearing
materials in terms of their erosion resistance. Figure 14 shows a plot of
weight loss against time of exposure to vibration for six bearing materials
(Dunning & Ruddy 1 975). For these results distilled water was used as
the test fuid. The high erosion resistance of the aluminium-silicon
material (F) is evident, as is the superiority of the tin-based white metal
(D) over the lead-based white metal (B), for the conditions of the test.
The results of Figure 14 represent an exploratory investigation of the
cavitation erosion resistance of bearing materials. More recent tests
(Dunning 1977), conducted over a much shorter time period and using
a mineral oil as the test fuid, have highlighted certain discrepancies.
Figure 15 Electron micrograph of erosion pit in sintered copper-lead. (The black rectangle
scales to 20 J long).
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CAVITATION IN BEARINGS 63
For example, the sintered copper-lead material (A) of Figure 14 has shown
much better erosion resistance than the exploratory tests indicated.
Research is needed to establish the metallurgical characteristics of
bearing materials that are responsible for their erosion performance.
Figure 1 5 shows an electron micrograph of a single erosion pit in a
sintered copper-lead material. The faky nature of the copper-lead
material is evident and contrasts with micrographs of single pits in tin
based white metal, where a dent in a relatively smooth surface often has
a pronounced antisymmetrical lip, suggesting a translational motion of
the collapsing cavity.
It would be most useful to the designers of dynamically loaded plain
bearings if guidance could be given as to numerical limits that might be
set on the infuential variables in the cavitation erosion process in order
to avoid the phenomenon. Analyses of the shaft orbits in such bearings
and determination of pressure and pressure gradient variations at
particular locations (Conway-Jones 1975, Dunning 1 977) have in some
circumstances been able to highlight, retrospectively, why cavitation
erosion has arisen in a bearing. However, much more work is needed
before such fndings could be extrapolated to new designs.
CONCLUSION
Cavitation in bearings has been discussed through a consideration of
its physical nature in the lubrication context, the cavitation boundary
Figure 16 A ribbed flm on exit from the contact between a rotating cylinder and plane
(which refects the cylinder). Such an undulating surface may well be unacceptable in an
industrial coating process.
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64 DOWSON & TAYLOR
conditions to be applied in solutions of the Reynolds equation, the
formation of inlet flms in nonconformal contacts, and cavitation erosion
in dynamically loaded bearings. In relation to gaseous cavitation it has
been pointed out that although it is normally possible to predict bearing
performance using current boundary conditions with acceptable en
gineering accuracy, the physical basis of the rupture and reformation
models has not received sufcient attention. Other aspects of the subject
area that warrant further research study include : cavitation in lightly
loaded journal bearings ; lubricant flm reformation ; gaseous cavitation
in non-steady-state situations ; and cavitation erosion in the bearing
context.
It is appropriate, in conclusion, to note that the occurrence of cavita
tion in liquid-flm bearings is by no means the only aspect in which the
phenomenon is of interest in tribological solutions. Other thin-flm fow
and lubrication fituations where consideration of two-phase fow is
important include : radial face seals ; foaming in lubrication systems ;
cavitation in synovial joints ; condensation in gas bearings ; impregnation
of resins into paper ; the application of printing ink upon paper ; the
rolling of molten metal, and industrial coating processes. In relation to
the latter area, Figure 1 6 shows the ribbed nature of a flm on exit from
the contact between a rotating cylinder and plane (which refects the
cylinder). This nonuniform layer in a process coating, say, paint, emulsion,
or a protective layer on a surface, may make the quality of the product
unacceptable and necessitate further smoothing before drying.
The latter fgure and others in this paper showing bubble patterns
and air-liquid interfaces demonstrate the beautiful appearance of cavita
tion as it occurs in bearings. The attractive nature of the phenomenon
is but one aspect which charms and fascinates research workers in this
important area of tribology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The permission of The Institution of Mechanical Engineers to reproduce
certain fgures is gratefully acknowledged.
Literature Cited
Birkhof, G., Hays, D. F. 1963. Free
boundaries in partial lubrication. J. Math.
Phys., 42 : 1 26-38
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