Assignment : Horizontal wind motion

CONTENTS

Horizontal Wind motions: Pressure gradient force Corriolis force Friction Ekmans spiral

References

 Horizontal Wind motion:

Atmospheric pressure dissimilarities, divergences and difference in temperature cause air to move about and consequently wind blows. Wind speed uphill is affected by means of just pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force. Horizontal pressure gradients primarily set the air in motion and subsequently Coriolis force put forth a force to the left or right of winds course of motion. Higher altitude winds drift parallel to the contour lines on an isobar map. Straight contour lines , the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces are equivalent and opposite and the wind propels in a straight line at steady rate. When the flow is warped, resultant gradient forces comprise a centripetal constituent which accounts for alteration in wind direction. The frictional force operates to slow the wind momentum at the ground with the outcome that wind blows across isobars somewhat in the direction of lesser pressure. This explains for rising and falling air motions set up in high and low pressure centers. Converging or diverging air activity on top of the ground is capable of causing surface features to build up or deteriorate.

Pressure gradient force:

The variation in pressure measured across a given distance is called a "pressure gradient". The pressure gradient results in a net force that is directed from high to low pressure and this force is called the "pressure gradient force". It is directed from higher to lower pressure at right angles to the equal pressure surfaces, isobars. Pressure gradient force is responsible for triggering the initial movement of air, which in turn leads to the development of wind. It is basically the change in pressure with distance. The horizontal pressure gradient is a 2-dimensional vector resulting from the projection of the pressure gradient onto a local horizontal plane. Near the Earth's surface, this horizontal pressure gradient is typically pointing towards high pressure air masses (anticyclones).

Figure: pressure gradient force

Horizontal variations in air pressure is much less than the vertical one. In fact, the same pressure change observed in the lowest 30 m (98 ft) of the troposphere may not be equaled over a horizontal distance of 200 km (124 mile) at sea level. The resulting force is based on the difference in pressure over a given distance. It arises from spatial variations in air temperature and, to a lesser extent, water vapor concentration. The

greater the pressure difference, the stronger the pressure gradient, hence the stronger the pressure gradient force. Differences in air pressure between different locations are critical in weather forecasting and climate. Sound waves and shock waves are events that can induce very large pressure gradients, but these are often transitory disturbances.

Coriolis force
Deflective force arising from the rotation of the earth on its axis. It is basically the force acting on a moving body that is located in an independent. It deflects the wind to the right of its initial direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis effect is named after Gaspard de Coriolis, a French physicist who was the first mathematician to make a study on this phenomenon. The vector formula that measures the direction and the magnitude of Coriolis force is as follows: ac= -2 x v The velocity is represented by v whereas the angular velocity is represented by . When this equation is multiplied by a certain objects mass, the Coriolis force is produced, which is represented by the following equation: Fc= -2m x v The amount of deflection the air makes is directly related to both the speed at which the air is moving and its latitude. Therefore, slowly blowing winds will be deflected only a small amount, while stronger winds will be deflected more. Likewise, winds blowing closer to the poles will be deflected more than winds at the same speed closer to the equator.

Figure: Illustration of Corriolis effect

Coriolis force is zero at the equator and increases with latitude to a maximum at the poles. The deflection also increases with increasing wind speed. The coriolis effect is important only in large-scale circulation systems.Coriolis force is a consequence of inertia, and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, Coriolis force proves a more natural framework for explanation of air movements than a non-rotating, inertial frame without Coriolis forces.In long-range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation are based upon Coriolis force.

Uses of Coriolis force: There are certain insects such as moths and flies that utilize the Coriolis force for flying. Also, the Coriolis force has a significant effect on ocean currents, and therefore, it has an enormous effect on marine life. It is also utilized by engineers to calculate trajectories of long-distance missiles.

Friction:
The resistance that an object (e.g. air parcel) encounters as it comes into contact with other object. The surface of the Earth exerts a frictional drag on the air blowing just above it. This friction can act to change the wind's direction and slow it down -- keeping it from blowing as fast as the wind aloft. Actually, the difference in terrain conditions directly affects how much friction is exerted.Friction slows winds within about 1 km (0.62 mi.) of the Earth's surface by breaking into turbulent eddies. Turbulence is the flow field that is characterized by eddy motion. Turbulent motion of eddies is either mechanical or thermal in origin. The atmospheric zone subjected to the friction is named as atmospheric boundary layer. Friction is important in bottom 1 or 2 km of the atmosphere, Away from boundary layer (in free atmosphere) we can ignore friction. Effects of friction : Frictional force oriented in direction opposite of velocity vector. It

Reduces speed to subgeostrophic levels Magnitude of Coriolis becomes less than pressure gradient Flow crosses isobars (contours) from high to low Magnitude of gradient in direction of flow equals frictional force Significant for surface winds but not in open atmosphere

Friction varies with:

surface texture wind speed time of day and year atmospheric conditions closeness to surface One advantage of air resistance is that when debris (meteorites etc) fall from the space, air resistance creates a friction to burn it away. Large, solid surfaces have the disadvantage of air resistance, which increases the risk of being blown sideways by gusty sidewinds.

Ekmans spiral

An Ekman spiral is a rotating column of water that forms when water moves at an angle to the wind direction due to the Coriolis Effect. The Ekman spiral refers to a structure of currents or winds near a horizontal boundary in which the flow direction rotates as one moves away from the boundary. In the Ekman layer the frictional force is balanced by the Coriolis force. Ekmans spiral is used to describe the speed and direction of flow of surface waters at various depths Factors effecting Ekmans spiral: Wind Coriolis effect

Figure: Ekman spiral effect. 1:Wind 2:force from above 3:Effective direction of the current 4: Coriolis effect

Ekman spirals are found in the atmosphere and oceans. Surface winds in the Northern Hemisphere tend to blow to the left of winds aloft.In oceans, when a persistent wind blows over an extended area of the water surface in the northern hemisphere, it causes a surface current which accelerates in that direction, which then experiences a Coriolis force and acceleration to the right of the wind: the current will turn gradually to the right as it gains speed. As the flow is now somewhat right of the wind, the Coriolis force perpendicular to the flow's motion is now partly directed against the wind. Eventually, the current will reach a top speed when the force of the wind, of the Coriolis effect, and the resistant drag of the subsurface water balance, and the current will flow at a constant speed and direction as long as the wind persists. This surface current drags on the water layer below it, applying a force in its own direction of motion to that layer, repeating the process whereby that layer eventually becomes a steady current even further to the right of the wind, and so on for deeper layers of water, resulting in a continuous rotation (or spiraling) of current direction with changing depth. As depth increases, the force transmitted from the driving wind declines and thus the speed of the resultant steady current decreases, hence the tapered spiral representation in the accompanying diagram. The depth to which the Ekman spiral penetrates is determined by how far turbulent mixing can penetrate over the course of a pendulum day The speed and direction of the moving water changes with depth. For example, ocean water at the surface move to the right of the wind in the Northern Hemisphere, then the water under the

surface water turns even more to the right. The water below turns even more. The result is a spiral of moving water called an Ekman spiral. The wind doesnt have much impact on ocean water below about 100 to 150 m (330 to 500 ft). The average direction of all this turning water turns out to be about a right angle from the wind direction.

Fig:Coriolis effect, The net effect of the rotating water is movement at right angle to the wind direction. The example shown above is for the Northern Hemisphere. The water turns to the left instead of right in the Southern Hemisphere.

References
Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and the Environment - C. Donald Ahrens, Peter L. Jackson, Christine E. O. Jackson http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=jvnQiFG3dPkC&pg=PA238&dq=Horizontal+Wind&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AnO TT6esMoyLswapsK2sBA&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAA Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather - Stephen Henry Schneider, Michael D. Mastrandrea, Terry L. Root http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=av7q4N8Ib6sC&pg=PA399&dq=Horizontal+Wind+motions&hl=en&sa=X& ei=DHCTT6K9IsTLtAbfzNyVBA&ved=0CFkQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Horizontal%20Wind%20motions&f=fals e http://space.hsv.usra.edu/TRESTE/teaching_resources/faculty_teaching_boxes/perkey/ess_course_resources/ess_at mospheric_motion_files/horizontal_motion.pdf http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Disadvantages_of_air_resistance