4.1 Chemical Composition of the Cell 1.

Common elements (96%) in organisms: a) Carbon (C) b) Oxygen (O) c) Hydrogen (H) d) Nitrogen (N) 2. Organic compounds: a) Chemical compounds that contain the element carbon. b) Example carbohydrate, protein, lipid and nucleic acid. 3. Water is an inorganic compound which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen. The importance of organic compounds in the cell 15% of protoplasm is made up of proteins. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Carbohydrates are the major source of energy in the cell. Lipids make up about 15% of the protoplasm. Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules which store genetic information in the form of a code. The building blocks of nucleic acids are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a) a nitrogenous base b) a pentose sugar c) a phosphate group Two type of nucleotides: a) DNA deoxyribonucleic acid - double stranded polynucleotide - mostly found in the nucleus - contains genetic information of an organism b) RNA ribonucleic acid - single strand - found in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and the nucleus. - copies the information carried by the DNA to be used in protein synthesis. - genetic material in some virus. The importance of water in the cell Water is a polar molecule with an unequal distribution of charges. Each molecule has a positively charged end and a negatively charged end. Polar molecules attract one another as well as ion Water can dissolve many ionic compounds such as salt and polar molecules such as sugars. Transport medium

1. Medium in the blood, lymphatic, excretory and digestive systems. 2. Blood plasma contains sugars, amino acids and respiratory gases. 3. Waste products such as urea are excreted from the body through the urine. Medium for biochemical reactions 1. Water s used in many digestive reactions such as the breaking down of proteins, lipids and sugars in the food that we eat. Maintenance of a stable internal environment 1. The concentration of water and inorganic salts that dissolve in water is important in maintaining the osmotic balance between the blood and interstitial fluid. Helps in lubrication 1. Mucus which is composed mostly of water assists the movement of food substances in the intestinal tract. High cohesion 1. Water molecules tend to stick to one another and move in long unbroken columns through the vascular tissues in plants.

CARBOHYDRATES

 Contain the elements Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen H:O ratio in all carbohydrates is 2:1. The formula for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n The n represents the number of times the CH2O unite is repeated.

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

Disaccharides (complex sugars)

Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides - Formed when two monosaccharides molecules are combined and one H2O molecule is removed through condensation.

- Can be broken down to their constituent monosaccharides by hydrolysis. - A chemical reaction that involves the breaking up of large molecules by adding water to disaccharides.

Polysaccharides Formed by hundreds of monosaccharides through condensation. Insoluble in water due to their large molecular size. Not sweet and do not crystallize. Example: a) Starch- found in plants such as wheat, rice, potatoes, bread and corn.- main carbohydrate reserve in plants. b) Glycogen (animal starch)- Main reserve of carbohydrates in animals and yeast.Humans and animals mainly store glycogens in the liver and muscle cells. c) Cellulose- Cell walls of plants Can be broken down into smaller molecules through hydrolysis by adding diluted acidor through enzymatic reaction.

Proteins Large complex organic molecules and are made up of the elements: a) carbon b) hydrogen c) oxygen d) nitrogen e) sulphur and phosphorus (some proteins) Foods that are rich in proteins include fish, meat, milk, nuts and eggs. Made up of monomers or units called amino acids. There are 20 types of amino acids in living cells. Various types of polypeptide chains can be formed from these 20 amino acids. All amino acids have an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). A dipeptide consists of two molecules of amino acids that are linked together by a peptide bond through condensation. A dipeptide is formed by a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid molecule. Conversely, a dipeptide can be broken down into amino acids by means of hydrolysis. Further condensation reactions can link more amino acids to either end of the dipeptide to form a polypeptide chain. Proteins that are broken down through hydrolysis reaction into amino acids by the digestive enzymes are absorbed into the bloodstream.

Protein structures 1. 2. 3. The primary structure of protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The sequences of amino acids are determined by the genetic code carried in the DNA molecules in the nucleus. The secondary structure of protein refers to the polypeptide chain that is coiled to for man alpha-helix or folded into beta-pleated sheets held together by hydrogen bonds. Hair protein (keratin) is an example of a protein with a helix structure. Pleated sheets are formed when a few polypeptide chains are arranged parallel to each other and folded longitudinally.

4. 5.

6. Silk is an example of pleated sheet of protein. 7. The tertiary structure refers to the way the helix chain or beta-pleated sheets are folded into a three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide. 8. Enzymes, hormones. Antibodies and plasma proteins are examples of proteins with a tertiary structure. 9. The quarternary structure refers to the combination of two or more tertiary structure polypeptide chains to form one large and complex protein molecule. 10. For example, haemoglobin has a quarternary structure of protein. Types of amino acids 1. Essential amino acids a) Cannot be synthesised by the body. b) Can only be obtained from diet. c) Leucine. d) Animal (First class) protein contain all the essential amino acids 2. Non-essential amino acids. a) Can be synthesized by the body. b) Derived from other amino acids. 3.Plant (Second class) proteins do not contain all the essential amino acids.