ATOMS ALWAYS UNDERGO CHANGE AND IN DOING SO, THEY COMBINE WITH EACH OTHER, AND HOLD EACH

OTHER USING AN INVISIBLE FORCE CALLED A CHEMICAL BOND.

Chemical Bond invisible force that hold atoms together kinds Results Es are transferred from a metal to a non metal Es are shared between several non metals Forms With formation of ions Strength of bond Electrostatic attraction between cation and anion Attraction between the positively charged nucleus and negative electron clouds of the bond; attraction involving the opposite spins of electrons

Ionic bond

Covalent bond

Without formation of ions

Atoms iA Na VIIA Cl

Lewis symbol
Na

Formation of Pertinent Bond Transfer of electrons

Na 1 Cl

Formula
NaCl

Cl

IIA Ca
Ca

Transfer of electrons
Ca

+2 N

-3

Ca3N2

IIIA N

_______________ +2 __3________2______ +6 -6 LCM= 6 -3

IA H
H

Sharing of electrons HCl

H
Cl

VIIA Cl

H Cl

Cl

IA H
H

Sharing of electrons
H

H H C H H H C H H

CH4

IVA

C
C

In bonding, compound formation,

total positive charge = total negative charge Total electropositive charge = total electronegative charge

BOND POLARITY Arises whenever atoms share their electrons unequally that is whenever they have different electronegativities Kinds of chemical bonds Basis of sharing of electrons 1. Non polar ovalent bond atoms share their electrons equally; atoms have equivalent electronegativities 2. Polar covalent bond- atoms share their electrons non equally; atoms have different electronegativities Rule :Basis of electronegativity difference (END) If END range is 0 to 0.4 non polar covalent bond If END range is 0.5 to 1.7 to 1.9 polar covalent bond If END range is >0.5 to 1.7 to 1.9 ionic bond

THEORIES OF COVALENT BONDING

1. Valence Bond Theory- Atoms contain orbitals ( with spatial orientations and shapes) that will overlap maximally to form covalent bonds 2. Hybridization TheoryHybridization- way of trying to modify the orbital model of an atom to explain the existence of bonds that are equivalent - Mixing of electrons to form hybrid orbitals Atoms that show multiple covalency numbers will hybridize Covalency Number number of unpaired electrons -dictates the number of possible bonds to be formed LEWIS SYMBOL COVALENCY NUMBER OF WILL IT NUMBER FORMED HYBRIDIZE? BONDS 1 1 NO
H

1
Cl
C

NO

YES

3
N

YES

2
O

YES

Types of Hybrids: Orbitals involved Number of hybrids Number of pure orbitals Name of hybrid Angle of repulsion among hybrids Angle of repulsion between hybrid and pure orbitals 900 900

Sp3 Sp2 sp

S p p p S p p S p

4 3 2

0 1, (p orbital) 2 (2 p orbitals)

tetrahedral 1090 Trigonal planar 1200 digonal 1800

To predict the type of hybrid of an Atom: Guidelines: Single bonds sp3 Double bonds sp2 Triple bonds - sp

For Carbon:

If C is bonded to 4 other atoms ; sp3 If C is bonded to 3 other atoms ; sp2 If C is bonded to 2 other atoms ; sp

For N:

If N is bonded to an sp3 C ; sp3 N If N is bonded to an sp2 C; sp2 N If N is bonded to an sp C; sp N

For O

If O is bonded to an sp3 C; sp3 O If O is bonded to an sp2 C; sp2 O

Examples

CH3 1 H 2 CH2 = CH2 3

CH

CH

CH 2 H 5
PREDICTINGMOLECULAR GEOMETRY

PREDICTING MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

PREDICTING MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

uses Lewis Formula Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)

Steps; 1. determine the skeleton structure of the molecule 2. be sure to count that the total number of dots is equal to the total number of valence electrons 3. surround each atom with 8 dots; except H, with 2 dots

VSEPR

suggests that

Electron Pair around central atom can be

should exert

Minimum Repulsion

directional is with bond pair property if 2 3 4 5 6 repels in a way of linear

lone pair

is without directional property

trigonal planar tetrahedral trigonal bipyramid octahedral

modifies