Cells

Definition Cells are the smallest unit or the building block of all living things. Anatomy of a Cell Basic parts of a cell consist of: 1. Nucleus 2. Cytoplasm 3. Plasma membrane The nucleus is located at the most central part of a cell which is surrounded by a semi fluid component of a cell called a cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is enclosed by the outer cell boundary called the plasma membrane. The Headquarters: Nucleus The control center of a cell is the nucleus. This part of a cell contains the genetic material called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which is encloses all data of instruction for building a persons protein and cell production.

Parts of a nucleus 1. Nuclear Membrane (nuclear envelope) a double membrane barrier that binds the nucleus. It has a selective permeability. 2. Nucleoplasm a jelly-like fluid that is enclosed by the nuclear membrane. It is in this part where the nuclear components are floating. 3. Nucleoli small, dark-staining round bodies. It is in this area where ribosomes are brought together. Ribosomes are the actual site of protein synthesis. 4. Chromatin loose network of bumpy threads that is dispersed throughout the nucleus. When cell division occurs, the chromatin forms the chromosomes. The Factory Area: Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is the area where cellular activities take place. It is located outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane. Major elements of a cytoplasm 1. Cytosol suspends the other elements in cytoplasm. 2. Organelles the metabolic machinery of a cell. 3. Inclusions stored nutrients or stored cell products. Cytoplasmic Organelles

Mitochondria referred as the powerhouse of the cell as it supplies ATP. It is a sausage-shaped organelle that is composed of a double membrane situated in each side. Ribosomes actual site of protein synthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum it carries substances (mostly protein) from one part of the cell to another. 1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum an organelle that builds materials of cellular membranes. This structure is also referred as the cells membrane factory and it is studded with ribosomes. 2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum basically functions in lipid metabolism and the clearing of drugs and pesticides. It is essential in cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown. Liver cells contain a large amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Golgi apparatus situated close to the nucleus. It is involved in the modification and packagingof the proteins from the rough ER through the transport vehicles. Lysosomes contains digestive enzymes. These enzymes are formed by the ribosomes and packaged by the Golgi apparatus. Peroxisomes contains oxidase enzymes that utilize molecular oxygen to cleanse harmful and poisonous substances (e.g. alcohol and formaldehyde). More importantly, it is responsible for converting free radicals to hydrogen peroxide then to water with the presence of the enzyme catalase. Cytoskeleton determines the shape of the cell and provides support to other organelles. Centrioles direct the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division.

Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane The cell membrane separates the cells from the surrounding and contains all the cellular components or materials. Its structure consists of the following:

Phospolipids Cholesterol Polar heads of phospholipid molecules Bimolecular lipid containing proteins the proteins are responsible for the specialized function of the cell membrane. Proteins in plasma membrane could be:

1. Enzymes 2. Glycoprotein or sugar-proteins = determines blood type, serves as receptors of certain bacteria, viruses and toxins. It also plays a role in cell-to-cell communication or interaction. Most proteins that are found on the area of plasma membrane have to do with transport functions. Water or small water-soluble molecules or ions can move through cells as proteins gather together to form tiny pores from protein channels. Other proteins are responsible for attaching to a substance and transport it towards the cell through the membrane.

Nonpolar tails of phospholipids molecules

A plasma membrane has two common specializations namely:

Microvilli Membrane junctions

Microvilli are the minute finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that is responsible for increasing the cells surface area for absorption making the process occurring more quickly. The membrane junctions, on the other hand, vary structurally depending on their roles:

Tight junctions these are resistant junctions that fuse cells together into impermeable structure that will prevent the substances from passing through the extracellular space between the cells. Desmosomes prevent cells from mechanical stress. For instance, skin cells are prevented from being pulled apart (mechanical stress) because of the presence of desmosomes.

Gap junctions allow communication between cells. Neighboring cells are connected to each other by the presence of CONNEXONS.

Types of CELLS according to function or role Cells that connect body parts

Fibroblasts elongated cells that contain a large amount of rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and large Golgi apparatus, to make and secrete the protein building blocks of these fibers. Erythrocytes also called red blood cells (RBCs). It is a concave disk shaped cell which is responsible for carrying oxygen in the bloodstream. The shape of this cell is helpful in providing an extra surface area for oxygen uptake.

Cells that coats and lines the body organs

Epithelial Cells a hexagonal shape cell. The shape of this cell allows these fibers to pack together in sheets and covers a body organ.

Cells that moves organs and body parts

Skeletal muscle cells Smooth muscle cells

Cells that stores nutrients

Fat cells

Cells that fight disease

Phagocytic cell (macrophage)

Cells that gather information and controls body functions

Nerve cells (neurons)

Cells involve in reproduction

Oocyte Sperm cell

Physiology of a Cell The cells internal structure performs various functions such as:

Metabolism (using nutrients to build new cell material, break down substances and make ATP) Digestion Excretion (dispose wastes) Reproduction Growth Movement Irritability (response to a stimulus)

Two major period of cell cycle:

Interphase or Metabolic phase Cell division

Cell Division Functions of cell division: 1. Promote growth by producing more cells. 2. Repair processes Before cell division takes place the genetic materials are duplicated precisely. DNA replication occurs towards the end of interphase period. The following processes take place chronologically:

DNA helix uncoils and slowly divides its nucleotide chains. Individual nucleotide contains a set of instruction or serves as template for building another nucleotide strand. Nucleotides unites in complementary ways such as the following:

1. Adenine (A) ALWAYS bonds to thymine (T) 2. Guanine (G) ALWAYS bonds to cytosine (C)

Identical DNA molecules are formed from the original DNA helix. Each DNA consists one old and one newly constructed nucleotide strand.

Events of Cell Division: 1. Mitosis: division of the nucleus 2. Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm

MITOSIS

The division of the nucleus is termed as mitosis. This event occurs after DNA replication takes place. When the nucleus divides, the daughter cells contain the same genetic information as the original mother cell.

Stages during mitosis are as follows:

Prophase stage where nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down and disappeared. Chromosomes in during this time have joined the spindle fibers through the centromeres.

Detail of event:

During this period, the chromosomes appear due to the coiling and shortening of the chromatin threads. Each chromosome is made up of a pair of chromatid which is held together by a centromere (small button like body). Mitotic spindle is brought together by separation and moving of the centrioles to the opposite side of the cell. Metaphase chromosomes have gathered together during this period and are lined up at the center of the spindle midway between the centrioles (metaphase plate). Anaphase chromatids that are held together split (now called chromosome again) and begins to move gradually apart from each other to the opposite ends of the cells. This phase ends when the chromosome movement ends. Telophase the reverse of prophase.

CYTOKINESIS

The division of the cytoplasm begins during the late anaphase period and ends or is already completed during the telophase stage.

Muscular System
Muscles
machines of the body Muscle make up nearly half the bodys mass. The essential function of muscle is contraction or shortening. This unique characteristic sets muscle apart from other tissues in the body. All body movements depend on the muscles. Thus, muscles can be viewed as the machines of the body.

Functions of the muscles

1. Produces movement. All movements of the human body are result of muscular contraction. 2. Maintaining posture. The skeletal muscles in the body maintain posture. 3. Stabilizing joints. Presence of muscle tendons reinforces and stabilizes joints that have poorly fitting articulating surfaces. 4. Generating heat. Heat is a by-product of muscle activity. This heat is essential in maintaining normal body temperature.

Types of muscles
Skeletal muscles Also called: voluntary muscle, striated muscle This type of muscle attaches to the bodys skeleton. Because of their attachment to the bony part of the body smoother contours of the body are formed. Skeletal muscle fibers are cigarshaped, multi-nucleate cells and are the largest of the muscle fiber types. This is the only muscle type that can be controlled consciously, thus it is a voluntary muscle. Since its fibers appear to be striped it is known as striated muscle.

Summary of the characteristic of Skeletal Muscles: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Subject to conscious control. Multinucleated. Cigar-shaped. Attaches to the bodys skeleton Soft and fragile. Its tissue can rapidly contract and with great force. Tires easily. Contraction is abrupt and rapid.

What is the reason why skeletal muscles are not ripped apart as they exert effort? Skeletal muscles do not rip apart after exerting effort because thousands of skeletal muscle fibers are bundled together by connective tissues which are responsible for providing strength and support to the muscle as a whole.

Structure or Parts of Skeletal Muscle 1. Endomysium a delicate connective tissue sheath that encloses each skeletal muscle fiber. 2. Perimysium a coarse fibrous membrane that wraps the sheathed muscle fibers. 3. Fascicle bundle of fibers formed from group of sheathed muscle fibers wrapped by perimysium. 4. Epimysium a tough overcoat of connective tissue that bounds together fascicles. This is the connective tissue that covers the entire muscle. 5. Tendons these are cordlike structures that are formed from epimysia. These are composed of mostly collagenic fibers that can cross rough bony projections. Aside from anchoring muscles, tendons are very important in providing durability. 6. Aponeuroses these are sheet like structures that attaches muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages or connective tissue coverings of each other.

Smooth Muscles

Also called: visceral muscles, non-striated muscles, involuntary muscles Smooth muscles, unlike skeletal muscles, have no striations. It is controlled involuntarily, meaning to say individuals cannot consciously regulate it. If skeletal muscles are found in the bones, smooth muscles are found on the walls of hollow visceral organs such as the stomach, urinary bladder and respiratory passages. The main function of smooth muscles is to propel substances along a definite tract or pathway within the body. These muscles have only one nucleus and are spindle-shaped.

Summary of the characteristics of smooth muscles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Involuntary control. Found on the walls of the hollow visceral organs. Have no striations. Propels substances along a fixed tract inside the body. Spindle-shaped. Have a single nucleus. Arranged in layers or sheets. Most often, it is arranged in two layers, one circular the other longitudinal. 8. Alternately contracts and relaxes to change the shape and size of an organ. 9. Contraction of these muscles is slow and sustained.

Cardiac Muscle Unlike the other two types of muscles mentioned above, cardiac muscle is only found in one place in the body the heart. The function of the heart as the pump propelling blood into the blood vessels and to all tissues of the body, is carried out because of the presence of cardiac muscle. This muscle has similarities to skeletal muscles as it is striated and smooth muscles as it is involuntary and cannot be controlled consciously. Cardiac muscle fibers are branching cells joined together by special junctions called intercalated discs.

Summary of the characteristics of cardiac muscle 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Only found in the heart. Striated. Involuntary control. Cushioned by small amounts of soft connective tissue. Arranged in spiral or figure 8-shaped bundles. Contracts at a steady rate set by the hearts pacemaker.

Types of Muscles in the Body Characteristic Skeletal Location in the body Attached to bones

Smooth Located in the walls of the hollow visceral organs with the exception of the heart Muscle fiber shape and Single, cigar shaped, Single, no striations, appearance very long, cylindrical, fusiform, cells have striated, multinucleated single nucleus cells Regulation of Voluntary Involuntary contraction Speed of contraction Slow to fast Very slow Rhythmic contraction No Yes, in some

Cardiac Walls of the heart

Branching cell chains, uninucleate, with striations, intercalated discs Involuntary Slow Yes

Gross anatomy of Skeletal Muscles Muscles in the head and neck

Facial Muscles 1. Frontalis covers the frontal bone. This muscle runs from the cranial aponeurosis to the skin of the eyebrows where it inserts. Frontalis muscle allows a person to raise his or her eyebrows and wrinkle ones forehead. 2. Orbicularis Oculi the muscle fibers of this muscle run in circles around the eyes. It is the presence of this muscle that an individual is able to close his or her eyes, squint, blink and wink. 3. Orbicularis Oris also called the kissing muscle. This circular muscle runs around the mouth. This is responsible for closing and protruding ones mouth. 4. Buccinator this muscle runs across the cheek and inserts into orbicularis oris. This muscle plays a vital role during chewing. It is listed as a chewing muscle as it compresses the cheek to hold the food between the teeth during chewing. When a person is whistling and blowing a trumpet this muscle flattens the cheek. 5. Zygomaticus this muscle is referred to as the smiling muscle as it raises the corners of the mouth upward. 6. Chewing muscles aside from buccinators which is described above, chewing muscles include the masseter and the temporalis muscle. Masseter is the muscle covering the lower jaw and is responsible for closing the jaw when chewing by elevating the mandible. The temporalis muscle, a fan-shaped muscle, inserts into the mandible and acts as a synergist of the masseter in closing the jaw. 7. Neck muscles muscles in the neck are the platysma and sternocleidomastoid. Platysma is the sheet like muscle that covers the neck anterolaterally. Its action is to pull the corners of the mouth inferiorly which produces downward sag of the mouth. The other muscle of the neck, the sternocleidomastoid, is found on each side of the neck. The sternocleidomastoid muscles are two-headed muscles. Of the two heads of each muscle, one arises from the sternum and the other arises from the clavicle. When the sternocleidomastoid muscles contract together, the neck flexes. If only one muscle of the sternocleidomastoid muscle contracts, the head is rotated toward the opposite side. Trunk Muscles Anterior Muscles 1. Pectoralis major this muscle is a large fan-shaped muscle covering the upper part of the chest. The adduction and the flexion of the axilla is the action of this muscle. It forms the anterior wall of the axilla.

2. Intercostals muscles these muscles are located deep between the ribs. The external intercostals muscles help raise the rib cage for breathing air in, making it a vital structure in breathing. The internal intercostals ribs, on the other hand, help air to move out the lungs when an individual exhales forcibly. 3. Muscles of the abdominal girdle muscles of the abdominal girdle are subdivided into two categories the anterior and posterior abdominal muscles. The anterior muscles serve as reinforcement of the body trunk. Both of these muscles are suitable for containing and protecting the abdominal contents. Anterior Abdominal Muscles Rectus abdominis muscle this paired strap-like muscle is the most superficial muscle of the abdomen. The MAIN FUNCTION of the rectus abdominis muscle is to flex the vertebral column. During defecation and childbirth, this muscle compresses the abdominal contents. Aside from that, it is also involved in forced breathing. External Oblique muscle this paired muscle makes up the lateral walls of the abdomen. The MAIN FUCNTION of this muscle is to flex the vertebral column like the rectus abdominis muscle. However, they also rotate the trunk and bend it laterally. Internal oblique muscle this paired muscle serves the same function as that of the external oblique muscles.

Posterior Muscles 1. Trapezius muscles these muscles are the most superficial muscles of the posterior and upper trunk. They serve as the antagonists of the sternocleidomastoids and they can elevate, depress, adduct ad stabilize the scapula. When seen together, the trapezius muscle forms a diamond or kite-shaped muscle mass. 2. Latissimus Dorsi muscle this is a large and flat pair of muscle that covers the entire lower back. Latissimus dorsi muscle extends and adducts the humerus. This muscle plays a vital role in bringing down the arm in a power stroke when swimming or striking a blow. 3. Erector Spinae muscle this group of muscle is a prime movers of back extension. Aside from acting as powerful back extensors, erector spinae muscle also helps control the action of bending over at the waist. When an injury to back structure occurs, these muscles go into spasms which are a common source of lower back pain. Each erector spinae muscle is composed of three muscle columns that cover the entire length of the vertebral column. The three muscle columns are longissimus, iliocostalis and spinalis. 4. Deltoid muscles these are fleshy and triangle-shaped muscles that form the round shape of the shoulders. They are bulky and have been the most common and most favorite injection site. The deltoid muscles are the prime movers of arm abduction.

Muscles of the Upper Limb Muscles of the upper limbs are divided into three groups. 1. First group muscles arising from the shoulder girdle and cross the shoulder joint to insert into the humerus. These muscles move the arm. 2. Second group muscles that encloses the humerus and insert on the forearm bones. These muscles cause movement at the elbow joint. 3. Third group includes muscles of the forearm that cause their movement. Muscles of the Humerus that Act on the forearm 1. Biceps Brachii this muscle bulges when the elbow is flexed. It is a powerful prime mover for the flexion of the forearm and acts to supinate the forearm. 2. Brachialis this muscle plays an essential in elbow flexion. It lies deep to the biceps muscle. 3. Brachioradialis this is a fairly weak muscle. It arises on the humerus and inserts into the distal forearm. 4. Triceps brachii this is the only muscle fleshing out the posterior humerus. It is the powerful prime mover of elbow extension. Other term for this muscle is the boxers mucle as it can deliver a straight arm knock-out punch. This muscle is also the antagonist of the biceps brachii muscle. Muscles of the Lower Limb Characteristic of the muscles of the lower limb: 1. These muscles cause movement at the hip, knee and foot joints. 2. They are one of the largest and strongest muscles in the body. 3. These muscles play a vital role in walking and balancing the body. Muscles causing movement at the hip joint 1. Gluteus Maximus Muscle this is a superficial hip muscle that shapes the buttocks. Gluteus maximus muscle is a very powerful hip extensor that is responsible in bringing the thigh to a straight line. 2. Gluteus medius Muscle this is a hip abductor muscle. Gluteus medius muscle is very important in stabilizing the pelvis when an individual is walking. When more than 5 ml of medication is administered intramuscularly, the gluteus medius muscle is used. However, the medial part of each buttock overlies the large sciatic nerve, hence; this area must be used carefully. Because of this reason, the fleshy gluteus maximus would be a better choice. In cases, where the gluteus medius is used for IM injection, the nurse should divide the buttocks into four equal parts mentally. The upper outer quadrant is a very safe site for an IM injection. 3. Iliopsoas this muscle is composed of two muscles the iliacus and psoas major. Iliopsoas is a prime mover of hip flexion and it also acts to keep the upper body from falling backward when a person is standing erect. 4. Adductor muscles as their name indicate, these muscles adduct or press the thighs together. However, since gravity does most of the work for them, these muscles tend to become flabby very easily.

Muscles causing movement at the knee joint 1. Hamstring group these muscles form the muscle mass of the posterior thigh. This group is composed of three muscles the biceps femoris, semimembranosus and semitendinosus muscles. 2. Sartorius this thin and strap-like muscle is not very significant because it is a very weak flexor of the thigh. However, this muscle is the most superficial muscle of the thigh. The Sartorius muscle is often referred to as the tailors muscle because it acts as a synergist to bring about the cross-legged position in which old-time tailors is often shown. 3. Quadriceps group four muscles compose this muscle group. Namely, the rectus femoris and the three vastus muscles. These muscles flesh out the anterior thigh. Quadriceps group acts to extend the knee powerfully. Muscles causing movement at the ankle and foot 1. Tibialis anterior this is a superficial muscle of the anterior leg that acts to dorsiflex and invert the foot. 2. Extensor digitorum longus this muscle inserts into the phalanges of toes 2 to 5. It is a prime mover of toe extension and a dorsiflexor of the foot. 3. Fibularis muscles there are three fibularis muscles namely, the longus, brevis and tertius. These muscles are found on the lateral part of the leg and working as a group, they are responsible for the plantar flexion and the eversion of the foot. 4. Gastrocnemius this muscle forms the curved half of the posterior leg. It is a prime mover for plantar flexion of the foot. 5. Soleus this muscle lies deep to gastrocnemius. It has no effect on knee movement but it is a string plantar flexor of the foot.

Nervous System
Definition The nervous system is an organ system that contains a network of specialized cells called neurons. This is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. It coordinates the action of an animal and transmits signals between the different parts of the body. Every thought, movement and emotions reflect the activity of the nervous system. Functions of the NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. To monitor changes that takes place inside and outside the body. The nervous system utilizes the million sensory receptors to carry out this function. Any changes or stimuli occurring are noted by the nervous system and the gathered data is now called a sensory input. 2. Another important function of the nervous system is to process and interpret the sensory input or gathered data. It is the working of this system to make decision about what should be done at each moment. This is the process known as INTEGRATION. 3. As the nervous system has reached a decision of what response and appropriate action to be done in response to the stimuli, it then effects a response by activating muscles or glands through motor output. Structural Classification of the Nervous system Structurally, the nervous system is classified into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Central nervous system. The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. These organs occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the INTEGRATING and COMMAND CENTERS of the nervous system. It is the CNS that interprets an incoming sensory information and sends and instruction basing on the past experience and current condition. Peripheral Nervous System. The PNS is consisting of the nerves that extend from the brain and the spinal cord. It is the part of the nervous system outside the CNS. There are varieties of nerves. The spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord. The cranial nerves, on the other hand, carry impulses to and from the brain. These nerves serve as the communication lines of the body.

Functional Classification of the Nervous System The functional classification of the nervous system is only concerned about the structures of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS in this classification is divided into two principal subdivisions:

Sensory or afferent division. This subdivision is composed of the nerve fibers that convey impulses to the central nervous system (CNS) from the sensory receptors. These sensory receptors are located in the different parts of the body. With the presence of these sensory fibers the CNs is constantly informed of the events going on both inside and outside the body.

1. The fibers responsible for delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles and joints are called the somatic sensory fibers. 2. Fibers that transmit impulses from the visceral organs are called the visceral sensory fibers.

Motor or efferent division. This division is responsible for carrying impulses from the CNS to the effector organs, muscles and glands. In response these impulses, activate muscles and glands and they effect a motor response. The two classification of motor or efferent division are:

1. Somatic nervous system. This subdivision is also referred as the voluntary nervous system. The somatic NS allows a person to consciously or voluntarily control a persons skeletal muscles. 2. Autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS regulates the events that are automatic or INVOLUNTARY such as the activity of the smooth and cardiac muscles and glands. The two parts of the ANS are the sympathetic and the parasympathetic systems.

Function and Structure of the Nervous System If you think of the brain as a central computer that controls all bodily functions, then the nervous system is like a network that relays messages back and forth from the brain to different parts of the body. It does this via the spinal cord, which runs from the brain down through the back and contains threadlike nerves that branch out to every organ and body part. The nervous system derives its name from nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of fibers that emanate from the brain and central cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of two principal types of cells namely, the supporting cells and the neurons. SUPPORTING CELLS The supporting cells in the CNS are lumped together as NEUROGLIA or GLIAL CELLS. Glial Cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, it is estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain areas. The functions of glial cells are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. to support neurons and hold them in place to supply nutrients to neurons to insulate neurons electrically to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets

Characteristics of Glial Cells: 1. Lumped together. 2. Not able to transmit impulses. 3. Never lose their ability to divide. The CNS glia include:

Astrocytes. These are star-shaped cells that account nearly half of the neural tissue. Astrocytes form a living barrier between capillaries and neurons and play a role in making exchanges between the two. This is to prevent harmful substances in the blood from entering the neurons. Aside from that, astricytes are also important in controlling the chemical environment in the brain. This is done by picking up excess ions and recapturing released neurotransmitters. Microglia. These are spiderlike phagocytes that dispose debris including dead brain cells and bacteria. Ependymal cells. These cells line the cavities of the brain and the spinal cord. Aside from lining the cavities of certain organs, these cells are very important in helping the CSF through their cilia to circulate and fill those cavities and form a protective cushion around the CNS. Oligodendrocytes. These are glial cells that wrap their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.

NEURONS Anatomy of the Neuron The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cellthe neuron (sometimes called neurone or nerve cell). Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via SYNAPSES, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. Many types of neuron possess an AXON, a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts. Axons frequently travel through the body in bundles called nerves.

Cell body the metabolic center of the neuron. This part of neuron contains the usual organelles except for the centrioles. It contains a nucleus and cytoplasm. Where it is most distinct from cells of other types is that out of the cell body, long threadlike projections emerge. Over most of the cell there are numerous projections that branch out into still finer extensions. This is well protected and is located in the bony skull or vertebral column and is essential to well-being of the nervous system. The cell body carries out most of the metabolic functions of a neuron. Nissl substance and Neurofibrils found in the cell body that is essential in maintaining cell shape. Dendrites neuron processes that covey incoming messages TOWARD the cell body. Axons neuron processes that generate nerve impulses AWAY from the cell body. Axon hillock a cone-like region of the cell body where the axon arises. Axon terminals - located at the terminal end of the axons that contains tiny vesicles or membranous sacs that contains chemicals called neurotransmitters. When impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters into the extracellular spaces. Synaptic cleft a tiny gap that separates axon terminal from the next neuron. Myelin a whitish, fatty material that covers long nerve fibers. It has a waxy appearance that protects and insulates the fibers and increases the rate of nerve impulses. Schwann cells myelinates the axon outside the nervous system. Schwann cells are specialized supporting cells that enclose themselves tightly around the axon jelly-roll fashion. Myelin sheath a tight coil of wrapped membranes created after the Schwann cells enclose the axon. Neurilemma part of the Schwann cell external to the myelin sheath. Nodes of Ranvier gaps or indentations between the myelin sheaths.

Classification of Neurons Functional Classification of Neurons Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of neurons exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions. These include SENSORY NEURONS that transmute physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and MOTOR NEURONS that transmute neural signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many species the great majority of neurons receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to other neurons. An ITERNEURON is always found completely within the CNS and conveys messages between parts of the system In addition to neurons, nervous tissue contains glial cells such as the Schwann cells covering the neurons with sheath. These cells maintain the tissue by supporting and protecing the neurons. They also provide nutrients to neurons and help to keep the tissue free of debris. The neurons require a great deal of energy for the maintenance of the ionic imbalance between themselves and their surrounding fluids, which is constantly in flux as a result of the opening and closing of channels through the neuronal membranes.

Structural Classification of Neurons

Multipolar neurons These are several processes extending from the cell body. All motor and association neurons are multipolar and this is the most common structural type. Bipolar neurons These are neurons with two processes an axon and a dendrite. Bipolar neurons are rare in adults and are only found in some special sense organs such as the eye or nose where they act in sensory processing as receptor cells. Unipolar neurons These neurons have single process emerging from the cell body. it is very short and divides almost immediately into proximal (central) and distal (peripheral) processes.

Neurons are dynamically polarized, so that information flows from the fine dendrites into the main dendrites and then to the cell body, where it is converted into all-or-none signals, the action potentials, which are relayed to other neurons by the axon, a long wire-like structure. The neuron is actually a very poor conductor; the signal drops to 37% of its original strength in only about 0.15 mm. Thus it needs amplification all along its length in the form of sodium-potassium pumps and gates. Sodium ions rush into the neurons from the extracellular fluid, resulting in a transient change in the voltage difference between the neuron and the surrounding environment. The action potential travels like a wave from the cell body down the neuron via the repeating amplifications. Thus, the action potential enables the neuron to communicate rapidly with other neurons over sizable distances, sometime more than a meter away with a speed from 20 -200 m/sec. When the action potential reaches an axon terminal, it causes the terminals to secrete a chemical messenger (neurotransmitter), generally an amino acid or its derivative, which binds to receptors in the post-synaptic neurons on the far side of the synaptic cleft. When the postsynaptic potential has reached a specific value an action potential is triggered and the signal is passed to the next neuron.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The Central Nervous System (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is surrounded by bone-skull and vertebrae. Fluid and tissue also insulate the brain and spinal cord. During embryonic development, the brain first forms as a tube, the anterior end of which enlarges into three hollow swellings that form the brain, and the posterior of which develops into the spinal cord.

Anatomy of the CNS

Brain When a message comes into the brain from anywhere in the body, the brain tells the body how to react. For example, if you accidentally touch a hot stove, the nerves in your skin shoot a message of pain to your brain. The brain then sends a message back telling the muscles in your hand to pull away. Luckily, this neurological relay race takes a lot less time than it just took to read about it. Considering everything it does, the human brain is incredibly compact, weighing just 3 pounds. Its many folds and grooves, though, provide it with the additional surface area necessary for storing all of the bodys important information. The four main regions of the brain are:

Cerebral hemispheres Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum

Cerebral Hemispheres The paired cerebral hemispheres are the most superior part of the brain and are collectively called thecerebrum. 1. Gyri or gyrus (singular) elevated ridges of tissue found on the entire surface of the cerebral hemisphere. 2. Sulci or sulcus (singular) shallow grooves that separates the gyri. 3. Fissures deeper groves which separates the larger regions of the brain. The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure called the LONGITUDINAL FISSURE. The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, is divided into left and right hemispheres connected to each other by the corpus callosum. The hemispheres are covered by a thin layer of gray matter known as the cerebral cortex, the most recently evolved region of the vertebrate brain. The cortex in each hemisphere of the cerebrum is between 1 and 4 mm thick. Folds divide the cortex into four lobes: occipital, frontal, parietal and temporal. No region of the brain functions alone, although major functions of various parts of the lobes have been determined.

The occipital lobe (back of the head) receives and processes visual information. The temporal lobereceives auditory signals, processing language and the meaning of words. The parietal lobe is associated with the sensory cortex and processes information about touch, taste, pressure, pain, and heat and cold. The frontal lobe conducts three functions: 1. motor activity and integration of muscle activity 2. speech 3. thought processes

Language comprehension is found in Wernickes area. Speaking ability is in Brocas area. Damage to Brocas area causes speech impairment but not impairment of language comprehension. Lesions in Wernickes area impair ability to comprehend written and spoken words but not speech. The remaining parts of the cortex are associated with higher thought processes, planning, memory, personality and other human activities.

Diencephalon The diencephalon or interbrain sits atop the brainstem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres. The major structures of the diencephalon are: 1. Thalamus The thalamus is a relay station for sensory impulses passing upward the sensory cortex. 2. Hypothalamus Plays a role in body temperature regulation, water balance and metabolism. It is also the center for many drives and emotion such as thirst, appetite, sex, pain and pleasure. Aside from that, the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland and produces two hormones of its own. 3. Epithalamus The epithalamus contains the pineal body and the choroid plexuses. The choroid plexuses form the cerebrospinal fluid. Brain Stem The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and is approximately 3 inches long. It provides a pathway for ascending and descending tracts. The structures of the brain stem are:

1. Midbrain The midbrain, located underneath the middle of the forebrain, acts as a master coordinator for all the messages going in and out of the brain to the spinal cord. It is composed primarily of two bulging fiber tracts called the cerebral peduncles, which convey ascending and descending impulses. 2. Pons the pons have an important nuclei in the control of breathing. 3. Medulla oblongata most inferior part of the brain stem. It contains many nuclei that regulate vital visceral activities. The medulla oblongata contains centers that control heart rate, BO, breathing, swallowing, vomiting and others. 4. Reticular Formation the neurons of the reticular formation are involved in the motor control of the visceral organs. A special group of reticular formation neurons, the reticular activating system (RAS) plays a role in consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles. Cerebellum The cerebellum is the third part of the hindbrain, but it is not considered part of the brain stem. Functions of the cerebellum include fine motor coordination and body movement, posture, and balance. This region of the brain is enlarged in birds and controls muscle action needed for flight.

Spinal Cord The spinal cord runs along the dorsal side of the body and links the brain to the rest of the body. Vertebrates have their spinal cords encased in a series of (usually) bony vertebrae that comprise the vertebral column. The gray matter of the spinal cord consists mostly of cell bodies and dendrites. The surrounding white matter is made up of bundles of interneuronal axons (tracts). Some tracts are ascending (carrying messages to the brain), others are descending (carrying messages from the brain). The spinal cord is also involved in reflexes that do not immediately involve the brain. Nerves divide many times as they leave the spinal cord so that they may reach all parts of the body. The thickest nerve is 1 inch thick and the thinnest is thinner than a human hair. Each nerve is a bundle of hundreds or thousands of neurons (nerve cells). The spinal cord runs down a tunnel of holes in your backbone or spine. The bones protect it from damage. The cord is a thick bundle of nerves, connecting your brain to the rest of your body.

Peripheral Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System contains only nerves and connects the brain and spinal cord (CNS) to the rest of the body. The axons and dendrites are surrounded by a white myelin sheath. Cell bodies are in the central nervous system (CNS) or ganglia. Ganglia are collections of nerve cell bodies. Cranial nerves in the PNS take impulses to and from the brain (CNS). Spinal nerves take impulses to and away from the spinal cord. There are two major subdivisions of the PNS motor pathways: the somatic and the autonomic. Two main components of the PNS: 1. sensory (afferent) pathways that provide input from the body into the CNS. 2. motor (efferent) pathways that carry signals to muscles and glands (effectors). Most sensory input carried in the PNS remains below the level of conscious awareness. Input that does reach the conscious level contributes to perception of our external environment.

Autonomic Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System is that part of PNS consisting of motor neurons that control internal organs. It has two subsystems. The autonomic system controls muscles in the heart, the smooth muscle in internal organs such as the intestine, bladder, and uterus. TheSympathetic Nervous System is involved in the fight or flight response. TheParasympathetic Nervous System is involved in relaxation. Each of these subsystems operates in the reverse of the other (antagonism). Both systems innervate the same organs and act in opposition to maintain homeostasis. For example: when you are scared the sympathetic system causes your heart to beat faster; the parasympathetic system reverses this effect. Motor neurons in this system do not reach their targets directly (as do those in the somatic system) but rather connect to a secondary motor neuron which in turn innervates the target organ.

Somatic Nervous System

The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) includes all nerves the muscular system and external sensory receptors. External sense organs (including skin) are receptors. Muscle fibers and gland cells are effectors. The reflex arc is an automatic, involuntary reaction to a stimulus. When the doctor taps your knee with the rubber hammer, she/he is testing your reflex (or knee-jerk). The reaction to the stimulus is involuntary, with the CNS being informed but not consciously controlling the response. Examples of reflex arcs include balance, the blinking reflex, and the stretch reflex. Sensory input from the PNS is processed by the CNS and responses are sent by the PNS from the CNS to the organs of the body. Motor neurons of the somatic system are distinct from those of the autonomic system. Inhibitory signals, cannot be sent through the motor neurons of the somatic system.

Respiratory System
Overview
Cells in the body require oxygen to survive. Vital functions of the body are carried out as the body is continuously supplied with oxygen. Without the respiratory system exchange of gases in the alveoli will not be made possible and systemic distribution of oxygen will not be made possible. The transportation of oxygen in the different parts of the body is accomplished by the blood of the cardiovascular system. However, it is the respiratory system that carries in oxygen to the body and transports oxygen from the tissue cells to the blood. Thus, cardiovascular system and respiratory system works hand in hand with each other. A problem in the cardiovascular system would affect the other and vice versa.

Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System

Nose The nose is the only external part of the respiratory system and is the part where the air passes through. During inhalation and exhalation, air enters the nose by passing through the external nares or nostrils. Nasal cavity is found inside the nose and is divided by a nasal septum. The receptors for the sense of smell, olfactory receptors are found in the mucosa of the slit-like superior part of the nasal cavity which is located beneath the ethmoid bone. Respiratory mucosa lines the rest of the nasal cavity and rests on a rich network of thin-walled veins that warms the air passing by. Important information about nose is the presence of the sticky mucus that is produced by the mucosas gland. This important characteristic moistens the air and traps the incoming bacteria and other foreign debris passing through the nasal cavity. Cells of the nasal mucosa are ciliated and it creates a gentle current that moves the contaminated mucus posteriorly towards the throat, where it is swallowed and digested by stomach juices. In cases where the temperature of the environment is cold, the cilia become sluggish. Thus, more mucus are allowed to accumulate in the nasal cavity and to dribble outward through the nostrils. This is the main reason why a runny nose is noted during a cold day. Conchae these are three mucosa-covered projections or lobes that greatly increase the surface area of the mucosa exposed to the air. Aside from that, conchae increase the air turbulence in the nasal cavity. Palate a partition that separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity. Anteriorly, the palate that is supported by a bone called the hard palate and the one which is unsupported is the soft palate. Paranasal Sinuses these are structures surrounding the casal cavity and are located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones.

Pharynx

The pharynx is a 13 cm long muscular tube that is commonly called the throat. This muscular passageway serves as a common food and air pathway. This structure is continuous with the nasal cavity anteriorly via the internal nares. Parts of pharynx: 1. Nasopharynx the superior portion of the pharynx. The pharyngotympanic tubes that drain the middle ear open in this area. This is the main reason why children who have otitis media may follow a sore throat or other tyoes of pharyngeal infections since the two mucosae of these regions are continuous. 2. Oropharynx middle part 3. Laryngopharynx part of pharynx that enters the larynx. When food enters the oral cavity, it travels to the oropharynx and laryngopharynx. However, instead of entering the larynx, the food is directed into the esophagus and not to the larynx. Tonsils clusters of lymphatic tissues found in the pharynx. Types of Tonsils: 1. Palatine tonsils tonsils found at the end of the soft palate. 2. Pharyngeal tonsils lymphatic tissues located high in the nasopharynx. This is also called adenoid. 3. Lingual tonsils located at the base of the tongue. Larynx The larynx is the one that routes the air and food into their proper channels. Also termed as the voice box, it plays an important role in speech. This structure is located inferior to the pharynx and is formed by: 1. Eight rigid hyaline cartilages 2. Spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage, which is called the epiglottis. Thyroid cartilage this is the largest hyaline cartilage that protrudes anteriorly in males and is referred to as the Adams apple. Epiglottis this is a flap of tissue that serves as a guardian of the airways as it protects the superior portion of the larynx. The epiglottis does not restrict passage of air into the lower respiratory passages when a person is not swallowing. However, when a person swallows food, the epiglottis tips and forms a lid or blocks the opening of the larynx so that food will not be directed to the lower respiratory passages. The food will be then routed to the esophagus and in cases where it enters the larynx, a cough reflex is triggered to expel the substance and prevent it from continuing into the lungs. This protective reflex does not work when a person is unconscious that is why it is not allowed to offer or administer fluids to an unconscious client.

Vocal folds a pair of folds which is also called the true vocal cords that vibrate when air is

expelled. Glottis the slit-like passageway between the vocal folds. Trachea Also called the windpipe, the trachea is about 10 to 12 cm long or about 4 incheas and travels dwon from the larynx to the fifth thoracic vertebra. This structure is reinforced with C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage and these rings are very important for the following purposes: 1. The open parts of the rings abut the esophagus that allows the structure to expand anteriorly when a person swallows a large size of food. 2. The solid portions of the C-rings are supporting the walls of the trachea to keep it patent or open even though pressure changes during breathing. The trachea is lined with ciliated mucosa that primarily serves for this purpose: To propel mucus loaded with dust particles and other debris away from the lungs towards the throat where it can either be swallowed or spat out. Main Bronchi The main bronchi, both the right and the left, are both formed by tracheal divisions. There is a slight difference between the right and left main bronchi. The right one is wider, shorter and straighter than the left. This is the most common site for an inhaled foreign object to become lodged. When air reaches the bronchi, it is already warmed, cleansed of most impurities and well humidified. Lungs The lungs are fairly large organs that occupy the most of the thoracic cavity. The most central part of the thoracic cavity, the mediastinum, is not occupied by the lungs as this area houses the heart. Apex the narrow superior portion of each lung and is located just below the clavicle Base the resting area of the lung. This is a broad lung area that rests on the diaphragm. Divisions of the Lungs The lungs are divided into lobes by the presence of fissures. The left lung has two lobes while the right lung has three. Pleural Layers Visceral pleura also termed as the pulmonary pleura and covers each surface of the lings. Parietal pleura covers the walls of the thoracic cavity. Pleural fluid a slippery serous secretion that allows the lungs to slide along over the thorax wall during breathing movements and causes the two pleural layers to cling together.

Bronchioles smallest air-conducting passageways. Bronchial tree or respiratory tree a network formed due to the branching and rebranching of the respiratory passageways within the lungs. Alveoli air sacs. This is the only area where exchange of gases takes place. Millions of clustered alveoli resembles bunches of grapes and these structures make up the bulk of the lungs. Respiratory Zone this part includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli.

Physiology of Respiration
The respiratory primarily supplies oxygen to the body and disposes of carbon dioxide through exhalation. Four events chronologically occur, for respiration to take place. 1. Pulmonary ventilation this process is commonly termed as breathing. With pulmonary ventilation, air must move out into and out of the lungs so that the alveoli of the lungs are continuously drained and filled with air. 2. External respiration this is the exchange of gases or the loading of oxygen and the unloading of carbon dioxide between the pulmonary blood and alveoli. 3. Respiratory gas transport this is the process where the oxygen and carbon dioxide is transported to the and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body through the bloodstream. 4. Internal respiration in internal respiration the exchange of gases is taking place between the blood and tissue cells. Mechanics of Breathing Breathing, also called pulmonary ventilation is a mechanical process that completely depends on the volume changes occurring in the thoracic cavity. Thus, a when volume changes pressure also changes, and this would lead to the flow of gases equalizing with the pressure. Inspiration also called inhalation. This is the act of allowing air to enter the body. Air is flowing into the lungs with this process. Inspiratory muscles are involved with inspiration which includes: 1. The diaphragm 2. External intercostals These muscles contract when air is flowing in and thoracic cavity increases. When the diaphragm contracts it slides inferiorly and is depressed. As a result the thoracic cavity increases. The contraction of the external intercostal muscles lifts the rib cage and thrusts the sternum forward. This increases the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thorax. Expiration also called expiration. It the process of breathing out air as it leaves the lungs. This process causes the gases to flow out to equalize the pressure inside and outside the lungs. Under normal circumstances, the process of expiration is effortless.

Sensory System
A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation (touch), taste and olfaction (smell). In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind.
Contents

1. 2. 3. 4.

1 Olfactory (Smell) 2 Gustatory (taste) 3 Auditory (hearing) 4 Vision (sight)

Olfactory (Smell) The nose has two primary functions. The first is olfaction the sense of smell. However, the second function is of primary interest to this discussion filtration, heating and humidification of the inhaled air. To accomplish the second task, the nasal cavity contains a convoluted set of passageways called the turbinates on the lateral wall of each nasal cavity. The nose performs other various functions such as:

Respiration. Air conditioning of the inspired air. Filtration of the inspired air. Olfaction or sense of smell. Resonating the spoken voice. Draining the para nasal sinuses and the nasolacrimal duct.

ANATOMY OF THE NOSE The nose consists of the following:

External nose triangular-shaped projection in the center of the face. Nostrils The two openings into the nasal passages. Nasal passages passages that are lined with mucous membranes and tiny hairs (cilia) that help to filter the air and move nasal and sinus mucous to the back of the throat. Nasal passages are separated by the nasal septum. Septum made up of cartilage and bone and covered by mucous membranes. The cartilage also gives support to the lower part of the nose and divides the nasal passages into right and left sides. Sinuses four-paired, air-filled cavities.

OLFACTORY RECEPTORS AND THE SENSE OF SMELL Chemoreceptors are those that respond to chemicals in solution for taste and olfaction. The olfactory receptors are believed to be sensitive to a much wider range of chemicals. Thousands of olfactory receptors occupy a postage stamp-sized area in the roof of each nasal cavity. These are the receptors for the sense of smell. Air entering the nasal cavities must make a hairpin turn to enter the respiratory passageway below which causes more air to flow superiorly across the olfactory receptors, thus, intensifying the sense of smell. Olfactory receptor cells are special neurons that are equipped with olfactory hairs. Olfactory hairs are long cilia that protrude from the nasal epithelium and are continually bathed by a layer of mucus secreted by underlying glands. When the receptors are stimulated by chemicals that are dissolved in the mucus, they transmit impulses along the olfactory filaments, which collectively make up the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) to the olfactory complex of the brain. It is in the brain that the interpretation of the odor occurs. The olfactory pathways are closely tied into the limbic system, the emotional-visceral part of the brain. Hence, olfactory impressions are long lasting and are very much part of our memories and emotions. The olfactory receptors are extremely sensitive. Only a few molecules are required to activate them. Olfactory neurons tend to adapt rather quickly when they are exposed to unchanging stimulus of odor. This is the main reason why a woman stops smelling her own perfume but quickly picks up the scent of another persons perfume. Gustatory (taste) TASTE BUDS AND SENSE OF TASTE The tongue is a versatile organ with specialized functions like taste and speech. Beneath a cover of taste buds, the tongue is almost entirely made up of muscle. The muscles of the tongue are essential for its bodily movement and intrinsic manipulations, required for actions like speech, articulation, deglutition or swallowing, whistling, licking, kissing and even cleaning teeth. Taste is the brains interpretation of chemicals that trigger receptors on the tongue, which are housed in the taste buds. The basic chemical components, are found in foods, toxins, and other ingested matter. Unappealing tastes are usually associated with toxins, as this is a defense mechanism preventing consumption. The chemicals bind their particular receptors and initiate signaling that travels through the nerves to the brain, where they are interpreted.

Taste Buds The taste buds are specific receptors for the sense of taste which are widely distributed in the oral cavity. Of the 10,000 taste buds that humans have, most are located in the tongue. Few are found on the soft palate and inner surface of the cheeks. Papillae small peg-like projections that covers the dorsal surface of the tongue. These peg-like projections are of three types namely:

Sharp filiform papillae Rounded fungiform papillae Circumvallate papillae

Taste buds are found on the sides of the circumvallate papillae but are more numerous on the fungiform papillae. When a person eats something, the specific cells that respond to the chemical dissolved in the saliva are epithelial cells called gustatory cells. Gustatory cells are surrounded by supporting cells in the taste bud. Their long microvilli, the gustatory hairs, protrude through the taste pore and when they are stimulated, they depolarize and impulses are transmitted to the brain. To carry the taste impulses three cranial nerves transports it to the gustatory cortex namely:

Cranial nerve VII Cranial nerve IX Cranial nerve X

Auditory (hearing) Overview Hearing is one of the major senses and like vision is important for distant warning and communication. It can be used to alert, to communicate pleasure and fear. It is a conscious appreciation of vibration perceived as sound. In order to do this, the appropriate signal must reach the higher parts of the brain. Functions of the ear The ears are paired sensory organs comprising the auditory system, involved in the detection of sound, and the vestibular system, involved with maintaining body balance or the equilibrium. The ear divides anatomically and functionally into three regions: the external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. All three regions are involved in hearing. Only the inner ear functions in the vestibular system. 1. SOUND DETECTION. The function of the ear is to convert physical vibration into an encoded nervous impulse. It can be thought of as a biological microphone. Like a microphone the ear is stimulated by vibration: in the microphone the vibration is transduced into an electrical signal, in the ear into a nervous impulse which in turn is then processed by the central auditory pathways of the brain.

2. MAINTAINING BODY BALANCE or EQUILIBRIUM. The prime function of the vestibular system is to detect and compensate for movement. This includes the ability to maintain optic fixation despite movement and to initiate muscle reflexes to maintain balance. Anatomy of the Ear The ear is divided into three major areas: the outer or external ear, the middle ear and the inner or internal ear. The outer and middle ear are involved with hearing only whilst the inner ear functions both equilibrium and hearing.

OUTER (EXTERNAL) EAR The outer ear collects sound waves in the air and channels them to the inner parts of the ear. The outer ear along with its canal has been shown to enhance sounds within a certain frequency range. That range just happens to be the same range that most of the characteristics of humanspeech sounds fall into. This allows the sounds to be boosted to twice their original intensity. Parts of the outer ear are the following: 1. Pinna Also called the auricle. It is the part which protrudes from the side of the skull made of cartilage covered by skin. The pinna collects sound and channels it into the ear canal. The pinnas shape enables it to funnel sound waves into the external auditory meatus. The various folds in the pinnas structure amplify some high frequency components of the sound. They also help in the localization of sound in the vertical plane. As sounds hit the pinna from above and below, their paths to the external auditory meatus vary in length. This means that they take different times to reach the meatus. 2. External acoustic meatus or external auditory canal this is a short chamber about 1 inch long by inch wide. It is carved into the temporal bone of the skull. The canal has bends in both the vertical and horizontal planes. This means that it is difficult for anything poked into the meatus to hit the drum. Any trauma is likely to be to the walls of the canal. In its skin-lined walls are the ceruminous glands, which secrete a waxy yellow substance, called earwax orcerumen.

Sound waves entering the external auditory canal eventually hit the tympanic membrane or eardrum and cause it to vibrate. The canal ends at the eardrum, which separates the outer ear from the middle ear. MIDDLE EAR The middle ear or tympanic cavity is an air filled space within the temporal bone. It transforms the acoustical vibration of the sound wave into mechanical vibration and passes it onto the inner ear. The three tiny bones of the middle ear act as a lever to bridge the eardrum with the oval window. Incoming forces are magnified by about 30 %. This increased force allows the fluid in the cochlea of the inner ear to be activated. The tympanic cavity is spanned by the three smallest bones in the body, the ossicles which transmit the vibratory motion of the eardrum to the fluids of the inner ear. These bones, named for their shape, are the following:

Hammer or malleus Anvil or incus Stirrup or stapes

When the eardrum moves the hammer moves with it and transfers the vibration to the anvil. In response to this, the anvil passes it on to the stirrup which in turn presses on the oval window of the inner ear. The movement of the oval window sets the fluids of the inner ear into motion, eventually exciting the hearing receptors. The Eustachian tube is a canal that links the middle ear with the throat area. This tube helps to equalize the pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear. Having the same pressure allows for the proper transfer of sound waves. The eustachian tube is lined with mucous, just like the inside of the nose and throat. Inner Ear The inner ear consists of a maze of fluid-filled tubules running through the temporal bone of the skull. The bony tubes, the bony labyrinth, are filled with a fluid called perilymph. Within this bony labyrinth is a second series of delicate cellular tubes, called the membranous labyrinth, filled with the fluid called endolymph. This membranous labyrinth contains the actual hearing cells, the hair cells of the organ of Corti. There are three major sections of the bony labyrinth: 1. The front portion is the snail-shaped cochlea, which functions in hearing 2. The rear part, the semicircular canals, helps maintain balance 3. Interconnecting the cochlea and the semicircular canals is the vestibule, containing the sense organs responsible for balance, the utricle and saccule.

The bony cochlea is so called because it is shaped like a snail shell It has two and a half turns and houses the organ of hearing known as the membranous labyrinth surrounded by fluid called the perilymph. The cochlea has a volume of about 0.2 of a millilitre. In this space lie up to 30,000 hair cells which transduce vibration into nervous impulses and about 19,000 nerve fibers which transmit the signals to and from the brain. The inner ear has two membrane-covered outlets into the air-filled middle ear the oval windowand the round window. The oval window sits immediately behind the stapes, the third middle ear bone, and begins vibrating when struck by the stapes. This sets the fluid of the inner ear sloshing back and forth. The round window serves as a pressure valve, bulging outward as fluid pressure rises in the inner ear. Nerve impulses generated in the inner ear travel along the vestibulocochlear area (cranial nerve VIII), which leads to the brain. This is actually two nerves, somewhat joined together, the cochlear nerve for hearing and the vestibular nerve for equilibrium. How Do We Hear? The range of audible sound is approximately 10 octaves from somewhere between 16 and 32 Hz (cycles per second) to somewhere between 16,000 and 20,000 Hz. The sensitivity is low at the extremes but becomes much more sensitive above 128 Hz up to about 4,000 Hz when it again becomes rapidly less sensitive. The range of maximum sensitivity and audibility diminishes with age. What Do We Hear? All sounds (music, voice, a mouse-click, etc.) send out vibrations, or sound waves. Sound waves do not travel in a vacuum, but rather require a medium for sound transmission, e.g. air or fluid. What actually travels are alternating successions of increased pressure in the medium, followed by decreased pressure. Hearing starts with the outer ear. When a sound is made outside the outer ear, the sound waves, or vibrations, travel down the external auditory canal and strike the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The eardrum vibrates. The vibrations are then passed to three tiny bones in the middle ear called the ossicles. The ossicles amplify the sound and send the sound waves to the inner ear and into the fluid-filled hearing organ (cochlea). Once the sound waves reach the inner ear, they are converted into electrical impulses which the auditory nerve sends to the brain. The brain then translates these electrical impulses as sound. The mechanism of hearing is summarized below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sound Pinna collects the sound heard External auditory canal Vibration in the ear drum is produced Amplified by the ossicular chain. The sound is then transmitted to the inner ear. The cochlea converts the sound vibration to electrical impulses. Within the cochlear duct, the endolymph-containing membranous labyrinth of the snail-like cochlea is the organ of Corti, which contains the hearing receptors or hair cells. The chambers above and below the cochlear duct

contain perilymph. Sound waves that reach the cochlea through vibrations of the eardrum, ossiscles and oval window set cochlear fluids into motion. 7. The hair cells transmit impulses along the cochlear nerve or auditory nerve (a division of cranial nerve VIII the vestibulocochlear nerve) to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. 8. Auditory cortex interprets the sound, or hearing occurs. Since sound usually reaches the two ears at different times, a person can hear in stereo, which functionally helps humans differentiate where sounds are coming from the environment. In cases where the sounds or tones keep reaching the ears, the auditory receptors tend to adapt or stop responding to these sounds, thus the person becomes no longer aware of them. Important information about hearing is the fact that it is the last sense to leave the awareness when a person falls asleep or receives anesthesia or dies. As a person awakens from sleep, it is the first sense to return.

Vision (sight)

Overview A persons sense of sight is very important to humans. Vision is arguably the most used of the 5 senses and is one of the primary means that we use to gather information from our surroundings. The human eye is the organ which gives us the sense of sight, allowing us to observe and learn more about the surrounding world than we do with any of the other four senses.

People use their eyes in almost every activity they perform, whether reading, working, watching television, writing a letter, driving a car, and in countless other ways. Most people probably would agree that sight is the sense they value more than all the rest. The eyes are at work from the moment a person is wake up to the moment he or she closes them to go to sleep. This special organ takes in tons of information about the world around you shapes, colors, movements,

and more. Then they send the information to your brain for processing so the brain knows whats going on outside of your body. Anatomy of the Eye External and Accessory Structures The adult eye is a sphere-shaped organ that measures about 1 inch or 2.5 cm in diameter. However, only one sixth (1/6) of the eyes surface can normally be seen and the rest is enclosed and protected by a cushion of fat and the walls of the bony orbit. The accessory structures of the eye are the following:

Extrinsic eye muscles. The extrinsic muscles of the eye come from the bones of the orbit and are movable due to broad tendons in the eyes tough outer surface. There are six extrinsic eye muscles that function to MOVE the eye in various directions:

1. Superior rectus muscle rotates the eye upward and toward the midline

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Inferior rectus muscle rotates the eye downward and toward the midline Medial rectus rotates the eye toward the midline Lateral rectus rotates the eye away from the midline Superior oblique rotates the eye downward and away from the midline Inferior oblique rotates the eye upward and away from the midline Eyelids. The eyelids protect the eyes anteriorly which meet at the medial and the lateral corners of the eye. From the border of each eyelid are the EYELASHES. The eyelashes help filter out foreign matter, including dust and debris, and prevent it from getting into the eye. Eyelid edges

associate with modified sebaceous glands make up the TARSAL GLANDs. These glands produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eye. Between the eyelashes, modified sweat glands called ciliary glands are found.

Conjunctiva. The conjunctiva is a mucous membrane that begins at the edge of the cornea and lines the inside surface of the eyelids and sclera, which serves to lubricate the eye. It is the thin, transparent tissue that covers the outer surface of the eye. This structure is nourished by tiny blood vessels that are nearly invisible to the naked eye. The conjunctiva is composed of 3 sections: Palpebral Conjuctiva covers the posterior surface of the eyelids Bulbar Conjuctiva coats the anterior portion of the eyeball Fornix the transition portion, forming the junction between the posterior eyelid and the eyeball

NOTE: Although the palpebral conjunctiva is moderately thick, the bulbar conjunctiva is very thin. The latter also is very movable, easily sliding back and forth over the front of the eyeball it covers. Since it is clear, blood vessels are easily visible underneath it. Within the bulbar conjunctiva are goblet cells, which secrete mucin. This is an important component of the pre-corneal tear layer that protects and nourishes the cornea.

Lacrimal Apparatus. The lacrimal apparatus consists of the lacrimal gland and a number of ducts that drain the lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity. Located above the lateral end of each eye are the lacrimal glabds that continually release a dilute salt solution, known as tears, onto the anterior surface of the eyeball through several small ducts. The flow of tears flush across the following structures orderly: Eyeball Lacrimal canals medially Lacrimal sac Nasolacrimal duct that empties into the nasal cavity.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Lacrimal secretion contains antibodies and an enzyme that destroys bacteria known as lysozyme. Hence, tears cleanse and protect the eye surface as it moistens and lubricates it. in cases when lacrimal secretion substantially increases, tears spill over the eyelids and fill the nasal cavities. This causes congestion and the sniffles. When eyes are irritated by foreign objects or chemicals and when a person is emotionally upset lacrimal secretion is stimulated and increased. Internal Eye structures The Eyeball

The eye, commonly called the eyeball, is a hollow sphere and is composed of:

3 tunics or coats Humors the interior filled with fluids that help maintain the shape of the eye Lens the main focusing apparatus of the eye. This structure is supported within the eye cavity dividing it into two chambers.

TUNICS of the EYEBALL

Fibrous Tunic this is the outermost tunic and is also known as the sclera, the thick and white connective tissue. The fibrous tunic (sclera) is seen anteriorly as the white part of the eye. The central portion of this tunic is modified so that it is crystal clear. The cornea is the transparent window through which light enters the eye and is well supplied with nerve endings. This is the main reason why blinking and increased tearing occur when the cornea is touched because most nerve endings found here are pain fibers. Vascular tunic this is the middle coat of the eyeball and has three distinguishable regions namely:

1. Choroid this is located posteriorly and lies between the sclera and the retina. It contains the blood vessels that provide nourishment to the outer layers of the retina. It is composed of layers of blood vessels that nourish the back of the eye. The choroid is opaque and deeply pigmented with melanin to absorb excessive light; else internal reflection would form multiple images on the retina. It is less vascular where the retina is thin. The choroid connects with the ciliary body toward the front of the eye and is attached to edges of the optic nerve at the back of the eye.

2. Ciliary Body the ciliary body is made up of ciliary muscles and ciliary processes. It lies just behind the iris. This is the structure to which lens are attached by a suspensory ligament called the ciliary zonule and then the iris. The pigmented iris has a rounded opening, the pupil, through which light passes. Nourishment for the ciliary body comes from blood vessels which also supply the iris. Ciliary processes are short, black tissues arranged radially. They secrete aqueous humour. One function of the ciliary body is the production of aqueous, the clear fluid that fills the front of the eye. It also controls accommodation by changing the shape of the crystalline lens. When the ciliary body contracts, the zonules relax. This allows the lens to thicken, increasing the eyes ability to focus up close. When looking at a distant object, the ciliary body relaxes, causing the zonules to contract. 3. Sensory Tunic this is the innermost tunic of the eye and is called the retina. This structure extends anteriorly only to the ciliary body. It converts images into electrical impulses that are sent along the optic nerve to the brain where the images are interpreted. The retina can be compared to the film of a camera. It contains millions of receptor cells, the rods and cones. Rods and cones are called photoreceptors because they respond to light. The rods and cones are not distributed evenly in the retina. The rods are most dense at the periphery or edge of the retina and decrease in number as the center of the retina is approached. It is more numerous, some 120 million, and are more sensitive than the cones. However, they are not sensitive to color. The 6 to 7 million cones provide the eyes color sensitivity and they are much more concentrated in the central yellow spot known as the macula. In the center of that region is the fovea centralis a 0.3 mm diameter rod-free area with very thin, densely packed cones. Consequently, this is the area of greatest visual acuity or the point of sharpest vision and anything we wish to view critically is focused on the fovea centralis. The photoreceptor cells are distributed over the entire retina, except where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball. This is the site called the optic disc or blind spot. When light from an object is focused on the optic disc, it disappears from our point of view and we cannot see it. LENS The crystalline lens is located just behind the iris. Light entering the eye is focused on the retina by the lens. The nucleus, the innermost part of the lens, is surrounded by softer material called the cortex. The lens is encased in a capsular-like bag. It is held upright in the eye by a suspensory ligament, the ciliary zonule, attached to the ciliary body. Together, the lens and the ciliary body help control fine focusing of light as it passes through the eye. The lens is divided into two segments namely: 1. Anterior (aqueous) segment located anterior to the lens and contains a clear wayetry fluid called aqueous humor. The aqueous humor helps to nourish the cornea and the lens. It is continually produced by the ciliary body. 2. Posterior (vitreous) segment located posterior to the lens and is filled with a gel-like substance called the vitreous humor or the vitreous body. The vitreous is a thick, transparent substance that fills the center of the eye. It is composed mainly of water and comprises about 2/3 of the eyes volume, giving it form and shape. The viscous properties of the vitreous allow the eye to return to its normal shape if compressed. The vitreous humor helps maintain the shape of the eye.

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Tissues
Definition

Body tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function.

EPITHELIAL TISSUES

Epithelial tissues are the tissues that lines or covers the body. It is the lining, covering and the glandular tissue of the body. Primarily, epithelial tissues functions include: Protection Absorption Filtration Secretion

1. 2. 3. 4.

In general, the epithelium has the following distinct characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. Forms continuous sheet by fitting together closely with the exception of glandular tissues. Have one free surface or edge in the membranes called an apical surface. Has a basement structure where the lower surface of the epithelium rests. Have no blood supply.

5. Depends on diffusion from the capillaries in the underlying connective tissue for food and oxygen. 6. Regenerates themselves if well nourish. The epithelium is classified into simple and stratified epithelium. The classification is based on the cell arrangements. Simple Epithelium This type of epithelium is very thin. It functions for absorption, secretion and filtration. Protection is not one of their specialties.

Simple squamous epithelium forms the membranes where filtration or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion takes place. Simple cuboidal epithelium this is one layer of cuboidal cells which lies on the basement of the membrane. It forms the walls of the tubules in the kidney and the one that covers the surface of the ovaries in females. Simple columnar epithelium this is one layer of columnar cells (tall cells) that fits closely together. It covers the entire area of the digestive tract from the stomach to the anus. In this type of epithelium, goblet cells are found. Goblet cells are the one which produce lubricating mucus. Pseudistratified Columnar Epithelium this type of epithelium gives the impression that it is stratified. The main function of this epithelium is on absorption and secretion.

Stratified Epithelium This epithelium consists of two or more layer of cells. These epithelia mainly functions for protection. It is more durable than the simple epithelia making it possible to carry out its function of protection.

Stratified squamous epithelium this is the most common stratified epithelium in the body which consists of several layers of cells. Cells located at the outer portion or edge area are squamous cells while those that are located near the basement are either cuboidal or columnar. This type of epithelium is located in sites where a good deal of abuse or friction is occurring in the body. These areas are the esophagus, mouth and the outer portion of the skin. Stratified columnar epithelium in this type of stratified epithelium the cells are columnar. However the basal cells are in various sizes and shapes. This is a rare epithelium in the body where it is just found in the ducts of the large glands. Stratified cuboidal epithelium like the stratified columnar epithelium these cells are also rare in the body and are only found in the ducts of the large glands in the body. Typically, this type of stratified epithelium has at least two layers of cells with the surface cells becoming cuboidal in shape. Transitional epithelium this epithelium forms the lining of few organs such as the urinary bladder, the ureters and part of the urethra. With a transitional epithelium, cells located at the base are either cuboidal or columnar while those at the free surface are varying in their appearance. Thus, it is a highly modified and stratified squamous epithelium. The transitional cells has the ability of stretching by sliding past one another and changing their shape thus allowing stretching

of the organ to take place. Glandular Epithelium The main function of glandular epithelium is for secretion. A gland is composed of one or more cells that makes and secretes a particular product or secretion. This secretion contains molecules in a water based fluid. Two glands in the body are developed from the epithelial sheets namely:

Endocrine glands these are the ductless glands which secrete hormones that directly diffuse into the blood that intertwines through the glands. Endocrine glands include the thyroid, adrenals and the pituitary. Exocrine glands are the glands that carry out their function of secretion through their ducts to the epithelial surface. Included in this classification are the sweat and oil glands, the liver and the pancreas.

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Connective tissues are located everywhere in the body. Based on its name, it is responsible for connecting body parts. The functions of these tissues are the mainly the following:

1. Protecting 2. Supporting 3. Binding together other body tissues Connective tissues have the following distinct characteristics:

Connective tissues have variations in their blood supply. Some connective tissues are poor blood supply such as the tendons and ligaments while the other have no blood supply at all (avascular) such as the cartilage. However, most connective tissues have a good blood supply (vascular). All structures of a connective tissue heal very slowly.

It is composed of an extracellular matrix that enables the connective tissue form a soft packing tissue around other organs allowing the tissues to bear weight and to withstand stretching and other abuses such as abrasion that no other tissue could have endured. This makes connective tissue different from other tissues in the body.

Types of connective tissue: 1. Bone this is the most rigid connective tissue in the body which is also called osseous tissue. It is composed of lacunae which are bone cells that are sitting in cavities. The lacunae are then surrounded by layers of a very hard matrix that is comprised of calcium salts plus the large amount of collagen fibers. The bone has an outstanding ability to protect and support other body organs because of its rocklike hardness. 2. Cartilage next to the bone, cartilage is less hard but is more flexible. Though found in only few areas of the body the most widespread is the hyaline cartilage which contains a large amount of collagen fibers. The cartilage is the one that forms the supporting structures of the larynx. Aside from that it is the one responsible for attaching the ribs to the breastbone and covers the ends of the bones where they form the joints. The fibrocartilage is the cushion-like discs that are located in between the vertebrae. Another type of cartilage is the elastic cartilage that supports the external ear and is located in areas where elasticity is desired. 3. Dense Connective tissue this connective tissue forms the tendons and the ligaments. It is also called dense fibrous tissue where its main matrix is the collagen fibers. In the collagen fibers are the fibroblasts that produce the building elements of the fibers. Tendons are responsible for attaching muscles to the bone whilst ligaments are responsible for connecting bones to bone joints. Aside from tendons and ligaments, dense connective tissue makes up the dermis which is the lower layer of the skin. 4. Loose connective tissue these are softer tissues containing more cells and fewer fiber. Areolar tissue is under this type which is the most widespread tissue of its kind. Adipose tissues also called fat is an areolar tissue where fat cells are predominating. Reticular connective tissues resemble fibroblasts which form the stroma that supports many free blood cells in the lymphoid organs in the body such as the lymph nodes, spleen and the bone marrow. 5. Blood Blood is considered a connective tissue which is composed of blood cells that are surrounded by a fluid matrix called blood plasma. It is also termed as vascular tissue where the fibers it contains are soluble protein molecules that become visible only when the blood clots.

MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissues produce movement in the body by their ability to shorten and contract.

Types of Muscle Tissues Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Skeletal muscle tissues are muscles that can be consciously or voluntarily controlled. These tissues are attached to the skeleton which is packaged by connective tissue sheets into the skeletal muscles. When the muscles contract, they pull the bones or skin resulting to the gross body movements or changes in the facial expression. Skeletal muscle cells are elongated. The elongated shape of these muscles provides a long axis for contraction and they are often called muscle fibers. Obvious striations in the muscle cells are noted and they are long, cylindrical and multinucleated.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cardiac muscle tissues are found only in the heart. Unlike the skeletal muscle, cardiac cells are short and unicleated. However, cardiac muscles have striations also like the skeletal muscles. Presence of cardiac muscles allows the heart to pump blood through the vessels and be distributed to the different parts of the body. These muscle tissues function under involuntary control. Hence, a person cannot consciously control them.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Another term for smooth muscle tissue is visceral muscle. As the name implies these muscles are smooth, thus, no striations are visible. They are spindle-shaped and have a single nucleus. It is found in the walls of the hollow organs such as the stomach, the bladder, uterus and the blood vessels. Compare to the two muscle types, smooth muscles contract more slowly.

NERVOUS TISSUE

Nervous tissues are also called the NEURONS in the body. Neurons are very important in the body as they are responsible for conducting and receiving impulses from a certain part of the body to the other. The distinct characteristics of neurons are their ability to function on IRRITABILITY and CONDUCTIVITY. Unlike the other tissues, their cytoplasm is drawn out into long processes, thus making their structure unique. The cytoplasm of the neurons can be drawn out as much as 3 feet long or more.