Prajee Uel Final Project

CE3216- Asphalt Concrete for Road Pavements Construction and its Behaviours under Vehicular Loads.
CE3216-Final Year Project-BEng Civil Engineering
By Prajee Embogama-0747642 School of Computing Information Technology & Engineering Supervisor- Dr. Phebe Mann, Module Tutor- Dr. John Walsh BEng Civil Engineering (Hons) University of East London 2011-04-29
ABSTRACT
Pavement, the major element of a road or highway is the paved structure which traffic is allowed to run on. Durability, comfortably, safety and economy are the main criterions concerned. Pavement may be constructed either with cement concrete or asphalt concrete. Later is the most popular and common due to economical considerations. Asphalt concrete pavement behaves structurally flexible under wheel stresses. Hence in cases it is termed as Flexible Pavement. Pavement has to serve the traffic while standing against the stresses and distresses exerted by wheel loads, consequently the liable failures and the damages. Climatic and weather changes also affect the pavement adversely. Wheel loads and environmental effects not only individually but also simultaneously deliver the stresses, consequently distresses on and into the pavement while the pavement has to response vis a vis. The resultants may be occurring failures unless it can stand strong enough to bear all those. These stress-collectiveness is complicate process within the pavement-system. Hence it needs serious attentions in every aspects of designing, constructing and maintaining. This is a fact learnt doing this project. Density is an important quality of asphalt concrete regarding the quality control aspect of asphalt concrete. A density test also was carried out with the field samples collected from the road construction site of Beam Rich project Dagenham. Concern to above facts this project focused to investigate, identify and study the related subjective matters covering the under mentioned. And this paper tries to present and discuss those found to be important as below briefing. Road and pavement structure; asphalt concrete which is used to build pavement; bitumen and aggregate; the constituents of asphalt concrete; refinery process by which bitumen is obtained; bitumen modifications which enhance its properties; thermal effects adverse to pavement; behaviours of pavement under traffic wheels; stresses, distresses, consequent failures and damages; recycling pavements and sustainability are discussed in this paper covering the prominent findings of the project. Efforts were made much to collect relevant figures and display them which may illustrate the facts simplifying the details.
Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London Page
Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following people for whom I was able to finish my project successfully. My supervisor Dr. Phebe Mann who has given the main idea, details and guidance on how to approach the project. I also greatly appreciate the cooperation from Dr. John Walsh to provide me with the basic information that i nee for my project. Im grateful to the following people and organisations. City of London-Highway Engineering Department, senior consultant Mr R. Manmadan. And Galliford Try Civil Engineering company, Site Engineer Mr. A. Madushanath.
Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London
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List of Figures. 2.1.1 Cross section of typical road way....................................................................14 2.2 Cross section of a pavement..............................................................................14 2.3 Component of pavement....................................................................................14. 2.3.1 Typical pavement structure..............................................................................16 2.3.2 Load distribution and pavement deflection under loads...................................16 2.5.1 Asphalt concrete pavement structure..............................................................18 2.5.2 Asphalt concrete pavement structure loading responds..................................18 2.5.3 Wheel load distribution and pavement deflection............................................18 2.6.1 Basic Component of typical pavement system...............................................19 2.6.2 Common variations of asphalt concrete pavement section............................19 2.7.1 Pavement components load distribution and stress distribution......................21 3.2 Load pressure and deflection result tensile and compressive stresses..............23 3.4.1 Aspects of designs...........................................................................................24 3.5.1 Pavements design parameters........................................................................25 3.5.3 Example for ELEF...........................................................................................26 3.6.1 Pavement structure.........................................................................................27 3.6.2 Pavement recommended thicknesses............................................................27 3.6.2 Vehicle spectrum of loads...............................................................................27 3.6.3 Type of flexible pavements.............................................................................28 3.8.1 Asphalt concrete layers paving to thicknesses...............................................30 4.1.1 Schematic view of asphalt concrete................................................................31 6.1.1 Asphalt concrete grading samples..................................................................41
6.3.1 Close graded mixture................................................................................42 6.4.1 Interlocked aggregates .............................................................................43 6.4.2 Stone mastic asphalts................................................................................43 6.4.3 Stone mastic asphalt lab sample...............................................................43 6.4.4 Stone mastic surface..................................................................................43 6.5.1 Cross section of typical porous pavement including base course.............44 6.5.2 Porous asphalt concrete............................................................................45 6.5.3 Open graded asphalt concrete..................................................................45 6.5.4 OGFC surface............................................................................................46 6.5.5 OGFC lab samples.....................................................................................46 8.1.1 Schematic view of the petroleum distillation process..................................54 8.1.2 Schematic view of the petroleum distillation temperature status................54 8.1.3 Distillation temperature of petroleum products...........................................55 9.2.1 Types of emulsions ....................................................................................57 9.3.1 Schematic views of asphalt emulsion preparation model samples.............58 9.5.1 Emulsion setting.........................................................................................59 9.5.2 Stages in the brake down of emulsions.....................................................62 10.1.1 Aggregate samples..................................................................................66 11.4.1 Finished RAC-G pavements....................................................................69 12.2.1 Energy balance in asphaltic pavements..................................................69 13.1.1 Vertical pressure transfer in asphalt concrete layers...............................71 13.1.2 Load transfer through granular materials.................................................71 13.1.3 Flexible plate deflection............................................................................71
13.1.4 Pavement strains under wheel load causing stress and deflection..........71 13.1.5 Strains and responds by the layers and load distribution.........................71 13.1.6 Stability of the Pavement layers...............................................................72 13.1.7 Schematic vies of asphalt concrete pavement deflection.........................72 13.5.1 Pavement happens to wear by wheel and heavy loads...........................75 14.1.1 Examples distress, water collected, weekend vice versa........................76
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CONTENTS
ABSTACT Acknowledgement List of Figures Contents pages Chapter Chapter 1 2 INTRODUCTION PAVEMENT 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Chapter 3 Pavement is the major element of Roadway Fundamentals and Components of Pavement Pavement Structure Pavement Types Asphalt Concrete Pavement Structure Pavement system Types Asphalt Concrete Pavements Elements
Page 2 3 4
12 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 22 23 24 24 25 27 28 29 31 31
ASPHALT CONCRET PAVEMENT DESIGN 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Philosophy of Pavement Design criteria Asphalt Concrete characterisation Principles and Aspects of Pavement Design Design Parameters Pavement Structure Design Life Stress distribution factors in Asphalt Pavement
Chapter
ASPHAT CONCRETE 4.1 What is Asphalt
Page
4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.4 4.4.1 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Chapter 5
Component / Constituents Properties of asphalt Concrete Desirable Properties for Asphalt Concrete Density is the Significant Property Desired Density & Lab test Stability of Asphalt Concrete Safety Durability Characterisation
32 33 34 34 35 38 38 39 39 39 39 40 40 40 40 41 41 42 42 43 44 48 48 49 50
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ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX TYPE 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 Asphalt Concrete to use in Hot or Cold weather 1 Hot mix Asphalt Concrete Worm Mix Asphalt Concrete Cut-back Asphalt Concrete Cold mix Asphalt Concrete
Chapter
ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX GRADE 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Grading for different Functions Dense Graded Mix Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Stone Mastic Asphalt concrete Open Graded Mix
Chapter
BITUMEN 7.1 7.2 7.3 What is Bitumen Bitumen as ideal binder Composition of Bitumen
7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.5 7.5 Chapter 8
Properties of Bitumen Adhesiveness I permeability Viscosity Consistency Durability Uses of Bitumen
50 50 50 50 51 51 52 53 53 55 56 56 57 58 59 59 60 60 61 62 62 63 64 64
CRUDE OIL REFINERY 8.1 8.2 Petroleum Crude Oil Refinery Refinery Process
Chapter
ASPHALT EMULSION 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 What is Emulsion Asphalt Emulsion Preparation Emulsion Technology Composition Asphalt Emulsion Setting Process Classification of Asphalt Emulsion Variables affecting Asphalt Emulsion Advantage of Asphalt Emulsion
Chapter
10
AGGREGATE 10.1 10.2 Use of Aggregate Aggregate Properties
Chapter
11
BITUMEN BINDER MODIFICATION 11.1 Needs of Modification
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11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Chapter 12
What is Asphalt Rubber Use of Asphalt Rubber Benefit of Asphalt Rubber Disadvantages
64 65 66 67 68 68 69 70 70 73 73 73 74 76 77 78 84 84 85 85 86 87 88 88
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THERMAL EFFECTS 12.1 12.2 Thermal Distresses Energy Balance of Asphalt Pavement
Chapter
13
BEHAVIOUR OF ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Factors influencing Pavement behaviours Pavement Distress Mode due to Traffic Effects of the pavement Materials Effect by the tire-pavement contacts Combine stresses by wheels and Thermal
Chapter
14
PAVEMENT DISTRESSES AND FAILURES 14.1 14.2 Identifying the Distresses and Failures Asphalt Pavement Distresses Summary
Chapter
15. ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT RECYCLING 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Demand for recycling Recycling Process Recycling methods Use of Recycled Materials for Asphalt Concrete Benefit of Recycling
Chapter
16
SUSTAINABILUTY 16.1 What is sustainability
10
16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Chapter 17
Need of Sustainable Pavement Pavement Sustainability Components of Sustainable Pavement Basics of Sustainable Recycling Technology
88 89 89 90 91 92
CONCLUSIONS BIBLOGRAPHY
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Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Pavement is the topmost major element of any road or highway system. Highways or roads are found to be an important key infrastructure which serve immensely to transportation services mainly the traffic. It is reasonable to say no roads no go because every things nowadays including developments of any nation and day to day needs of any society are depended on the transportation. It needs good roads in other words roads with right pavements. Durable but economical pavements therefore are a must so that traffic can run comfortably and safe-faster. Yet, it is to observe that road-pavements are subjected to regular repairs or rehabilitation sometimes constructing new roads. This is very impressive as the roads or highway net-works are the vastly spread civil engineering infrastructure in any country. Majority of the roads and highways are black. It is because of the asphalt as commonly told. That material is technically termed as asphalt concrete with which pavements are built. Alternatively some pavements are done with cement concrete which is considered comparatively have higher cost at the construction. In the context of all above facts, it is impressive and interesting to investigate and study subjective facts and matters about pavements and also to see any development of those towards further improvements. The aim of this project has been focus to study and investigate about the pavement system, asphalt concrete using to construct it, pavement behaviour, stresses distresses and failures. The findings of those have been presented in this paper mostly summarised. Traffic loads and environmental effects not only individually and relatively but also collectively offer various stresses, consequently distresses on and into the pavement while the pavement has to behaves hence or vis a vis, or simultaneously, These collective issues result a complicate process due to which pavement happen to occur failures. Education, know-how and technology about the aspects of designing, constructing and maintaining pavements are essential for construction and maintenance of good pavements.
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Objectives and research questions 1.0 Majority of the road pavements are built, paved or surfaced with asphalt concrete. What are the advantages in use of asphalt concrete hence? 2.0 Road pavement structure should be of dense materials to withstand vehicular wheel loads and such stresses. What are the components of asphalt concrete and how it is produced? 3.0 To find out the density of asphalt concrete. What is the desired density of asphalt concrete and how it is achieved when pavements are constructed? 4.0 How is the pavement constructed? Road pavements get damages or various failures at places what are those, causes?
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Chapter 2. PAVEMENT
2.1 Pavement is the major Element of Roadway Pavement is the major element of roadway, highway or street. The section on which traffic are allowed to run on. It is the superior, factual and vital structure as far as roads, highways or streets are concerned. Following figures illustrate the main components of roadway including the pavement.
(Fig. 2.1.1-.dot.ca.gov, 2001)
Drain Shoulde P (Fig. 2.1.2)
Asphalt layer ( aggregate + asphalt binder )
Base Course (compacted aggregate + fines)
Compacted Subgrade
Sub base Course ( compacted gravel )
(existing or formed ground on which Sub base is laid) (Fig. 2.1.3) Above typical cross sections show the main components of roadway.
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2.2 Fundamentals and Pavement Components Accounted to traffic loads, AC pavements are made up of several layers which are laid one after the other to withstand the distribution of traffic loads. The individual layers are to meet with the following requirements:
The purpose of road pavement is to carry the loads by vehicles smoothly and safely under all weather conditions for a pacified design life. This is done by: Stabilizing and forming the existing subgrade to providing stable subbase and base courses above it. 2) Providing adequate drainage, because water can weaken soils and asphalt materials of the pavement. Constructing a pavement structure thick and strong enough structurally to carry all expected traffic loads for the expected period of time. Surfaced with a wearing course that resists wear, deformation, weather, moisture and remains skid resistant.
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2.3 Pavement Structure A road pavement is a layers of structure constructed with specified materials to facilitate the movements of vehicles with loads. It is to withstand the stresses applied by vehicle wheels and also by environment.
(Fig. 2.3.1- dot.ca.gov, 2001)
Typical pavement structure
To perform effectively road pavement must not depress, crack, rut or wash away. The typical stress and distresses of road-pavement and the structure are illustrated by below figures.
(Fig. 2.3.2- dot.ca.gov, 2001)
Load distribution and pavement deflection under loads

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2.4 Pavement Types Pavement of a road is an engineering structure composed of several layers (courses) of materials. Top layers are to withstand the intensity of stress from traffic loads while the underneath stand supportively as foundation structure. There are mainly two types: Flexible pavements ( constructed with asphalt concrete materials)
Rigid pavements ( constructed with Portland / hydraulic cement concrete) Composite pavements (combination of above both) typically, composite pavements is asphalt overlays on top of concrete pavements.
In addition to those there are natural roads formed with earthen materials such as soil, gravel or aggregate compacted to dense course.
This projects paper has been focussed and discusses towards the flexible pavements and asphalt concrete.
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2.5 Asphalt Concrete Pavement Structure
A typical AC pavement structure may consist of (from bottom) subgrade, subbase, AC-base course and AC-surface layer respectively. Subgrade is stabilised and strengthen. Subbase is constructed with good earth, gravel or coarse materials. Figures below illustrate typical formation of the total structure.
(Fig. 2.5.1)
(Fig. 2.5.2- tpub.com, 2009)
(Fig. 2.5.3) Wheel load distribution / spreading

(dot.ca.gov, 2001)
Pavement deflection under loads
Pavement structure is so built to meet and to distribute the stresses under the loads. AC mixture of quality aggregates and bitumen binder provide the needy characteristics responding to the conditions applied on the pavement.
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2.6 Pavement System Types
The pavement system is to be stable not only to provide a smooth surface but to carry loads and performing the functions not failing at all conditions dynamic or climatic. Therefore pavement system is to be developed in order to meet those functions. The components are basically the same. AC is the main material. Under shown figures may to explain how defer pavement systems to thus.
(Fig. 2.6.1)
Basic components of a typical pavement system-
(pavementinteractive.org, 2010)
(Fig. 2.6.2)
Common variations of Asphalt Concrete Pavement sections-
(pavementinteractive.org, 2010)
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Information source- pavementinteractive.org, 2010
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2.7
Components of Pavements elements Sub-grade (roadbed) course: natural material that serves as the foundation of the pavement structure, Sub-base course: above the sub-grade, superior to sub-grade course, Base course: above the sub base, granular materials such as crushed
stone, crushed or uncrushed slag, gravel, and sand, Surface course: upper course of the road pavement, should withstand tire pressures, resistant to abrasive forces of traffic, provide skid-resistant driving surface, prevent penetration of surface water When wheel loads exert pressure on the pavement permanent deformations may happen to develop due to vertical compressive stress to the pavement layers; wearing course, binder course, and if any bituminous layer below it respectively. This vertical pressure results tensile stress to each of those layers. Lowest layers will be subjected to smaller tensile stress due to vertical pressure distribution increases over a larger area. Unbound granular materials (exist at a relaxed mode but stands for vertical pressure) in the base course or sub base do not hold significant tensile stress and they do not require effective elastic modulus hence. This situation can be illustrated by flowing figures: (training.ce.washington.edu, 2010)
(Fig. 2.7.1)
Pavement components, load distribution and tress distribution
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Chapter 3. ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN
3.1 Philosophy of Pavements Pavements are alive structures. They are subjected to moving traffic loads that are repetitive in nature. Each traffic load repetition causes a certain amount of damage to the pavement structure that gradually accumulates over time and eventually leads to the pavement failure. Thus, pavements are designed to perform for a certain life span before reaching deterioration. Hence, they have a certain design life span after which rehabilitation will be the need. Nowadays recycling the pavement.
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3.2
Design criteria
Characteristics and performance of Asphalt Concrete (AC) mix are prominent in AC pavement design. The AC mix design also is to be so considered in this regard. Choices of AC type and mix design have to be appropriate and compatible to the overall pavement purposes.
The structure of a flexible pavement is assumed to be a linear elastic multi-layer system. The pavement materials are assumed to be homogeneous and characterised by their elastic modulus and Poissons ratio. The primary criteria for structural design are: The limitation on compressive strain in the surface of the sub-grade. If this is excessive, permanent deformation will occur at the top of the sub-grade leading to deformation at the pavement surface. The limitation on horizontal tensile strain in any bound layer. Typically, tensile strain achieves its maximum value at the bottom of the layer. Excessive strain will cause cracking of the layer.
At present there are no explicit pavement design criteria to control rutting in asphalt layers. Rutting is controlled by evaluating the deformation resistance of the asphalt as part of the mix design procedure. The pavement strains under traffic loading are illustrated in the figure. (dot.ca.gov, 2001)
(Fig. 3.2.1) Load pressure and deflection result tensile and compressive stresses
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3.3
Asphalt Concrete Characterisation in Pavement Design
AC is a mixture of bitumen (binder) and aggregates, which is spread and compacted in hot form to form a pavement layer. Bitumen is usually conventional but for special applications it may be modified by the addition of specific polymers. The strength /stiffness of AC is depend of the friction between the aggregate particles, the viscosity of the binder and the cohesion within the product due to the binder itself. Adhesion between the binder and the aggregate is a vital characteristic required. These frictional and adhesion characteristics are the vital to resist the distresses of AC layers commonly rutting, shoving and cracking due to fatigue.
3.4 Principles and Aspects of Pavement Design Pavement design is the process of developing the most economical combination of pavement layers (in relation to both thickness and type of materials) to suit the soil foundation and the traffic to be carried during the design life. The tensile and compressive stresses induced in a pavement by heavy wheel loads decrease with increasing depth. This permits the use, particularly in flexible pavements, of a gradation of materials, relatively strong and expensive materials being used for the surfacing and less strong and cheaper ones for base and sub-base. The pavement as a whole limit the stresses in the sub-grade to an acceptable level, and the upper layers must in a similar manner protect the layers below.
(Fig. 3.4.1) Aspects of Pavement Design- (onlinemanuals.txdot.gov)
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3.5 Design Parameters
Subgrade
Loads
Environment (Fig. 3.5.1-
onlinemanuals.txdot.gov)
Subgrade: Characterized by strength and stiffness / California Bearing Ratio (CBR) o Measures shearing resistance o Units: percent Resilient Modulus (MR) Measures stress-strain relationship, Units: psi or Pa,Typical values: 3,000 to 40,000 psi Some Typical CBR Values
M (psi)
R
Classification
CBR
Typical Description Gravels, crushed stone and sandy soils. GW, GP, GM, SW, SP, SM soils are often in this category. Clayey gravel and clayey sand, fine silt soils. GM, GC, SM, SC soils are often in this category. Fine silty sands, clays, silts, organic soils.CL, CH, ML, MH, CM, OL, OH soils are in this category.
Good
10
20,000
Fair
59
10,000
Poor
35
5,000
In addition to above wheal loads concerning axel and configuration, repletion of load, vehicle speeds and traffic distribution are also involved.
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LEF Example: The standard axle weights for a standing-room-only loaded Metro articulated buses (60 ft. Flyer) are:
(Fig. 3.5.3) Axle Steering Middle Rear Empty 13,000 lb. 15,000 lb. 9,000 lb. Full 17,000 lb. 20,000 lb. 14,000 lb.
Using the 4th power approximation, determine the total equivalent damage caused by this bus in terms of ESALs when it is empty. How about when it is full?
Environment: Temperature extremes, climate, weather (rains and frost action)
A road should be designed and constructed to provide a riding quality acceptable for both private cars and commercial vehicles and must perform the functions i.e. functional and structural, during the design life.
Ride quality Shape, cross fall or drainage Noise levels Skid resistance Waterproofing Surface integrity Surface reflectivity Appearance
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3.6 Pavement Structure
Surface course Base course Subbase course Subgrade
(Fig. 3.6.1- tpub.com, 2009) Recommended thickness: (Fig. 3.6.2-tpub.com,2009)
Recommended thickness (design catalog the Washington Asphalt Pavement Association WAPA)
(Fig. 3.6.2) Pavement design is to account for the entire spectrum of traffic loads.
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Pavement Thickness Design is the determination of required thickness of various pavement layers to protect a given soil condition for a given wheel load. Pavement Thickness Design is the determination of thickness of various pavement layers
(various paving materials) for a given soil condition and the predicted design traffic in terms of equivalent standard axle load that will provide the desired structural and functional performance over the selected pavement design life.
Dense-graded
Gap-graded
Open-graded
(Fig. 3.6.3- civil.iitb.ac.in)
Types of Flexible Pavements
3.7 Design Life The concept of design life has to ensure that a new road will carry the expected volume of traffic within that life span without failures or deterioration. For roads in Britain the currently recommended design is 20 years for asphalt concrete pavements. If the rut depth increases beyond 10mm or the beginning of cracking occurs in the wheel paths, this is considered to be a critical stage and if the depth reaches 20mm or more or severe cracking occurs in the wheel paths then the pavement is considered to have failed, and requires a substantial overlay or reconstruction.
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3.8 Stress Distribution Factors in Asphalt Pavements
Following are the main factors considered and counted in structural design of pavement. Load related responses: Vertical ( compressive)stresses and strains, Shear stresses and strain, Radial ( compressive or tensile) stresses and strain
Temperature induced responses: Shrinkage stresses and strains ( temp: cycling, Low temperature cracking, Thermal cracking
Critical responses: Horizontal tensile stress/strain at the bottom of bound layers, Vertical compressive stress/strain at the top of sub-grade
Calculating responses: Using equations, Graphical solutions, Elastic layer computer programs
Thermal Cracking Model Low temperature cracking, Thermal fatigue cracking,
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(Fig. 3.8.1)
Asphalt concrete layers paving to the thicknesses
(pavementinteractive.org,2011)
Adequately designed pavement with best construction practices and quality control can serve the purposes longer.
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Chapter 4. ASPHALT CONCRETE
4.1
What is Asphalt Concrete
Asphalt concrete (AC) well known as asphalt (more technically Asphalt Concrete) is a road pavement construction material which consists of blends of fine and coarse mineral aggregates and bitumen as a mixture. Bitumen acts as a cement to bind the aggregates. AC is designed and produced to provide optimal physical properties to perform well structurally, and for durability in service of the pavements. The
performance of AC is depended on both to the physical properties of the individual constituents and of the combined mixture. Strength, flexibility and stiffness are the main properties. AC is widely used for road pavement constructions. Asphalt concrete provides a resilient, waterproof, load distributing flexible structure (layer or a course) that protects the base course against water and traffic loads. It has to be thoroughly compacted to provide a stable, watertight course. The flexibility of asphalt concrete permits minor adjustments in the pavement course due to traffic loads and other environmental effects.
(Fig. 4.1.1)
Schematic view of Asphalt Concrete
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4.2
Components / Constituents
Bitumen Aggregate ( Coarse material, Fine material and Filler ) Air voids
By Weight %: Coarse aggregate - 62, Fine aggregate Filler Bitumen - 28, - 5, - 4.5 ~ 5.2
By Volume %: Coarse aggregate - 55, Fine aggregate Filler Bitumen Air Voids - 25, - 5, - 13.3 -3~7
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4.3
Properties of Asphalt Concrete
The mix proportions for a properly compacting AC paving mixture are determined in the laboratory during mix design testing. This is importantly necessary to provide the mixture an ability to resist the potential damaging effects during its response when and after paving to serve as the pavement. To perform properly in the field, a welldesigned asphalt concrete mixture must be used within the proper temperature range. It must be adequately compacted. Asphalt concrete paving mixtures should exist with the following properties: Stability Sufficient mix stability is required to satisfy the demands of traffic without distortion or displacement. Air Voids Percentage of void spaces within the mix sufficiently exist to allow for a slight additional compaction under traffic and any expansion due to temperature increases, without flushing, bleeding or loss of stability. A void content between 3 to 5% assures proper mix. Stripping Resistance Ability to resist the loss of tensile strength due to bitumen stripping from the aggregate. Stripping cause disintegrating aggregate. Resilient Modulus Better stiffness of AC mixture under loading conditions. Low resilient modulus would be susceptible to deformation, whereas a high resilient modulus indicates a brittle mixture. Desired Density The density of a properly designed paving mixture compacted under prescribed laboratory compaction procedures. Measure of the density of a paving mixture compacted in the field in accordance with the specifications.
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4.3.1 The desirable properties for Asphalt concrete Pavement:
Resistance to permanent deformation: The mix should not distort or be displaced when subjected to traffic loads and at high temperatures. Fatigue resistance: Should not crack when subjected to repeated loads. Resistance to low temperature cracking is important in cold conditions. Durability: Should contain sufficient binder for an adequate film around the aggregates. Compacted mix should not have very high air voids which accelerates aging process.
Resistance to moisture-induced damage. Skid resistance. Low noise and good drainage properties: It is important if the mix is to be used for the surface (wearing) course.
4.4
Density is the significant property
Density is one of the most important parameters of AC. Acquire of proper density of AC layers is very important to produce a stable, durable and waterproofing course. If satisfactory density is not obtained failures may occur suddenly or gradually due to densification under traffic or durability problems such as oxidation and ravelling. Therefore AC is to contain specified ( 3 5 %) air voids to prevent rutting due to plastic flow. Density of AC pavement is subjected to vary throughout its life. Therefore even after years of traffic flow the voids exist must be high enough to prevent plastic flow and low enough to prevent permeability of water.
There are three primary methods of specifying density: 1. Percent control strip, 2 Percent of lab density and 3. Percent theoretical maximum density.
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4.4.1 Desired Density & Lab Test
All three methods can be used to obtain satisfactory compaction if used correctly. The voids in an asphalt mixture are directly related to density; thus, density must be closely controlled to insure that the voids stay within an acceptable range. The initial in-place air voids must be below approximately 8% and the final in-place air voids must be above approximately 3% . High voids lead to permeability of water and air resulting in water damage, oxidation, ravelling and cracking. Low voids lead to rutting and shoving of the asphalt mixture. Most mixtures are designed to have 3-5 percent air voids when compacted.
Asphalt Concrete test for Density AND Bitumen Content
Tests were done from the sample obtained from the under detailed Project. Details of test carried out followed. Company- Galliford Try Supervisor- City of London-Highway Engineering Department- Guildhall, PO Box 270, London EC2P 2EJ Project: Beam Rich Site: Pavement Construction on Consul Avenue, Dagenham, London
Name of Site Agent (assisted) : Mr. A. Madushanath Sample Lot No: BRC / 1 Date of Sample collection: 23.04. 2011 Date of testing: 25.04.2011 Lab: BAM, Richies
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Extraction and Bitumen Content Test No. Weight of Bowl Weight of Bowl + Sample Weight of Sample Weight of Bowl + Extracted Aggregate Including Dust Recovered for Solution Weight of Extracted Aggregate Weight of Dry Filter Paper Before Test Weight of Filter Paper After Test Weight of Dust Accumulated In Filter paper Weight of Total Extracted Aggregate Weight of Bitumen Percent of Bitumen By Weight of ix Specified Bitumen Content (%) BRC/1 W1 (g) 2890.1 W2 (g) 4294.9 W3 = W 2 - W 1 (g) 1404.8 W4 (g) 4239.8 W5 = W 4 - W 1 (g) 1349.7 W6 (g) 14.1 W7 (g) 16.0 W8 = W 7 - W 6 (g) 1.9 W9 = W 5 + W 8 (g) 1351.6 W10 = W 3 - W 9 (g) 53.2 Bitumen % = W10 100 3.79 W3 (%)
3.5 4.0 Therefore the Bitumen content in the sample is within the specified limit.
Pavement Density and Compaction Sample from pavement (core) Bulk Bulk volume density Pavement (cm3) compaction (%) i j k l=k-i m=i/l n=m/h*100 BRC/1/1 1835.1 1070.1 1842.1 772 2.377 99.7 BRC/1/2 903.1 525.2 906.6 381.4 2.368 99.3 BRC/1/3 638.7 364.1 642.0 277.9 2.298 96.4 BRC/1/4 918.4 528.3 922.6 394.3 2.329 97.7 BRC/1/5 1270.8 739.5 1274.8 535.3 2.374 99.6 Marshell specimen from plant mix Bulk Thickness In air In water SSD in air volume (mm) (cm3) d e f G=f-e 63.9 1209.4 705.6 1212.3 506.7 64.0 1204.6 701.9 1207.7 505.8 63.8 1200.0 698.2 1201.9 503.7 In air Specimen No In water SSD in air Measured thickness of core
105.5 56.8 40.8 55.2 72.2 Bulk density (Gmb) H=d+g 2.387 2.382 2.382 2.384
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GRADINGS EVALUATION Sieve Weight Percentage Percentage Size Retained Retained Passing (mm) (g) (%) (%) 25.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 19.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 9.5 484.7 35.9 64.1 4.75 328.4 24.3 39.8 2.36 112.4 8.3 31.5 1.18 70.0 5.2 26.3 0.60 61.8 4.6 21.8 0.30 109.4 8.1 13.7 0.15 67.8 5.0 8.7 0.075 63.9 4.7 3.9 Pan 53.2 Total 1,351.6 Specified Limits Min Max (%) (%) 100 100 88 100 54 80 34 56 21 38 15 33 10 26 6 20 3 13 1 7 Job Mix Min Max (%) (%) 100 100 88 100 57 69 36 48 29 38 22 33 14 24 7 17 2 10 1 5
Aggregate gradation limits Evaluation The test results were found to be compatible in accordance to the specified values.
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4.5 Stability of the Asphalt concrete
AC stability depends on the strength and flexibility of the mixture and the degree of compaction. The strength must be sufficient to carry the load without shear
occurring between particles remaining intact. The main contributor to strength is friction between particles. Flexibility is also important as to receive imposed load distribution allowing deflections slightly but no cracking or permanent deformation take place. Strength and flexibility are evaluated by various tests.
4.6 Safety
Safety is very important for the surface course. This involves skid resistance and drainage of water from the surface. Skid resistance is enhanced by using smaller sized, very hard aggregates for the surface course. This provides more points of contact for the development of friction forces. Open-graded surface courses are used in very heavy traffic areas to allow immediate drainage of rainwater before it can result in hydroplaning. These pavements also increase skid resistance due to the coarse texture provided.
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4.7 Durability
Durability of the asphalt concrete is critical to ensure that it maintains the stability and skid resistance properties for the design service life. Asphalt ages, and pavements become denser with time and traffic. Pavements fail due to: changes in the aggregates permanent deformation or rutting cracking, either due to fatigue, or low temperatures bleeding of asphalt to the surface
4.8
Characterization
The structural performance of an asphalt pavement or its ability to withstand the destructive effects of traffic and environment is defined in terms of the following engineering properties of the AC mixture. Deformation or stress-strain characteristics ie. elastic modulus (stiffness) Primary structural distress modes: fatigue excessive permanent deformation (rutting). The elastic stiffness and fatigue life of a mix are primarily dependent on the stiffness of the binder
5.
ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX TYPES
5.1 Asphalt Concrete to use in Hot or Cold weather conditions Asphalt Concrete is usually not available readily. Due to high viscosity of the binder bitumen at the ambient temperature (atmospheric) it needs heating ( 175 c) to mix properly with the aggregates. And storage of the mixtures are not suitable due to hardening thereby no workability exist for paving. Hence, required AC mixtures are mechanically ( by mixing plant) produced, transported and laid at worm conditions. However for cold weather needs AC is produced and used at cold conditions. Emulsified binder ( liquid form bitumen) is used in cold producing. Types of AC mixtures thus prepared for those conditions are:
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5.1.1
Hot mix asphalt concrete (HMA)
is produced at 160 degrees Celsius which helps to decrease viscosity of the binder and any moisture of the aggregates at the production process making a properly mixed AC. 5.1.2 Warm mix asphalt concrete (WMA) It is produced at a reduced temperature which is made possible by adding bituminous emulsion or waxer to make the binder to a mixable viscosity. Environmentally and economically friendly but quality not up to HMA. 5.1.3 Cut-back asphalt concrete Cut-back bitumen binder (Bitumen dissolved in kerosene oil and made to liquid form) is mixed with the aggregate. Reduced viscosity of the binder makes proper mixing and AC can be laid compacted. Kerosene later evaporates leaving the bitumen properties to get harden. Air polution is than the other forms
5.1.4 Cold Mix Asphalt Concrete It is produced at the normal air temperature by mixing the aggregate with (emulsified) bitumen of liquid state binder. The emulsion gets break after water evaporates back, and the mix will ideally achieve the properties of normal AC but not as to the product of HMA.
(wisegeek.com/what-are-different-types-of-asphalt.htm, 2011)
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Chapter 6. ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX GRADES
6.1
Grading for deferent Function
It is important to use the proper compatible asphalt mixtures / types in the layers of pavement to response positively towards the expected functions. Properties such as durability, resistance to fatigue cracking, rutting resistance, strength to withstand the traffic loads and the environment distresses must prevail in the mix. To meet those conditions, varying needs, services and construction of different layers in the pavement structure asphalt concrete has to be compatibly differ with the characteristics and properties. AC is graded for those uses and in paving of surface course, binder course and base course. The most common type of AC using for flexible pavement is hot mix asphalt (HMA). HMA is designed and produced by significant methods to different grades those to meet as detailed above. The prominently using grades are:
Dense-graded Hot Rolled AC Stone matrix asphalt Open-graded Porous AC
(Fig. 6.1.1)
Asphalt concrete grading samplesPage
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6.2
Dense graded Mix
A dense-graded mix (see above figures) is a well-graded HMA intended for general use. When properly designed and constructed, a dense-graded mix is relatively impermeable. They are further classified as Fine-graded or Coarse-graded Dense graded HMA contains all grades of aggregates (coarse and fines) thus providing structural ability to stress transmission distributed over a considerable area of the course. Suitable for all pavement layers and for all traffic conditions. They work well for structural, friction, levelling and repairing needs.
6.3
Hot Rolled Asphalt Concrete
This is very common AC mix using for pavement layers. It imparts recommended strength and durability. The strength of this material is from the stiffness produced as a result of the combination of a 50pen binder, aggregate and sand blended properly. The correctly designed binder content and low void content of this mixture
results in a very durable material, with a "common" life of 20 years or more.
(Fig. 6.3.1- eecongress.org,)
Close Graded Mixture
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6.4
Stone Mastic Asphalt Concrete (SMA)
"The aggregate grading is similar to that of Porous Asphalt, but with the voids filled with mortar." "The process of designing a SMA mixture involves adjusting the grading to accommodate the required binder and void content rather than the more familiar process of adjusting the binder content to suit the aggregate grading." A very high binder content is essential to ensure durability and laying characteristics.
(Fig. 6.4.1)
Interlocked aggregate
(Fig. 6.4.2) Stone matrix asphalt (SMA)
Where heavy traffic is operated and to resists rutting stone, matrix asphalt is recommended. Stone matrix asphalt is comparatively at a higher cost as the mixing and the laying operation are expensive. To obtain a higher quality of the binder material modifiers and fibber material are added. However stone matrix asphalt concrete is durable.
(Fig. 6.4.3) SMA Lab Sample
(Fig 6.4.4) SMA surface
(Information resource- eecongress.org)

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6.5
Open graded Mix
Open graded porous AC exhibits degree of porosity to permeable of surface water drainage. It is recommended porous surface course material need be laid on an impervious binder course (basecourse) or thick tack-coat / bond coat to prevent water entering the road pavement surface from the underneath. Porous surface course bituminous mixtures must be laid on a strong and impervious base layer. Although this AC cause less surface tire and reduce spray, there have been problems in laying, and durability. Its life is much shorter than a hot rolled asphalt wearing course and there are problems with winter maintenance as porous asphalt needs salting at higher rates than impervious materials. Porous AC when paved allows water to leak through. It is made and applied with conventional asphalt paving equipment but for porous AC, the smaller particles are left out and the percentage of tar is reduced. This provides bonding while allowing spaces through which the water may pass.
(Fig 6.5.1) Cross-section of Typical Porous Pavement, including Base Courses
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(Fig 6.5.2) Porous Asphalt Concrete
(Fig 6.5.3) Open-Graded Asphalt Concrete
Open-graded HMA mixture is designed to be water permeable. Open-graded mixes use only crushed stone (or gravel) and a small percentage of sands. The two most typical open-graded mixes are: Open-graded friction course (OGFC). Typically 15 percent air voids and no maximum air voids specified. Used for only surface course Asphalt treated permeable bases (ATPB). OGFC is used only under densegraded HMA, SMA or PCC for drainage.
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(Fig 6.5.4) OGFC Surface
(Fig 6.5.5) OGFC Lab Samples
Improve skid resistance due to rapid removal of water from the aggregate tyre interface. They reduce tire splash/spray in wet weather. The high air void contents reduce tire-road noise considerably. However open-graded friction course is susceptibility to studded tire wear. Tire studs will tend to dislodge aggregate from the mix in the wheel paths forming a depression. After 2-3 years the surface voids of the OGPA start to become chocked with debris or dust which reduces the pavements ability to drain water. Once this happens the effectiveness of the OGPA reduces. Needs back-flushing system or cleansing.
(Information source-mineralproducts.org,2002)
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Mix type selection Guide for perpetual pavements
(Information source-mineralproducts.org,2002)
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Chapter 7.
BITUMEN
7.1
What is Bitumen
Bitumen (usually called asphalt chemically termed bitumen) is widely used in pavement construction. For AC it is binder cement. Its mechanical properties are more complex than typical civil engineering materials. Bitumen can be described as a viscous liquid, or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which is soluble in trichloroethylene and is substantially non-volatile and softens gradually when heated. It is black or brown in color and possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. Bitumen is obtained by refinery process from petroleum crude oil. This process is discussed under chapter 8. It is the most important material for AC production. The bitumen binder content of an AC mixture is generally 5 to 6 percent. It as a cementing agent coats and binds the aggregate particles together at its liquid state by heating. Asphalt also can be dispersed in water with the aid of an emulsifying-agent or solvent to make it liquid. It is called asphalt emulsion. The properties of asphalt binders are often improved or enhanced by using additives or modifiers to improve adhesion (stripping resistance), flow, oxidation
characteristics, and elasticity. Asphalt binders are classified by methods of: penetration or viscosity. Penetration graded asphalt binders include 40-50, 60-70, 85-100, 120-150, & 200-300 grades. Viscosity graded asphalt binders include AC2.5, AC-5, AC-10, AC-20, AC-30, & AC-40 grades. A viscosity / temperature may be obtained from the asphalt producer. Figure shown below is an example of this curve. The temperature of the asphalt at 170 centistokes will result in the ideal mixing temperature to provide adequate coating film thickness. The temperature at 280 centistokes is the ideal compaction temperature. The asphalts with flatter slopes on this curve are less susceptible to thermal cracking.
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7.2
Bitumen as Ideal Binder
The most important property of bitumen as a binder in AC is the way its stiffness (viscosity) changes with temperature. Ideally a binder is to be stiff enough at elevated temperatures so that it can resist deformation while flexible enough at low temperature restricting cracking. An ideal binder must exhibit the following properties: Sufficient stiffness/rigidity to minimize the rutting during worm condition. In addition, it must have positive effect on the fatigue life of the bituminous hot mixture. Flexible enough at cold temperature to avoid thermal cracks. It must exist the pumping / liquid state as a binder faster during mixing and hardness (or viscosity) should be decreased to facilitate compaction.
Bitumen having prominent characteristics such as waterproofing, versatile, thermoplastic, viscoelastic and adhesive acts as the glue (cement) and holds the aggregates intact. It is very acceptably used for AC for its so prominent characteristics which can meet the AC purposes specially the pavement needs.
Although bitumens usual state is solid or semi-solid at ordinary temperatures it can be liquefied by applying heat or dissolving in solvents (cut-back) or emulsifying (emulsion). Bituminous binders of the various grades are characterized by their physical properties, which directly describe how it will perform as a constituent in AC mixtures.
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7.3
Composition of Bitumen
Chemical analysis have shown that asphalt contains mainly Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen - 83% - 10% - 5%
Nitrogen & Sulphur - 1% Vanadium, Nickel, Aluminum & Silicon etc. 1%
7.4
Properties of Bitumen
7.4.1 Adhesiveness:
The most important property related to AC. It depends upon the nature of aggregates when using for AC production. Bitumen of liquid state can adhere the worm aggregate effectively. This aggregate-binder property can be enhanced by additives or modifier agents when an as required in AC productions.
7.4.2 Impermeability:
Water resistance property of asphalt. Even a very thin film or a coating can provide an excellent water barrier. The degree of impermeability depends also upon the nature of aggregate specifically fine materials. Solubility of bitumen in water is negligible.
7.4.3 Viscosity:
Liquidity / flow property of asphalt significantly important. Bitumen must necessarily be of high viscosity ( liquid form / softer) at the temperatures during AC production so as to effectively coating the aggregates to bond together due to the thermoplastic property. And there must not be any flow (less viscosity / harder) after AC is paved. Having this property bitumen gives a excellent binder service while behaving flexible.
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7.4.4. Consistency: The resistance to flow. It changes according to the volatile substances contents in the bitumen and also as the temperature varies. Consistency of bitumen is expressed as "the distance in 1/10th of mm that a standard needle vertically penetrates a sample under standard conditions of load, time and temperature." It is the measure to grade the types of bitumen.
7.4.5
Durability:
Bitumen counts the life time of pavement structure. The volatile materials in the bitumen can be reduce or loss through evaporation and oxidation due ultra-violet radiation. It effects the flexibility consequently the durability.
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7.5
Uses of Bitumen
As a binder (a cementing material) to set aggregates together asphalt has its greatest use in road pavements construction and maintenance as written above and below in this report. Some air ports ground surface course are built with asphalt materials.
Emulsions are dispersions of very small drops of bitumen in water. When it is not desirable to use fire or heating methods to boil asphalt it is made to use in so-called cold applications, in liquid form as emulsion. A satisfactory emulsion is smooth in appearance, usually brown in color. An obvious advantage of emulsions over other bituminous products is that they are easy to handle and apply. Curing involves primarily a loss of water by evaporation. its stability depends upon many factors such as asphalt concentration, size and distribution of asphalt droplets, freezing of the water and the nature of the stabilizing agent.
Cutback asphalt is a solution of the asphalt in a suitable solvent like kerosene or petrol. After application of cutback asphalt to the solid surface, the solvent evaporates leaving the asphalt film to act as a coating. Numerous solvents are sufficiently volatile and are good solvents for asphalt.
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Chapter 8. CRUDE OIL RFINERY AND BITUMEN EXTRACTION
Bitumen is an oil based substance. It is the end product at the distillation process of oil refinery. Bitumen being the major material within the pavement industry it is really worthy to understand the refinery systems / process from which it is manufactured and how. 8.1 Petroleum Crude Oil Refinery Refinery is a very distinctive longer process of distillation the crude oil fractionation into petroleum hydrocarbon groups. Crude oil originally extracted from the deeper grounds is a black, muddy liquid.
Crude oil is heated in a boiler and transferred to a distillation tower. The alkenes (substances) of it are made to evaporate in the order of their boiling points, commencing from the lowest, being heated liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which is lighter and can easily evaporate, followed by naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and light oil, in that order, are extracted from a distillation system, and heavy oil and asphalt (bitumen) remains at the end. Heavy oil is used as fuel for ships; bitumen is used to pave roads.
ORDER OF THE BOILING POINTS OF ALKANES PRODUCTS BY REFINERY SYSTEM- (black-
tides.com,2011)
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. (Fig 8.1.1) Schematic view of the Petroleum Distillation Process, (black-
tides.com,2011)
(Fig 8.1.2) Schematic view of the Petroleum Distillation temperature status. (nyk.com,2011)
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(Fig 8.1.3) Distillation temperature of petroleum products. (elmhurst.edu,2011)
8.2
Refinery Processes
The oil is heated and the resultant vapours rise up the tower. The vapours cool as they rise and condense onto trays. The lightest compounds condense at the top of the tower and are taken off as LPG (liquefied petroleum gas). The oil then undergoes further processing prior to distribution. The octane rating is increased to improve engine ignition. Sulphur is removed because when products are used the sulphur compounds emitted would smell of rotten eggs and dissolve in rain to form sulphuric acid which would contribute to the problem of acid rain. Other strong smelling compounds are also removed. Heavy residue is taken off at the base of the tower and reprocessed. In the fluid catalytic cracker (FCC) the heavy oil is distilled again, using a chemical catalyst this time, to produce gasoline and diesel. The heaviest sticky residue is redistilled in the vacuum distillation unit then taken to the Lubricants Zone where it is processed to make bitumen, lubricating oils and wax.
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Chapter 9.
ASPALT EMULSION
9.1 What is Emulsion
Sometimes asphalt emulsion is used for the production of AC.
Bitumen binder
necessarily to be of liquid form to produced AC. It is usually done by heating. Where heating of asphalt is not possible or not desirable the binder has to be in liquid form at the normal temperature which it is to be used. Bitumen can be mixed into water by specialized equipments with controlled conditions using chemical emulsifying agents and additives. Dispersion of the bitumen in the water with help of emulsification agent is the mechanism of producing asphalt emulsion.
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9.2 Asphalt Emulsion Preparation
An emulsion is a dispersion of small droplets of one liquid in another liquid. Emulsions can be formed by any two immiscible liquids, but in most emulsions one of the phases is water. Emulsions can have more complex structures. In multiple emulsions, the disperse phase contains another phase which may not have the same composition as the continuous phase.
Types of emulsions
(Fig 9.2.1)
O/W emulsion
W/O emulsion
multiple W/O/W
Standard bitumen (asphalt) emulsions are normally considered to be of the O/W type and contain from 40% to 75% bitumen, 0.1% to 2.5% emulsifier, 25% to 60% water plus some minor components. The bitumen droplets range from 0.120 micron in diameter. They are brown liquids with consistencies from that of milk to double cream, which depend mostly on the bitumen content and the particle size. Some bitumen droplets may contain smaller water droplets within them; a better description of asphalt emulsion would be a W/O/W multiple emulsion. The viscosity of the emulsion and especially changes in the viscosity of the emulsion during storage are strongly influenced by this internal water phase.
(Transportation Research Board,Characteristics of Bituminous Materials Committee,August 2006)
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9.3
Emulsion Technology
Bituminous emulsions form the basis for many paving applications in the asphalt Industry. Their rheological (i.e., flow) properties often dictate the uses for which they are suitable. Even when rheological properties are not critical in the final product, they influence the workability of the emulsion as it is applied in the field. The advantages of asphalt emulsion compared to hot asphalt and cut back binders are related to the low application temperature, compatibility with other water-based binders like rubber latex and cement, and low-solvent content. Faster-setting surface treatments, quick-drying tack coats, penetrating emulsion primes
that are superior to cut backs, and cold-mixed materials with improved properties.
(Fig 9.3.1) Schematic views of Asphalt emulsion preparation model sample
The basis of emulsification is the creation of small (1-5 micron) particles of asphalt that are coated with a chemical that allows the particles to stay apart. The emulsion must, however break back to asphalt films to be able to perform its function of coating, water proofing adhesion etc.
(Transportation Research Board, Characteristics of Bituminous Materials Committee, August 2006)
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9.5 The Setting Process
Emulsified asphalt must revert to a continuous asphalt film in order to act as cement in road materials. This involves flocculation and coalescence of the droplets and removal of the water.
Evaporation and absorption of water by the aggregate may be the main breaking mechanism for very slow-setting emulsions, but in most cases chemical reactions between the aggregate and the emulsion contribute to the emulsion setting and it is not necessary for all the water to evaporate before curing takes place.
The strength of the reaction of emulsion with aggregate is in many cases sufficient to squeeze the water from the system. Clean water can be seen separating from the mixture. The speed of these setting and curing processes depends on the reactivity of the emulsion, the reactivity of the aggregate and environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and mechanical action.
(Fig 9.5.1)
Emulsion setting
Micrograph of asphalt
(Fig 9.5.2)
Stages in the breakdown of emulsions
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9.6
Classification of Asphalt Emulsion
It is classified on the basis of the charge-signs on the droplets and to their reactivity. Cationic emulsions have droplets which carry a positive charge. Anionic emulsions have negatively charged droplets.
Rapid-setting (RS) emulsions set quickly when contact on aggregates of lowsurface area, such as the chippings used in chip seals (surface dressings). RS emulsions are reactive and are used with unreactive aggregates.
Medium-setting (MS) emulsions set less quickly that they can be mixed with aggregates of low surface area, such as those used in open-graded mixes. Slowsetting (SS) emulsions will mix with reactive aggregates of high surface area. SS emulsions are unreactive and are used with reactive aggregates.
Cationic RS, cationic MS, and cationic SS emulsions are denoted by the codes CRS, CMS, and CSS, whereas anionic emulsions are called RS, MS, and SS, followed by numbers and text indicating the emulsion viscosity and residue properties.
9.7
Variables affecting Asphalt Emulsion
There are many factors that affect the production, storage, use, and performance of an asphalt emulsion. The variables do significant affect are:
Chemical and physical properties of bitumen, Nature, properties and concentration of the emulsifying agent Manufacturing conditions temperatures and pressures Ionic charge on the emulsion particles Addition of chemical modifiers.
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9.8
Advantages of Asphalt Emulsion
Asphalt Emulsion ie. Emulsified bitumen is of lower viscosity than normal bitumen itself and hence possible to use at lower temperature reducing emissions and energy consumptions. They are economical and environmentally friendly than using cut back asphalts. Emulsions are water-based and in many cases can be diluted further with water for applications such as dust control and priming. The main advantage of emulsions can be summarized in terms of: Energy Conservation and Pollution Control Safety and Ease of Use Improvement in adhesion to aggregates Extensive applications. Economy of materials Versatility and Performance
(Transportation Research Board,Characteristics of Bituminous Materials Committee,August 2006)
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Chapter 10. AGGREGATE
10.1 Use of Aggregate "Aggregate" is the mineral materials such as sand and crushed stone that are used with a binding agent to form compound materials like hot mix asphalt (HMA) Aggregate accounts for about 75 to 85 percent of HMA by total volume of mixture (about 92 to 96 percent by total weight of mixture). Aggregates used for asphalt concrete mixtures have to be in proper grading, strength, toughness, and shape for better mixture stability. Well graded aggregate make better interlock (setting) between stones to provide satisfactory performance. All sizes from course to fine should be contained in the asphalt concrete mixture. A inch maximum aggregate size provides higher stability and improved skid resistance.
(Fig 10.1.1)
Aggregate samples
Aggregate properties of concern are generally found in nature and can be divided up into three major categories:

Gradation and the sizes: Particle size distribution. Consensus needs; Properties associated with physical shape and contamination measurements that can at least partially be controlled during production.
Source of Properties: Properties inherent in the rock source.
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10.2
Aggregate properties
Aggregate are to: resist abrasion, surface texture-friction and be interlocking mass to bear and transmit wheel loads, to provide a non skid surface. summery of the properties of aggregate in the use for AC. Uniformity; Must be of the one grading and shape. Shape; Should be angular in shape and have several crushed faces. Grading; Must be as single sized as possible. Cleanliness; Should be free of dust and as clean as possible. Durability; Should resist to abrasion, impact, polishing, Following is
weathering etc. Adhesion; Aggregate and the asphalt have chemical affinity to create bonding. Aggregates should be tested to ensure that they comply with specification. The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test is a common test method used to indicate aggregate toughness and abrasion characteristics. Aggregate abrasion
characteristics are important because the constituent aggregate in HMA must resist crushing, degradation and disintegration in order to produce a high quality HMA.
Typical quantum contents of aggregate in AC
By Weight %: Coarse aggregate 62, Fine aggregate 28, Filler 5, (Bitumen 4.5 ~ 5.2) By Volume %: Coarse aggregate 55,Fine aggregate 25, Filler 5, Air Voids 3 ~ 7
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Chapter 11.
BITUMEN BINDER MODIFICATION
11.1 Needs of Modification
Some bitumen as a binder require modification in order to meet specifications. There are numerous binder additives available on the market today. The benefits of modified bitumen binder in general should be modified to achieve the following types of improvements.
Lower stiffness (or viscosity) at the high temperatures associated with construction. This facilitates pumping of the liquid asphalt binder as well as mixing and compaction of HMA.
Higher stiffness at high service temperatures. This will reduce rutting and shoving.
Lower stiffness and faster relaxation properties at low service temperatures. This will reduce thermal cracking.
Increased adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate in the presence of moisture. This will reduce the likelihood of stripping. of an antistripping modifier, which results in good aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion.
11.2
What is Asphalt Rubber.
Reclaimed tire rubber (from waste tires) recycled and is used as a modifier (CRM) which is added to bitumen to enhance its properties. The product is a rubberised bitumen but called Asphalt rubber. Reclaimed tire rubber (crumb rubber) 15% by weight and certain additives are blended into the bitumen binder. They are heated at elevated temperatures ( 350F, 177C) and allowed to react together sufficiently. Some petroleum distillates or extender oil may be added to reduce viscosity, facilitate spray applications, and promote workability. The resulting product has a higher viscosity over a wider range of temperature compared to conventional asphalt
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11.3 Use of Asphalt Rubber Asphalt rubber is used as a binder in various types of asphalt pavement construction (HMA). It is also used in crack sealants. For hot mixes, asphalt rubber has been found to be most effective and is most commonly used in gap-graded and opengraded mixes, particularly for surface courses and for thin overlays. It may be used in new construction or to rehabilitate an existing pavement. Use of asphalt rubber in hot mixes is typically suitable for gap and opens gradations because they are most effective with respect to performance and cost. Gap and open-graded RAC mixes are most often used as overlays in rehabilitation of existing asphalt pavements. RAC is also used as surface courses for new pavement construction, specially to reduce traffic noise. How ever RAC during paving has to be in worm condition for it workability. This is not much practical as temperature also affects placement and compaction. Asphalt rubber paving materials should not be placed in the following conditions: During cold or rainy weather with ambient or surface temperatures <55F (13C). Over pavements with severe cracks more than 0.5 inch (12.5 mm) wide. Where traffic and deflection data are not available.
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11.4
Benefits of Asphalt Rubber
The primary reason for using asphalt rubber is that it provides significantly improved engineering properties over conventional paving grade asphalt. RAC binders can be engineered to perform at ambient climate or weather conditions. The rubber stiffens the binder and increases elasticity (proportion of deformation that is recoverable) over these pavement operating temperature ranges, which decreases pavement temperature susceptibility and improves resistance to permanent deformation (rutting) and fatigue with little effect on cold temperature properties. Following are the benefits of asphalt rubber paving materials: (State
California Department of Transportation) of
Have higher viscosity that allows better film thickness no bleeding. Perform elasticity and resilience at high temperatures. RAC pavements stand for better durability, resistance to fatigue/reflection cracking due to higher binder contents and elasticity. Reduce temperature susceptibility. Higher binder contents, thicker binder films, and anti-oxidants in the tire rubber improve resistance to aging and oxidation. Higher viscosity, softening points and resilience improve resistance to rutting (permanent deformation) Lower pavement maintenance costs due to durability and performance. Reduced construction times due to thinner lifts. Better chip retention in chip seals due to thick films of highly modified asphalt. Safety due to better long-term color contrast for pavement markings.
(Fig 11.4.1 dot.ca.gov,2006)
Finished RAC-G Pavement
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11.5 Disadvantages Rubber modified asphalt is done at worm conditions. The crumb rubber and asphalt are of deferent phases, because of the weak interaction between the rubber particle surface and the asphalt. It may sometimes result a non-homogeneous blend. This non-homogeneity reduces the reliability of the product properties decreasing the expected life of the rubber modified asphalt.
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Chapter 12.
THERMAL EFFECTS
12.1 Thermal Distresses The temperature profile in asphaltic pavement is affected directly by the thermal environmental conditions to which it is exposed. The fluctuation in temperatures significantly affects pavement stability. Therefore selection of asphalt grading to be used for pavements must be concerned to insure that the proper asphalt binder is used to resist pavement rutting in hot temperatures and to resist cracking in cold temperatures. Daily and seasonal ambient temperature fluctuations and solar radiation significantly affects the pavement stability and therefore the durability. High temperature rutting and low temperature cracking are the results mostly at cold weather. There may be variations of temperature at different depths and horizontal locations based on ambient air temperatures. The top pavement layer normally is exposed to greater temperature fluctuations than the layers below it. This temperature
distribution in asphalts may also be an issue to allow sophisticated specification for lower layers of less expensive binder and thus cost effective as well.
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12.2 Energy balance on Asphalt Pavement Surface. The primary modes of heat transfer are incident solar radiation, thermal and longwave radiation between the pavement surface and the open air. Heat transfer between the pavement surface and the air contacts with the pavement surface is shown in figure.
(Fig 12.2.1- wpi.edu)
Energy Balance in Asphaltic Pavements
The intensity of solar radiation is dependent on the suns rays, its incident angle between the surface. The solar radiation contacts directly and pavement happens to absorb the heat. The heat convection functions with the wind velocity over the surface. High wind velocities a convective cooling of the surface occurs when the temperature of the wind is lower than the temperature of the pavement surface.
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Chapter 13. BEHAVIOUR OF THE ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
The very purpose of the pavement is traffic run it while to stand for their wheels loads. And it is to exist within the varying nature conditions as well, the climatic and weather. Pavement responding all those stresses may behave positively if it can, but adversely other vice resulting failures.
13.1
Factors influencing Pavement behaviours
The exact behaviour of flexible pavements under wheel load is very difficult to dealt with. Due to varying effects by dynamical or statically or environmental conditions pavement meets crucial but critical stresses. And the strains against them too become critical causing destructive displacements unless pavements behaviour or the response are not compatible or capable. The main but the excellent property flexibility due to viscoplastoelastic property in the binder of the asphalt concrete pavement can tolerate those effects and stresses to a greater extent. Behaviour against those stresses by AC pavement after it is allowed to serve, may depend on the following factors: Properties of materials Nature of vehicular wheels and loadings Nature of environmental conditions Nature of failure modes.
AC pavements get various failures consequently its behaviours under those stresses. Therefore this paper focuses to identify and discuss about those failures and how they are occurring as well. The effects of wheel loads on pavements are prominently important for pavement design and bituminous mixture design. Stresses > strains > response> deflection > distresses> failures ?
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(Fig 13.1.1- How vertical pressure of the wheel may transfer through a stiffer AC layer to the lower is comparatively of less stiffer. -
(Fig 13.1.2) Load transfer downwards through granular materials.
(Fig 13.1.3)Flexible plate deflection
(Fig 13.1.4) Pavement strains under wheel load causing stress then deflection
(13.1.5) Strains and response by the layers Wheel load pressure distribution
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(13.1.6- bts.gov, 2010) Stability of the pavement layers
(13.1.7- bts.gov, 2010)
Schematic view of asphalt pavement deflection
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13.2
Pavement distress modes due to traffic
Some deterioration and wear on AC pavement occur not only by environmental factors but mainly due to the traffic-related factors influencing by various vehicle parameters, such as wheel loads and tyre type (single / dual / wide single), tyre size, wheel load, inflation pressure. Those factors effect distinctive different modes of distress. When vehicles move the wheels exert dynamic stresses on the pavement. The dynamic loading stresses are characterized by the speed, duration of loading and traffic volume. The response of the pavement structure under the dynamic loading is totally different from that under static loading.
13.3 Effects of Pavement Material
Pavement material properties also influence the stress and displacement variation under dynamic loading. Usually, the material properties are time dependent and temperature dependent. The faster the speed of vehicles, the stiffer the pavement materials. Both deflections and the periods decrease with increase of the subgrade modulus.
13.4
Effects by tire-pavement contacts
When a vehicle moves over the pavement there is a tire -pavement interface and a tire -pavement contact pressure. This gives an interaction stress between the rolling tire and pavement topmost surface. The imprint area at the tire -pavement interface due to the action of vehicle axle load. Conventional structural design and analysis of asphalt concrete pavements assumes that the vertical component of the contact pressure is uniformly distributed over a circular imprint area. This assumption of uniformly circular contact pressure distribution seems to be adequate for asphalt pavement design and simplifies considerably the theoretical relationships of pavement performance used by highway engineers. However the highest contact pressure may be in the middle of a tire-pavement contact area.
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13.5 Combined Stresses by Wheel loads and Thermal Conditions Behaviour of flexible pavement under wheel and thermal loading conditions is another distress mode in pavements. Failures to form cracks appear on asphalt layers. These stresses induce forms of bottom-up fatigue cracking, reflective cracking and top-down fatigue cracking. Combined stress intensity due to both vehicle loads and thermal effects may produce favourable conditions for fast distresses to the pavement. How ever restrictions to these combination stresses are not practicable. In addition, due to thermal effects some damage modes dominate pavement to contraction and shrinkage which are possible to enhance by wheel loads.
Effect of Thermal Expansion Factor on Horizontal Stress under the Center of loading
(road-transport-technology.org,2001)
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(Fig 13.5.1 - nrc-cnrc.gc.ca) Pavement happens to wear by the wheels of heavy vehicles.
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Chapter 14. PAVEMENT DISTRESSES AND FAILURES.
14.1
Fact of Distresses
Pavement has to undergo various stresses exerted by the wheel loads of traffic running. It is well obvious that the pavement is designed and constructed to stand for these loads consequently bear the stresses. But the factual issue is that the varying conditions of those stresses, same of the pavement behaviours, and also environmental changes happen to play together or vis a vis, or simultaneously. The stresses under these situations do effect the pavement to have particular distresses, subsequently failures, consequently certain damages. And pavement then may render structural or functional failures simultaneously or collectively. As an example rutting is a common failure happening all those.
(14.1.1) Example: Depressed , water collected, weakened and vice versa.

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14.1
Identifying the Pavement Distresses and Failures
Pavement serving thus, becoming older, is the more of those happenings as read above. Therefore regular maintenance and rehabilitation on pavement become essential to arrest those failures, rather unlike other civil engineering constructions. Hence identifying and understanding of pavement distresses, failures and causes, are very important. As those are of very descriptive nature, They are happened to conveniently summarised below.
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14.2
Asphalt Pavement Distresses Summary
TYPE OF DISTRESS
POSSIBLE CAUSE
Fatigue Failure 1. Unbearable loading. 2. Subgarde and base courses are poor condition. 3. Thickness of base courses less. 4. Drainage system not functioning. Formation of Cracking block wise. 1. Aged asphalt concrete. 2. More fine materials had been added to the mixture. 3. Had paved dry mixture. 4. Poor quality of bitumen binder.
Formation of cracks along the edge
1. Uneven of settlement of embankment. 2. Soil shrinkage. 3. Drainage functions are poor. 4. Lateral support failure. 5. Effects by vegetation along the edge.
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TYPE OF DISTRESS Crack formation transfers wise
POSSIBLE CAUSE 1. Thermal differences. 2. Poor quality of underlying layers. 3. Poor constructions methods. 4. Uneven paver operation.
Reflection Cracking formation
1. Uneven settlement and the movement of underneath layers. 2. Traffic operation movements.
Cracks formed by slippages.
1. Poor bonding of the material. 2. Higher sand content 3. Braking effects by heavy traffic. 4. Vehicular turning or stopping movements.
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TYPE OF DISTRESS Formation of Corrugations
POSSIBLE CAUSE
1. Low air voids content. 2. Higher usage of fine aggregate. 3. Aggregates of poor granular 4. Aggregate used are rounded. 5. Poor quality of the binder
Formation of Rutting
1. Improper compaction. 2. Poor quality of the asphalt concrete. 3. The layer thickness not sufficient. 4. Moisture affects due to weakness of the material.
Formation of Depressions
1. Poor compaction. 2. Uneven settlements of the underneath layers. 3. Moisture attacks weaken the underneath material strengths.
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TYPE OF DISTRESS Formations of Swells
POSSIBLE CAUSE
1. Usage of clay material which swells due to moisture. 2. Frost heave. 3. Lateral Pressure applied by traffic.
Depression at utility service trenching. 1. Improper compaction. 2. Unequal usage of material. 3. Failures of the adjoining layers.
Formation of Pot Hole 1. Poor drainage system. 2. Deterioration of the surface material. 3. All the courses related to above distresses. 4. Lack of maintenance.
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TYPE OF DISTRESS Formation of Weathering
POSSIBLE CAUSE
1. Usage of poor quality asphalt concrete. 2. Combination of vehicle loads and moisture. 3. Aging the asphalt binder.
Formation of Bleeding 1. Bitumen binder used excessively. 2. Tack coat application at higher rate. 3. Heat affects. 4. Content of fine materials higher in the asphalt concrete. 5. Less content of air voids Smooth surface
1. Usage of poor quality aggregate. 2. Higher traffic movements.
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TYPE OF DISTRESS Segregation of surface materials.
POSSIBLE CAUSE 1. Poor quality of aggregate 2. Seal coat used cooled condition. 3. Aggregate embedded poor. 4. Usage of dusty aggregate. 5. Traffic had been allowed before curing.
Formation of transfers weaker lines on the surface.
1. Sealed coat spraying unequally. 2. Spreading blinding aggregate done after cooling the seal coat. 3. Application of high viscosity bitumen when spraying.
Pavement becoming older (aging) is the more of these happenings to develop. Therefore regular maintenance and rehabilitation on pavement become essential to arrest those failures.
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Chapter 15. ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT RECYCLING
15.1
Demand for Recycling
AC is a versatile material which contains durable and longer lasting ingredients (aggregates and binder). It can be easily recycled and reused. Pavements after their life times need rehabilitation or expansions thereby subjected to demolishing and removal. The debris or the removed materials thus is /can be recycled for reuse.
Aged AC pavements can be effectively recycled by recycling processes. The end product materials (mainly aggregate) may be of the same quality (strength) and performance level as they were before. By effectively recycle process the old AC pavement can be brought (rehabilitate) to a new pavement which can perform original state.
Demand for recycling is increasing
due to rising costs for materials and some
scarcity of quality aggregates near the locations / sites. At these situations on economical and environmental needs recycling become prominently important. According to Highway Agencies, nearly 35 percent of asphalt concrete pavement is recycled into HMA with a substantial cost savings over virgin HMA mixes achieving almost similar performance characteristics.
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15.2
Recycling Process
It is a process of excavation (demolishing and removing), milling and repaving process by roadway milling machine or roadmiller. A typical road milling operation is shown in the figure below.
(Fig. 15.2.1)
Recycling Operations of a Asphalt concrete pavement
The steps include: Excavating the old AC-pavement material, Milling it to particle size of 20 10 mm. approximately (referred as reclaimed asphalt pavement RAP ), Conveying RAP to asphalt plant, reusing to produce (commonly by HMA production process) a new AC mixture. and finally Paving to form the pavement.
15.3
Recycling Methods
Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Associations recommends recycling methods as defined by: Cold planing, Hot recycling, Hot in-place recycling, Cold in-place recycling
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15.4
Use of Recycled materials for Asphalt Concrete
HMA is produced in a plant through usual process within which predetermined quantity of RAP is added typically 25 to 35 percent by weight. Professionals do recommend even higher additions are feasible. The new product can perform same as HMA unadded with RAP. How ever there are some precautions when using RAP:
RAP at heating may produce emissions in the form of gaseous hydrocarbons. It is minimized by adding RAP into pre-heated new aggregates thus making RAP heats up through contacts with the heated aggregates.
RAP addition may require additional heating in the plant process. RAP generally contains 3 to 7 percent asphalt binder by weight and may be of higher viscosity (stiffer) due to aging. Therefore a lesser viscous (softer) binder should be used.
It is to note RAP gradation is generally finer than pure virgin aggregate because of the degradation that occurs during removal and milling at the recycling process.
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15.5
Benefits of Recycling
Recycling of RAP has both environmental and economical benefits. RAP saves natural resources. In comparison to the use of virgin material, a cost saving of nearly 30% can be achieved by RAP through which same materials can be used.
Following figure shows the Life Cycle of Asphalt Concrete Pavement. It reads some thing to understand how beneficial is the recycling.
(15.5.1) Life Cycle of Sustainable asphalt concrete pavement

(www.lrrb.org,2011)
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Chapter 16. SUSTAINABILTY
16.1
What is Sustainability
The basis of sustainability commonly consists of three elements: economy, society, and environment. It is well said Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their needs Sustainable pavement is a subset of sustainable transportation with the main emphasis in pavement design and management, material use and recycling. In
order to achieve sustainable pavement, it is necessary to integrate economic, social, and environmental considerations into practice.
16.2
Need of sustainable pavement
Road / pavement infrastructures get aging and deteriorate over times. With limited resources and funding, transportation agencies face challenges but have to continue in maintaining or building pavement infrastructures to meet the needs of the users. These issues together with the concept of sustainable development are compelling the pavements not only be sustainable but to use sustainable materials as well.
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16.3
Pavement Sustainability
Pavement has a vital roll in the sustainable transportation. It is the prominent component within sustainable transportation system considering a broad spectrum of engineering activities. It can be illustrated by below figures:
16.4
Components of Sustainable Pavement
Sustainable pavement concept has driven many research motivations. These motivations are in the form of sustainable paving material utilization, innovative design and construction methods. One of the goals behind these research
motivations is maximizing pavement performance using the given funding and resources available.
(Fig 16.4.1) Components of Sustainable Pavement and Transportation The pavement ages and deteriorates over times. Proper construction and maintenance techniques are essential to ensure roads to provide the required performance for road users. As resources and funding are becoming limited yet important it is compelling the transportation agencies to utilize the resources with maximum benefits. This requires recycling of existing aged pavements of which materials can be reused to construction new pavement while saving economical and environmental aspects.
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16.5
Basics of sustainable pavement in recycling technology
From aged pavements: Reclaiming Asphalt Pavement (RAP) In-Place Recycling ( Milling and Plant operations) Factory Recycling ( Milling, Transporting, Plant operation) Hot-Mix Asphalt / Warm-Mix Asphalt Sustainable Pavement
From wastes: Reuse Application Fly ash / Coal ash Tire Rubber ( Crumb Rubber from waste tires) Shingles Slag Foundry sand Plant Operations Hot-Mix Asphalt / Warm-Mix Asphalt Sustainable Pavement
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CONCLUSION
Pavements have to undergo the various stresses exerted not only by the traffic loads but also by environmental conditions of weather and climatic. All of them are at varying status often, liable to varying distresses on and into the pavement. Traffic loads and environmental effects when happen simultaneously pavement structure happens to bear complicate stresses and its behaviours become serious. The resultant would be distresses mostly leading towards failures. It is a fact to observe pavements get deteriorated and regular damages when they are at the use. Respective authorities or agencies take efforts to restrict the causes. Professionals of the subjects have developed various techniques in this regard as well. More researches have been done, particularly towards the asphalt concrete for pavement construction. Quality, particularly the density of asphalt concrete pavement is to concern highly. Bitumen content, air void content and density are the vitally important. These are to be so desirable, because those are the main factors governing the behaviour of asphalt concrete pavement. However they are depended according to the types and purposes of the pavement layers. As an example for dens graded asphalt pavement the allowable volume percentages found to be 4 ~ 5 %, 3 ~4 % and 97~98 % respectively. The results of density test done proved to be compatible as the proper quality control system had been applied there. However these factors achieved at the construction (just before) may be changed due to all the reasons explained above, especially when pavement is at the use. Therefore further investigations and studies are needed to carry out why and how they vary leading to failures as said above. Time verses traffics would be the appropriate and find any possible improvements to control or restrict the causes.
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Bibliography
Alaska University Transportation Center. (2010, 12 30). Retrieved from Airport Manager's Guide for the Maintenance of Asphalt Pavements of General Aviation Air ports: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/planning/aeronaut/document/CALTRANS_Final_Report_1.12.09. Arthur Wingnall, P. S. (1991). Road Work Theroy and Practice. Third Edition. Published in association with the Institution of Works adn Highways Management. Asphalt Additives Symposium. (2011, 01 03). Retrieved from Innovative Asphalt Emulsion ApplicationsEmulsion Applications: http://www.petersenasphaltconference.org/download/2004/32King. black tides. (2011, 03 01). Retrieved from Products obtain fron crude oil refinery: http://www.blacktides.com/uk/oil/oil-everyday-lives/products-obtained-from-crude-oil.php Breach, M. (2009). Dssertation Writting for Engineers and Scientists. Student Edition. Nottingham Trent University: Pearson Education. CHEMISTRY AND ISSUES IN THE ENVIRONMENT. (2011, 03 14). Retrieved from Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil: http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/onlcourse/chm110/outlines/distill.html Construction Division. (2011, 03 01). Retrieved from Super Heavy Load Analysis Background: http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/pdm/super_heavy_load_analysis_background.htm Cornell Local Roads Program-NEW YORK LTAP CENTER. (2011, 03 10). Retrieved from Asphalt Paving Principles: http://www.clrp.cornell.edu/workshops/pdf/asphalt_paving_principles-web Engine Mechanics. (2011, 02 16). Retrieved from Stage of Constrauction: http://www.tpub.com/content/engine/14081/css/14081_465.htm FAO-Foresty Department. (2010, 12 15). Retrieved from ROAD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES: http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/t0099e/T0099e06.htm Fernando, H. (2001). Road Contraction Techniques and Failures. Second edition. University of Peradeniya-Civil Engineering Department: G.M Publishres. Group, O. R. (October 1978). Maintenance techniques for Road Surfacing. Organisation for Economic co-operation and development. Institute of Transportation Studies-California. (2011, 02 13). Retrieved from Summary Report on permanent deformation in asphalt concrete: http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/shrp/SHRP-A318.) Maintenace technical Advisory Guide. (2010, 12 11). Retrieved from Common Distresses on flexible pavements: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/maint/MTAG-CommonFlexiblePavementDistresses. NKY group. (2011, 03 15). Retrieved from Petroleum Products: http://www.nyk.com/english/seascope/200604/index.htm
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Nottinhgam Center for Pavement Engineering-University of Nottingham. (2010, 12 17). Retrieved from Pavement Design: http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/~evzncpe/docs/introduction. NRC. (2011, 03 14). Retrieved from Effects of tire - pavement contact pressure distributions on the: http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/obj/irc/doc/pubs/nrcc38864.pdf Pavement interactives. (n.d.). Pavement interactives. (2010, 11 24). Retrieved from HMA Pavement: http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=Base Pavement tool consortium. (18, 11 2010). Retrieved from PTC Pavement Guide: http://training.ce.washington.edu/PGI/ Quarry Products Association. (2011, 01 02). Retrieved from Asphalt - road materials with quality: http://www.mineralproducts.org/documents/asp-quality-road_materials.pdf Rogers, M. (2003). Highway Engineering. oxford-blackwell science. Salter, R. (1998). Highway Design and Constration.Second Edition. University of Bradfor: Macmillan. Scott Wilson Pavement Engineering Ltd. (2011, 02 07). Retrieved from ASPHALT CRACKING UNDER ULTRA-SLOW STRAIN: http://www.eecongress.org/2000/pdfbook3/session2/Proc0115uk Smith, J. P. (1995). Petroleum Refining. First Edition. State of California Department of Transportation. (2011, 03 25). Retrieved from ASPHALT RUBBER USAGE GUIDE: http://www.asphaltrubber.org/ari/California_AR_Design_Guide/Caltrans_Asphalt_Rubber_Usage_G uide TAMS. (2011, 02 13). Retrieved from Flexible pavement construction: http://www.tams.act.gov.au/pv_obj_cache/pv_obj_id_5CC17A2F8A0A2E629E71DF5A7CC860326F5 90500/filename/SS04_Flexible_Pavement_01_00.pdf the constructor civil engineer home. (2011, 01 03). Retrieved from FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE: http://theconstructor.org/transportation/flexible-pavementcomposition-and-structure/5499/ training CE washinton. (2010, 12 01). Retrieved from Flexible Pavement: http://training.ce.washington.edu/wsdot/Modules/07_construction/07-6_body.htm Transport Road and Traffic Authority. (2010, 11 22). Retrieved from Typical Road Pavement Section: http://www.rta.nsw.gov.au/doingbusinesswithus/designdocuments/cross_sections.html Transportation Systems Engineering. (2011, 04 11). Retrieved from Introduction to pavement design: http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1100_LnTse/105_lntse/plain/plain.html Transportation, U. D. (May 2006). Geotechnical Aspects of Pavement. National Highway Institute. 93
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CE3216- Asphalt Concrete for Road Pavements Construction and its Behaviours under Vehicular Loads.

CE3216-Final Year Project-BEng Civil Engineering

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

ASPHAT CONCRETE 4.1 What is Asphalt

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

7.4 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 7.4.4 7.4.5 7.5 Chapter 8

Properties of Bitumen Adhesiveness I permeability Viscosity Consistency Durability Uses of Bitumen

AGGREGATE 10.1 10.2 Use of Aggregate Aggregate Properties

BITUMEN BINDER MODIFICATION 11.1 Needs of Modification

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Chapter 12

SUSTAINABILUTY 16.1 What is sustainability

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Chapter 17

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

(Fig. 2.1.1-.dot.ca.gov, 2001)

Drain Shoulde P (Fig. 2.1.2)

Asphalt layer ( aggregate + asphalt binder )

Base Course (compacted aggregate + fines)

Sub base Course ( compacted gravel )

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

(Fig. 2.3.1- dot.ca.gov, 2001)

Typical pavement structure

(Fig. 2.3.2- dot.ca.gov, 2001)

Load distribution and pavement deflection under loads

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

2.5 Asphalt Concrete Pavement Structure

(Fig. 2.5.2- tpub.com, 2009)

(Fig. 2.5.3) Wheel load distribution / spreading

Pavement deflection under loads

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

2.6 Pavement System Types

Basic components of a typical pavement system-

Common variations of Asphalt Concrete Pavement sections-

Information source- pavementinteractive.org, 2010

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Pavement components, load distribution and tress distribution

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Chapter 3. ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Asphalt Concrete Characterisation in Pavement Design

(Fig. 3.4.1) Aspects of Pavement Design- (onlinemanuals.txdot.gov)

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

3.5 Design Parameters

Environment (Fig. 3.5.1-

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Environment: Temperature extremes, climate, weather (rains and frost action)

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

3.6 Pavement Structure

Surface course Base course Subbase course Subgrade

(Fig. 3.6.1- tpub.com, 2009) Recommended thickness: (Fig. 3.6.2-tpub.com,2009)

(Fig. 3.6.3- civil.iitb.ac.in)

Types of Flexible Pavements

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

3.8 Stress Distribution Factors in Asphalt Pavements

Thermal Cracking Model Low temperature cracking, Thermal fatigue cracking,

Prajee Embogama-0747642 BEng Civil-University of East London

Asphalt concrete layers paving to the thicknesses