UNIT I TRANSISTOR BIAS STABILITY 1. Why do we choose q point at the center of the load line?

The operating point of a transistor is kept fixed usually at the center of the active region in order that the input signal is well amplified. If the point is fixed in the saturation region or the cut off region the positive and negative half cycle gets clipped off respectively. 2. Name the two techniques used in the stability of the q point. Stabilization technique: This refers to the use of resistive biasing circuit which allows IB to vary so as to keep IC relatively constant with variations in Ico,, and VBE. Compensation techniques: This refers to the use of temperature sensitive devices such as Thermistors diodes. They provide compensating voltages &currents to maintain operating point constant.

3. Give the expression for stability factor.

S= (1+)/[(1-)( IB/ IC)] 4. List out the different types of biasing. Voltage divider bias Base bias Emitter feed back bias Collector feedback bias 5. What do you meant by thermal runway? Due to the self heating at the collector junction, the collector current rises. This causes damage to the device. This phenomenon is called thermal runway. 6. Why is the transistor called a current controlled device? The output characteristics of the transistor depend on the input current. So the transistor is called a current controlled device. 7. Define current amplification factor. It is defined as the ratio of change in output current to the change in input current at constant other side voltage. 8. What are the requirements for biasing circuits? The q point must be taken at the Centre of the active region of the output characteristics. Stabilize the collector current against the temperature variations. Make the q point independent of the transistor parameters. 9. When does a transistor act as a switch? The transistor acts as a switch when it is operated at either cutoff region or saturation region.

10. What is meant by biasing? To use the transistor in any application it is necessary to provide sufficient voltage and current to operate the transistor. This is called biasing. 11. What is an operating point? For the proper operation of the transistor a fixed level of current and voltages are required. This values of currents and voltages defined at a point at which the transistor operate is called operating point. 12. What is a stability factor? Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector current with respect to the rate of change of reverse saturation current. 13. What is d.c load line? The d.c load line is defined as a line on the output characteristics of the transistor which gives the value of Ic & Vce corresponding to zero signal condition. 14. What are the advantages of fixed bias circuit? This is simple circuit which uses a few components. The operating point can be fixed any where on the Centre of the active region 15. what are the various regions in a transistor? The three regions are active region saturation region cutoff region. 16. What are the characteristics of a transistor? Input characteristics: it is drawn between input voltage & input current while keeping output voltage as constant. Output characteristics: It is drawn between the output voltage &output current while keeping input current as constant. 17. What is the necessary of the coupling capacitor? It is used to block the c signal to the transistor amplifier. It allows a c &blocks the d c. 18. What is reverse saturation current? The current due to the minority carriers is called the reverse saturation current. 19. Why is the operating point selected at the Centre of the active region? The operating point is selected at the Centre of the active region to get to perfect amplification. Moreover there is no distortion.

20. Define stabilization. The process of making operating point independent of changes in temperature and transistor parameter is known as stabilization.\ 21. What are the compensation techniques available? Diode compensation Thermistors compensation Sensistor compensation 22. What are the methods to avoid thermal runaway? It can be avoided by keeping the collector single large to dissipate heat. By using heat sink. By using proper biasing circuit to provide circuit stable. 23. What is the condition for thermal stability? The rate at which heat is released at the collector junction must not exceed the rate at which the heat can be dissipated under steady state condition or to prevent thermal delay. 24.What is need for biasing? The biasing is a method of providing suitable d.c voltage across input terminals to operate the transistor in the desired operating region. The biasing is important for establishing the Q point, which is dictated by the mode of operation desired .To make this Q point stable, biasing is necessary. 25. Give the relation between the and . = ------------

1-

UNIT II MIDBAND ANALYSIS OF SMALL SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

1. What is an amplifier? An amplifier is a device which produces a large electrical output of similar characteristics to that of the input parameters. 2. What are the basic rules of an operating amplifier? The operating point should be fixed on the load line. The upper end of the load line lies on the saturation region &lower end lies on the cutoff region. 3. How are amplifiers classified according to the input? 1. Small signal amplifier 2. Large signal amplifier 4. How are amplifiers classified according to the transistor configuration? 1. Common emitter amplifier 2. Common base amplifier 3. Common collector amplifier

5. What is the different analysis available to analyze a transistor? 1. AC analysis 2. DC analysis 6. How can a DC equivalent circuit of an amplifier be obtained? By open circuiting the capacitor. 7. How can a AC equivalent circuit of a amplifier be obtained? By replacing dc supply by a ground and short- circuiting capacitors. 8. What is positive feedback? If the feed back signal is applied in such a way that it is in phase with the input signal and thus increases it is said to be positive feedback. 9. What is negative feed back? If the feed back signal is applied in such a way that it is out of phase with the input signal and thus decreases it is said to be positive feedback. 10. Which feedback decreases the gain of the amplifier? Negative feed back 11. which feedback increases the gain of the amplifier? Positive feedback

12. What is the advantage of negative feed back? 1. increased stability 2. Increased bandwidth 3. Decreased noise 4. Less frequency distortion 13. What is the disadvantage of negative feedback? Reduces amplifier gain. 14. Define sensitivity. It is the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with feedback to the percentage change in voltage gain without feedback. 15. Define Desensitivity. It is the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain without feedback to the percentage change in voltage gain with feedback. the reciprocal of sensitivity. 16. What is the differential amplifier? An amplifier which amplifies the difference between the two input signals is called as differential amplifier. 17. What is a common mode signal? State its characteristics. The output of the practical differential amplifier not only depends on the difference voltage but also depends on the average common level of the two inputs. Such an average level of the two input signals is called common mode signal denoted as Vc.

18. What is CMRR? The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is expressed by a ratio called common mode rejection ratio denoted as CMRR. It is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to common mode voltage gain AC. | |

19. What is differential input impedance? How it can be decreased? It is also called as differential input resistance(Rin) and it is defined as the equivalent resistance between one of the inputs to ground terminal when the other input terminal is connected to ground. Rin should ideally be and practically as high as possible.

The various methods of realizing the high input resistance for the differential amplifier circuit are, 1) use of Darlington pair. 2) use of FET 3) use of swamping resistors. 20. What are the applications of differential amplifiers? 1. As basic building block of OP-AMP. 2. As input stage of many bio-medical instruments. 3. As input stage of power oscilloscope. 21. What are the different configurations of a differential amplifier? The four important configurations of a differential amplifier as follows:

1. Dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. 2. Dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier. 3. Single input, balanced output differential amplifier. 4. Single input, unbalanced output differential amplifier. 22. What are the benefits of h parameter? H parameters are: Real numbers at audio frequency Easy to measure Can be obtained from the transistor state characteristics curves. Convenient to use in circuit analysis and design. 23.State millers theorem. It states that of an impedance Z is connected between the input and output terminals of a network which provides an voltage gain A an equivalent circuit that gives the same effect can be drawn by removing Z and connecting an impedance. Z1=Z/1-k Z2=Zk/k-1 24.What are the techniques employed in improving input impedance? Using direct coupling(Darlington conection) Using bootstrap technique. 25.Whar are the h parameters? h11,h12,h21,h22 are called h parameters where h11 is the input resistance with output short circuited.h12 is the reverse voltage gain with input short circuited.h21 is the forward current gain with output short circuited.h22 is the output admittance with input open circuited.

26. Compare the CE, CC and CB amplifiers. SL.No. Quantity / Parameter CE 1. Input terminal Base 2. Output terminal Collector 3. Common terminal Emitter 4. Input resistance (Ri) Medium 5. Output Resistance Medium (Ro) 6. Current gain (AI) High 7. Voltage gain (AV) High 8. Applications AF voltage amplifiers

CB Emitter Collector Base Low High Less than 1 High Low noise Pre-amplifiers

CC Base Emitter Collector High Low High Less than 1 Buffer amplifiers

UNIT III

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF AMPLIFIERS

1. What is rise time? The rise time is defined as the time required for the current to rise to 10 to 90% of the maximum. 2. Give relationship between rise time and bandwidth. BW(or) Fh=0.35/tr 3. Define load line. The straight line, which is drawn on the output characteristics of the transistor, is known as load line. The word load line is used because the slope of this line is 1 / RC. Where RC is the load resistance. 4. Define bandwidth. A range of frequency over which the amplifier performance is satisfactory is called its bandwidth. It is always placed in between the high frequency region and low frequency region. 5. Define gain bandwidth product. Gain bandwidth product is defined as the product of mid band gain and bandwidth. GBW=[Ai(max)]BW 6. What do you understand by 3 db bandwidth of an amplifier? It is the range of frequency over which the gain of an amplifier is equal 70.7% of its max gain. It gives the information about the range of frequency over which uniform amplification takes place. 7. Define unity gain frequency. It is defined as the frequency at which CE short circuit current gain has dropped to unity and it is denoted by fT. 8. Define cutoff frequency. It is defined as high frequency at which current gainof a CE transistor drops to 0.707 or 3 Db from us low frequency. 9. Define Sag time. It is defined as large time constant at which amplifier output tend to decrease %tilt=[t1/R1 C1]x100 10. What are the significance of octaves and decades? A tend times changes in frequency is called as decades. Octaves corresponds to a doubling or halving of the frequency At lower and high frequencies the decrease in gain of amplifier is indicated in terms of dB/decade as dB/octave. 11. What are the compensation technique to improve frequency response? Dominant pole compensation Pole zero compensation 12. Why do h-parameter model not suitable for high frequency? The values of h- parameters are constant at high frequency At high frequencies h- parameters become complex in nature. 13. Define frequency response. The curve drawn between the voltage gain and signal frequency of an amplifier is known as frequency response. 14. Define lower cutoff frequency. It is defined as lower value of frequency f1 where the gain is 0.707 times the maximum gain. 15. Define upper cutoff frequency. It is defined as higher value of frequency f2 where the gain is 0.707 times the maximum gain.

16.State figure of merit F. Figure of meritof the amplifier is defined as the product of mid band gain and bandwidth.It is also called gain mid band product. F=Av X BW 17.Define Duty cycle. It is the ratio of ON time to the total time. D=TON/TTOT 18. Define tuned amplifiers. Tuned amplifier is an amplifier having a tuned circuit as load. That means in place of a load resistance, now a tuned circuit is used. The tuned amplifiers are designed for amplification of input signal, over a narrow band of signal frequencies centered about fr (resonant frequency). 19. What is input bias current? Input bias current can be defined as the current flowing into each of the two input terminals when they are biased to the same voltage level i.e., when the op-amp is balanced. | | | | 20. Define slew rate.
Slew rate can be defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage of op-amp with respect to time. 21. How can the slew rate be made faster? The slew rate can be made faster by having a high charging current or a small capacitance value. 22. What are the AC characteristics of an op-amp? a. Frequency response b. Slew rate 23. What are the DC characteristics of an op-amp? a. input bias current b. Input offset current c .Input offset voltage d. Thermal drift 24. The rise time of certain amplifier is 10 nsec. calculate the approximate BW of the amplifier. BW=0.35/10X10-12=35 mhz. 25. What is the conversion efficiency in a power amplifier? The ratio of a.c power delivered to the load to the d.c power input is called conversion efficiency of the power amplifier.

UNIT IV

LARGE SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

1. What are the features of large signal amplifier? o Power efficiency o The maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling. o The impedance matching to the output device.
2. What is power amplifier? The stage which develops and feeds sufficient power to the load handling the large is called. 3. What are the types of power amplifier? class A amplifier, class B amplifier, class C amplifier, class AB amplifier 4. Classify amplifier based on coupling. RC coupled amplifier, Transformer coupled amplifier ,DC (direct coupled) amplifier signals

5. What is phase shift distortion? If the phase shift introduced by the amplifier for different input frequencies is not proportional to frequency then phase distortion will take place. The phase distortions are not detectable by the human ears as they are insensitive to the phase changes. Therefore, phase shift distortion takes place due to unequal phase shifts of the input signal at different frequencies. 6. What is difference between voltage amplifier and power amplifier? Small signal amplifiers are also known as Voltage amplifiers. This is because these amplifiers are used primarily for voltage amplification but they are not capable of supplying a large power to the loads such as loud speakers. The large signal amplifier (power amplifier) will increase the current sourcing and sinking capability. So at its output we get a high voltage, high current signal that means a high power signal. Thus the power amplifier is basically a current amplifier. 7. What is crossover distortion in class B push pull amplifier? In class B push pull amplifiers the output signal gets distorted near the zero crossings. Therefore this distortion is called as the crossover distortion. Due to crossover distortion the conduction angle of each transistor in the class B amplifier becomes less than 180. 8. What is Darlington pair? The Darlington connection of two BJTs is as shown in fig. the two transistors Q1 and Q2 are directly connected in the Darlington connection. It is also known as Darlington pair. As seen, the collectors of the two transistors are connected together, emitter of Q1 is connected to the base of Q2 and emitter of Q2 acts as the emitter of Darlington connection. 9.State Class A Amplifier. The power amplifier is said to be class A amplifier if the Q point and the input signal are selected such that the output signal is obtained for a full input cycle. 10. State Class B Amplifier. The power amplifier is said to be class B amplifier if the Q point and the input signal are selected such that the output signal is obtained only for one half cycle for a full input cycle. 11. State Class C Amplifier. The power amplifier is said to be class C amplifier if the Q point and the input signal are selected such that the output signal is obtained for less than a half cycle for a full input cycle.

12. State Class AB Amplifier. In a class AB amplifier the output current flows for more than half cycle but less than the complete cycle. The characteristics of AB amplifier lies in between those of class A class B. 13. Define conversion efficiency of a power amplifier. Efficiency of the amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered or transferred to the load from the ac source. It is also called conversion efficiency of amplifier. 14. What is crossover distortion? In cross over distortion the transistor conducts for less than a half cycle rather than the complete half cycle producing distorted output signal 15. How can cross over distortion be eliminated? To overcome crossover distortion in class B amplifier a small forward biased is applied to the transistors. 16. What is the use of heat sinks? To avoid thermal runaway sometimes heat sinks are used providing more surface area for heat dissipation, both by conduction and conviction. 17. State harmonic distortion. Distortion in the output caused by the non linearity of the transistor characteristics is called as harmonic distortion. Second harmonic produces the highest distortion. 18. How can the harmonic distortion be eliminated? By canceling out the second harmonic output using the push pull circuit,harmonic distortion is eliminated. 19. Write the condition for maximum power dissipation? Vm=[2/]Vcc 20. What is the necessity for power amplifier? Power amplifiers are used to provide the power required to drive a current operated load. The load is usually a transducer that converts electrical energy to some other form of energy. 21. State Safe Operating Area. The various rating of transistor such as Ic(max) Pd(max) of the transistor should be selected such that all these values lie in the safe operating area. 22. What is theoretical maximum conversion efficiency of class A power amplifier? The theoretical maximum conversion efficiency of class A power amplifier is 50%. 23. What is distortion in power amplifiers? Distortion in the output is caused by the non-linearity of transistor characteristics is called Harmonic distortion. 24. How are amplifier classified based on the biasing condition? Based on the biasing condition, transistor amplifiers are classified as, Class A, Class B and Class C. 25. Define Heat sink. The heat sink is a relatively large black metallic heat conducting device, placed in close contact with transistor case, so that the effective surface area is increased and resistance to heat flow is decreased hence heat can be effectively discharged.

UNIT V

RECTIFIERS AND POWER SUPPLIES

1. What is rectifier?

Rectifier is a device which converts a.c voltage to pulsating d.c voltage, using one or more pn junction.
2. Draw the block diagram of DC power supply

Transformer ac i/p o/p

Rectifier

Filter

Regulator dc

3. What are the important characteristics of the rectifier? wave form of the load current regulation of the output voltage rectifier efficiency peak value of the current in the rectifier circuit. PIV Ripple factor 4. What is peak inverse voltage ? What is its value for the HWR? The peak inverse voltage is the peak voltage across the diode in the reverse direction ie when the diode reverse biased . HWR when the diode is reverse biased and hence the maximum value of voltage that can exist across the diode is nothing but Em. 5. What is ripple factor? The output of the rectifier is of pulsating DC type. The amount of AC content in the can be mathematically expressed by a factor called ripple factor. Its value is 1.211 for the HWR Its value is 0.48 for the FWR 6. What is rectifier efficiency? It is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power = Pdc / Pac 7. What is TUF? The factor which indicates how much is the utilization of the transformer in the circuit called Transformer utilization factor. Its value is 0.287 for the HWR is output

Its value is 0.812 for the FWR 8. What are the disadvantages of the HWR? Ripple factor is high. The output contain lots of varying component Rectification efficiency is 40% Low TUF, transformer is not fully satisfied. Cost high. 9. What are the advantages of the bridge rectifier? The current of the transformer flows for the entire cycle, so cost low, more power output, small size of the transformer. AC voltage can be directly applied to the transformer. Circuit is suitable for the large power is required . Used for high voltage application.

10. What is the need of filter circuit? An AC input is applied to the filter circuit, there will be DC and ripple voltage present, which is the input to the filter. Ideally the output of the filter should be pure DC. Practically the filter circuit will try to minimize the ripple at the output, as far as possible. 11. What are the basic types of the filter circuit? capacitor input filter chock input filter 12. Name the type of circuit used to regulate the supply. linear electronic voltage regulator Switch mode power supply. 13. Name the types of linear voltage regulator Transistor Series regulator Transistor Shunt regulator Zener regulator 14. What are the disadvantages of linear regulator? Input step down transformer is bulky and expensive. Due to low frequency large value of filter capacitor is required. Efficiency is low More power dissipation. 15. What are the components of SMPS? voltage source switching transistor pulse generator filter

16. What are the types of SMPS? step down switching regulator step up switching regulator inverting switching regulator 17. What is bleeder resistor? Resistance R connected across the output of the filter is known as a bleeder resistor and its main purpose is to place a minimum load across the rectifier during the time. Prevent dangerous shocks. 18. Compare capacitor input filter and chock input filter

capacitor input filter DC voltage is higher Voltage regulation is poor

chock input filter DC voltage is comparatively lower Voltage regulation is much better

Ripple is less and increases with increasing Ripple is independent of load current load current Used in radio receiver Used when amount of power is large

19. What is the function of filters? Filter is used to reduce the ripple contents in the output of a rectifier to obtain a pure dc voltage.

20. List the merits of IC regulators. 1. IC voltage regulators are versatile and relatively inexpensive. 2. IC voltage regulators are available with features such as a programmable output, current-voltage boosting, internal short circuit current limiting and thermal shutdown. 3. IC voltage regulators are making floating operation for high voltage applications. 21. List the advantages of Zener regulator. 1. Simple circuits 2. Only 2 or 3 components are required to be used 3. Low cost 22. Write some applications of bridge rectifier. 1. Laboratory power supplies 2. High current power supplies 3. Battery charger 4. DC power supplies for various electronic circuits. 23. What is the function of voltage multiplier? Give its types. The function of the voltage multiplier is to multiply (or) give the output voltages in multiples of input voltage.

Voltage doublers, voltage Tripler and voltage quadrupler. 24. Compare the performance of half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier. DC Load current of FWR is twice to that of HWR. Efficiency of FWR is twice that of HWR. Ripple factor is less for FWR. 25. What is meant by regulation? Regulation is defined as change in DC output voltage as load change from no load to full load.It can also be defined as variation of DC output voltage with change in dc load current. %Regulation={[(Vdc)NL-(Vdc)FL]/(Vdc)FL}*100.