1 Kibuveu 2 M 031 T 6 Dwoll

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The word ‘Information’ has many different

meanings in everyday usage and in specialized
contexts. However, as a concept it is closely
related to data, instruction, knowledge etc.
Information is usually a message, something
to be communicated from the sender to the
receiver. But, if information is viewed merely
as a message, it does not have to be accurate.
It may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of
a kiss. Strangely it may even be a disruptive
noise used to inhibit the flow of
Technology communication and create misunderstanding.
for Information can also be viewed as a type of
input to an organism or designed device. Some
communicating inputs are important to the function of the
information organism (for example, food) or device
(energy) by themselves.
Communication is the process of exchanging information. People

communicate in order to share knowledge and experiences, give or receive
orders, or cooperate. Common forms of human communication include
sign language, speaking, writing, gestures, and broadcasting.
Communication can be interactive, intentional, or unintentional. It can
also be verbal or nonverbal; Internal communication or intrapersonal
communication (within oneself) and interpersonal communication
(between two individuals). At larger scales of communication, small group
communication takes place between few individuals such as organizational
communication in settings like companies or communities. At the largest
scales, mass communication can be from a single source to a huge number
About some substances and their discoveries 1

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of individuals using various communication media such as newspapers,

television or computers.
How do we communicate?
We all use different methods at different times to communicate. We can
communicate by making
gestures with parts of our body,
for example shaking of our head
or hands, winking, making faces
etc. We also communicate by
speaking or making sounds like
laughing, weeping or sobbing. At
a more advanced level we
communicate by writing and
reading. At this moment the
author is communicating to you
through the text and pictures
printed on the pages of this book.
But, there is yet another way we can communicate. That is by using
electrical gadgets, invented by scientists and technologists, for example,
radio, telephone, television and computers. For such communication
electromagnetic waves come handy.
What are electromagnetic waves?

Electromagnetic waves are a kind of waves that pervade the universe.
They are so called because they often originate due to interaction of electric
charges and magnets. Light is also an electromagnetic wave.
In 1831, a British scientist Michael Faraday discovered that changing
electric current in a coil of wire induces a current in a nearby coil. The
2 About some substances and their discoveries

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current induced in the second coil is proportional to its number of turns.

In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell discovered the mechanism of interaction
between electricity and magnetism. He suggested that a change in electric
current can start a train of waves, the electromagnetic waves, that radiate
into space just like light waves. According to him, the only difference
between a light wave and an electromagnetic wave is a characteristic of
waves-the wavelength. Not all scientists accepted Maxwell’s ideas; after
all there was no proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. The
Berlin Academy of Science offered a prize to anyone who could prove
that electromagnetic waves exist. In 1879, Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, a
German scientist took the challenge in 1886.
Hertz was aware of the work of Faraday. He devised a simple
experimental setup made up of two devices. The first device had two
coils placed near one another. He passed electric current from a battery
into the first wire
coil. The second
coil had many more
turns than the first
coil. As per the
discovery of
Faraday the voltage
developed in the
second coil was
much higher than
that of the battery. This current was led to a pair of capacitors. (A capacitor
is a pair of metal plates that can accumulate electricity until they can hold
no more.) As soon as the capacitors were charged to their capacity they
discharged by sending an electric spark between two small metallic balls.
The second device had similar balls connected to a wire that was bent
into a circle and it was placed at a distance from the first device.
He demonstrated that whenever an electric spark was generated in

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the first device a spark could be observed in the second device also, even
though the two were not connected through any wires. The only way these
two devices could communicate with one another was through
electromagnetic waves. This proved Maxwell’s ideas.
Do animals talk?
Animals make a wide variety of sounds,
from the musical song of a bird to the howl
of the wolf, to the contented purr of a cat.
While they are unable to talk in the sense
that humans do, they do communicate with
sound in a way that is understood only by
other members of their own species. Still, we have been unable to translate
individual animal sounds in a framework that can be called true language.
If and when two animals talk they must use a language. To understand
what they are talking about we must know their language. Language is the
method by which information is exchanged between two animals. True
language is the means by which communication can be possible. Most
animals communicate, not through language, but by instinctual behaviours
that convey messages to others.
Can plants communicate?

Yes, many scientists believe that in their own
language, plants communicate to insects, animals,
other parts of their own bodies and neighbouring
plants.
Plants communicate when they are in danger.
They communicate through chemicals secreted by
them into air. For example, when insects chew a

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tomato plant’s leaves, signals are triggered that tell the plant to release
chemicals such as methyl jasmonate. Leaves on the plant that haven’t
been devoured produce these chemicals, which interfere with the insects’
digestive systems. The chemicals prevent the bugs from breaking down
the proteins in the plant. When the insects can’t properly digest, they
become sick and die.
Chemicals may also be released to attract other insects — predators
of insects feeding on the plants. Thus the plants issue a twofold defence
system against hungry insects. Similarly a pine tree can release a chemical
called “terpene” in emergency situations, such as when a deer might be
chewing on its branches. The terpene doesn’t taste good, and it makes the
deer retreat.
What is a computer?
A computer is a kind of machine, an
electronic device manufactured in a factory
that can process information and also
facilitate its communication. The
information processed (communicated) by
a computer can be in the form of numbers, letters, words, pictures, or
sounds. It can see, listen, read, tell, write, show, learn, remember, think,
analyze and decide. Computers can also communicate with other
computers. Nevertheless, a computer, if it is connected to a battery, can
be alive even when there is no electricity from the main power supply.
You may be familiar with one kind of its kind, the personal computer
(PC). But, a computer is not always a desktop PC. There are other kinds
of computers as well. While they may look different there are some
similarities between all kinds of computers. Inside all of them is a small
device known as a microprocessor (an IC that has billions of transistors
inside it, which help it do its task by stopping or allowing the electric

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current through them.) A microprocessor is somewhat like a brain. All

computers have memory to remember information and instructions (the
programs, software). All of them need some software (education?) to
enable them to perform their functions and of course electricity.
What is a peripheral?
A peripheral is a computer hardware device
that is connected to the computer, usually
by a cable. Keyboards and mice are the
essential peripherals of a PC that help us
“input” information, similarly monitors is an
essential peripheral that “outputs”
information. Then there are some optional
peripherals like printer; CD writer;
microphone; speakers; modem; scanner and
web camera are all optional peripherals. One has to buy these peripherals
in addition to the PC.
A peripheral can be connected to a PC through any of its
communication ports. Till a few years ago these ports were only of two
kinds, serial and parallel. Now there are other kinds of communication
port say USB, fire wire, SCSI etc. etc. that allow different peripherals to
input information into a computer or take information out of it.
What is RAM?
When we sit for an examination in school, we often cram up many facts so
that we can remember them rapidly when we need them. We often forget
these facts and instructions once the examination is over. The kind of
memory we use for this purpose is known as the short-term memory. In a
computer also there is a short-term memory; it is called RAM (Random

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Access Memory). This type of memory is also

in the form of IC’s that are made up of
transistors. Nowadays, a PC usually has more
than 64 MB RAM. In sharp contrast to the ROM,
RAM is a temporary memory.
Soon after a computer is switched ON lots
of instructions (software) get loaded in the RAM, including a part of the
operating system (Windows). This enables the computer to act fast. When
we type in some information through the keyboard, it remembers it all
through the RAM. As soon as a computer is switched off or its power
supply is disrupted, it forgets all information in its RAM.
What is byte?
A byte is a unit of information. Most data in computers is organized and
measured in bytes. One byte can represent a character (such as A, 9, ?, or
a space), or a value from 0 to 255. Graphics are stored as values for colors
and locations of pixels, and they use a lot more bits and bytes than text or
numbers.
The smallest unit of the memory of a computer is a bit (an acronym
for binary digit). A bit is a device made up of a single transistor, that has
only two possible states, ON (often indicated by the numeral 1) or OFF
(indicated by 0). To store or convey more information, bits are organized
into larger units called bytes — the commonly used unit of information in
a computer. Each byte contains 8 bits and can represent only a single
character or command. However, to do any
thing useful, lots of bytes are necessary. A
brief letter may require just a few thousand
bytes(kilobytes), but to store a postcard size
colour photograph may require several
million bytes(megabytes).

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What is binary?
Binary means “two,” or
“base two.” The binary
system is a way of counting
using just the two numbers
0 and 1. Computers use the
binary system to work with
data. All data in the
computer is stored in binary
code as 1’s and 0’s (bits). In
addition all input to the
computer is converted into binary numbers made up of the two digits 0
and 1 (bits). For example, when you press the “A” key on your keyboard,
the keyboard circuit generates and transfers the number 01000001 to the
computer’s memory as a series of pulses with different voltages. The bits
are stored as charged and uncharged memory cells or as microscopic
magnets on disk and tape. Display screens and printers convert the binary
numbers into visual characters.
What is inside a CPU?

The most enigmatic part of a computer is the CPU,
its brain, made up of a large number of Integrated
Circuits, commonly known as IC, and several other
kinds of components that are found in computers only.
In common parlance CPU refers to the big box
that is an integral part of a desktop PC. It encases
several different devices, the hard disk drive, the
floppy disk drive and the CD drive. Inside the CPU,
the ROM and the RAM IC-chips are connected to

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the microprocessor through sockets and tracks of copper printed on a

large circuit board. This printed circuit board is known as the Motherboard.
The keyboard; the mouse; the monitor; HDD; FDD, CDD are all connected
to the Motherboard through sockets and wires. In addition the CPU also
houses a power supply unit that provides power to different components
of the components inside the CPU.
What is speed of a computer?

The speed of a computer is the amount of data its processor can manipulate
in a second. The number of electronic pulses it can produce in a second
measures the clock speed of a microprocessor. Clock speed is built into
the processor and is measured in
gigahertz (GHz). Since giga means
billion and hertz means times (cycles) per
second, 1.0 GHz is 1 billion times per
second. The speed of older, slower
processors was measured in megahertz
(MHz). Since mega means million, 500
MHz is 500 million times per second.
Electronic pulses affect the speed
with which instructions of a program are executed because instructions
are executed at predetermined intervals, which are timed by the electronic
pulses. For example, if we had a computer than contained a processor that
was running at 1 GHz and it executed an instruction every 100 pulses, it
would process 10,000,000 instructions per second.
What is ROM?
Our basic memory is responsible for the very basic functions of our body
like breathing, eating, drinking or moving our limbs. Similarly, the CPU of

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a computer has a chip — an

integrated circuit, known as the
ROM (Read Only Memory). It
does not go easily just like our
basic memory. Even when the
electric supply to a computer is
switched off, it does not forget.
Like the microprocessor it is also
made up of a particular kind of transistors. ROM stores the basic functions
a computer has to follow as it is switched on. It also stores all the
information about the other parts present in the computer. Therefore, it is
the memory that a computer uses to check up whether all the parts are
present or not and raises an alarm in case something is amiss.
What is BIOS?
BIOS is an acronym for Basic Input/Output System. As soon as the power
supply to a computer is switched ON a computer program, called the
Basic Input Output System (BIOS), stored in the ROM, initiates a check
up. First of all, it checks if there is a working monitor attached to the
CPU. If it finds one it prompts it to display the details of the BIOS (and
the software that enables the display) on the monitor screen. Next, this
program enables the CPU to check the other basic items—the keyboard,
the disk drives and the RAM.
The BIOS stores the date, the time,
and your system configuration
information in a battery-powered, non-
volatile memory chip, called a CMOS. The
BIOS also manages data flow between
the computer’s operating system and
attached devices such as the hard disk,

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video card, keyboard, mouse, and printer. One can adjust/change the bios
setting of a PC by pressing the DEL key as soon as it is switched ON.
How does a CD-ROM store information?

A CD is a thin plastic disk that looks somewhat like miniature music
disks. Because they can store so much information in so little space, they
have become very popular. Many encyclopaedias, which hitherto occupied
an entire bookshelf, are now available on a set of CD ’s that can be kept in
a drawer.
CD-ROM has become the standard for higher
capacity storage media and is the best alternative
to printed material. It can hold up to 650 MB of
information.
Microscopic bumps on a shiny surface of a CD
are used to store data. The surface of the
CDROM looks like a mirror, the bumps disrupt
its almost mirror-like surface. The laser that
reads the CD can detect the difference between a perfect mirror and an
imperfection caused by a bump because of the difference in reflectivity.
By interpreting “perfect mirror” as a “1,” and “bump” as a “0,” it is easy to
store digital information on a CD. The bumps on a CDROM are moulded
into the plastic when it is manufactured, so they are permanent.
What is Pentium, Celeron, Athlon, Core 2 Duo?

Just as a part of our brain helps us decide and
control, in a computer there is a small device called
“microprocessor”. It is made up of silicon, aluminum
(or copper) and plastic. It is squarish in shape (side
about 3 cm) and has many electronic switches inside

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it that help it do its task by stopping or allowing the electric current through
them. Each such switch is an electronic device known as a transistor.
Through selective switching ON and OFF of transistors it is possible for
a microprocessor to act like the brain of a computer.
A microprocessor used in the PC’s is made up of as many as ten million
transistors. Each transistor in a microprocessor is connected to many others
through microscopic lines of aluminium that act as wires. Because the
microprocessor is the most vital part of a computer; PCs are often known
by the name of the microprocessor in it, say: 386; 486; Pentium; Celeron;
Xeon; Athlon; Cyrix — they are all names of microprocessors used in the
past few generations of PC’s. These processors differ from one another by
their clock speed.
What is a computer mouse?

A mouse is a small object you can roll
along a hard, flat surface. It controls the
movement of the cursor or pointer on
the display screen of a computer Its
name is derived from its shape, which
looks a bit like a mouse, one can imagine
its connecting wire to be the mouse’s
tail. As one moves the mouse, the
pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction. These devices
contain at least one button and sometimes, three. These buttons have
different functions depending on what program is running. Some newer
mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long documents.
Douglas Engelbart invented it in 1963, it frees the user to a large
extent from using the keyboard. In particular, the mouse is important for
graphical user interfaces because you can simply point to options and

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objects and click a mouse button. Such applications are often called point-
and-click programs. The mouse is also useful for graphics programs that
allow you to draw pictures by using the mouse like a pen, pencil, or
paintbrush.
What is Hard Disk Drive?

Just as our brain stores all information
that we have learnt in our long-term
memory, a computer also needs
something for the same task. The most
common device for this is the Hard
Disk Drive (HDD). It is often the most
voluminous memory of a computer.
Unlike the RAM it is not an IC chip. HDD’s come as factory sealed units
that are made up of several aluminum (or glass ceramic) disks, called
platters. Each of these platters has a coating of a thin film of a magnetic
material, just like the tape of an audio or videocassette. The memory of a
HDD is divided into concentric circles on its platters, called tracks. A
read/write head attached to a movable arm reads information from or
write information on these platters. The platters are rotated at a very high
speed with the help of an electric motor and the read/write head can be
moved from the rim towards the center of the platter. This way information
can be read from, or written to, almost any part of the HDD in a jiffy. By
the end of the last century, the capacity of a HDD in a new PC has risen
up to several GB.
What is a Pen Drive?

A pen drive, more appropriately called a USB flash drive is a flash memory
data storage device integrated with a USB (universal serial bus) interface.

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USB flash drives offer potential

advantages over other portable storage
devices, particularly the floppy disk. It is
a compact, faster device that can hold lots
of data. It is also more reliable because it
has no moving parts, and has a durable
design. Additionally, it has become
increasingly common for computers to
ship without floppy disk drives. USB
ports, on the other hand, appear on almost
every current mainstream PC and laptop.
They are typically small, lightweight,
removable and rewritable. Capacity of this
kind of drive is limited only by current flash memory densities, although
cost per megabyte may increase rapidly at higher capacities due to the
expensive components. (USB Memory card readers are also available,
whereby rather than being built-in, the memory is a removable Flash
memory card housed in what is otherwise a regular USB flash drive, as
described below.)
To access the data stored in a flash drive, the drive must be connected
to a computer, either by plugging it into a USB host controller built into
the computer, or into a USB hub. Flash drives are active only when plugged
into a USB connection and draw all necessary power from the supply
provided by that connection. However, some flash drives, especially high-
speed drives, may require more power than the limited amount provided
by a bus-powered USB hub, such as those built into some computer
keyboards or monitors. These drives will not work unless plugged directly
into a host controller (i.e., the ports found on the computer itself) or a
self-powered hub.

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What is a notebook computer?

A notebook computer is a lightweight,
portable personal computer. Many
notebook computers are full-featured,
with the power and capabilities found in
desktop computers. A notebook computer
is also known as a laptop computer.
Because they are designed to be
lightweight and take up a small amount
of space, they are more expensive. In the
past couple of years, sales of notebooks
have been increasing because their prices are approaching those of the more
economical desktop PCs.
A notebook PC usually runs on batteries, but can also be run through
adapters which also charge the battery using mains electricity. The notebook
can thus conveniently be carried anywhere and is therefore becoming very
popular. They are used to view documents or show them to others. These
days it is often possible to connect a notebook to the Internet while one is
at an airport, and sometimes while in an airplane too through a Wi Fi
connection or a wireless modem connected to its USB port..
What is a palmtop?
Palmtop computers are computers so
small that they can fit on the palm of an
adult. One can carry a palmtop computer
along almost anywhere. Palmtops are
generally very thin and have a large LCD
screen that may display in colour or generic
black on green. They have neat organizing

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tools like calendars, to-do lists, address books, email, and even Internet
access. Most organizers have a graphic user interface with menus for
selection, and have the ability to synchronize with information on your
PC.
Palmtops are useful to keep track of one’s schedule, maintain a to-do
list, and save contact information. Most palmtops can store hundreds of
contacts, numbers, email addresses and many other types of information.
Some even have the ability to read and store the handwriting that you
enter onto an LCD screen with a special pen. Most palmtops also have a
built-in calculator and some even have a clock with world time zones,
which you can use for appointment alarms. Another great feature of
palmtop computers is their ability to synchronize with the PC.
What is a digital camera?

A digital camera is a camera that records images digitally rather than on a
photographic film. Once a picture has been taken, the image can be
downloaded to a computer and used either for digital documents or print
media. A digital camera connected to the computer via the USB port appears
on the desktop like an additional drive, from which the user can copy the
image files onto his own hard disk or some other data carrier in order to
edit or print them. Thus, the primary difference between a digital camera
and a conventional camera is the
medium used to record the picture.
While a conventional camera uses
film, a digital camera uses an array of
digital image sensors, a CCD. Though
digital camera picture quality is on par
with the quality of most conventional
film cameras, the convenience and the
ability to record, edit and email photos

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on a computer make them more attractive and popular.

The operation of a digital camera depends on a battery inside it. The
estimated life of the battery depends upon the type of battery one is using.
There are a number of alternative types of batteries to choose from: (a)
Alkaline batteries are used for heavy currents for a long period of time; it
runs approximately 30 min. (b) NiCd or Nickel Cadmium is dependable
and rechargeable but has a lower capacity; it also runs approximately 30
min. (d) NiMH or Nickel metal Hydride is the most often recommended,
rechargeable battery, that charge very fast and hold their energy longer
than other rechargeable batteries; they can be charged for over 500 times
in their life cycle. They run approximately for 60 min.
Lithium-ion is the most advanced but expensive battery. It has superior
charge retention.. They are compact in size and weight and run for
approximately 120 min.
What is TFT?
It is a kind of computer monitor that is
becoming popular slowly. The TFT-LCD
(Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal
Display) is the non-emissive display device
that acquires the visual effect using the
characterization of the liquid crystal, which
is inserted between a lower glass plate (film
transistor is formed on it) and an upper
glass plate. The liquid crystal is the material that possesses the liquid
(characteristics of liquid like fluidity) and solid (characteristics of the
solid like long-range order) state at the same time. Liquid crystal molecules
have the unique structure of a bar shape. Liquid crystal materials are rod-
like molecules. This type of monitor has several advantages over a
conventional CRT monitor. They are less bulky thus allowing more desk

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space; because of this you can position the monitor further away from
you which is more comfortable for the eyes. TFT monitors produce less
heat and radiation than CRT monitors. But they are more expensive too.
What is Flash Memory?

Flash memory refers to a memory chip that
holds its content without power, but must
be erased in bulk. The term comes from its
ability to be erased in a flash.
Many modern PCs have their BIOS stored on a flash memory chip so
that it can easily be updated if necessary. Such a BIOS is sometimes called
flash BIOS. Flash memory is also popular in modems because it enables
the modem manufacturer to support new protocols as they become
standardized. Similarly, most point-and-shoot cameras, even most modern
medium format cameras, use it. We usually associate Flash Memory with
the storage media for images taken with digital cameras. Digital cameras
are the largest consumers of high density Flash Memory, but any camera
that remembers information when the power is turned off has some Flash
Memory onboard. Cameras that have custom functions, those that
remember settings, and those that have program exposure tables embedded
all have Flash Memory inside their housing.
Intel, AMD, Fujitsu, Sharp, StMicro, Mitsubishi, Toshiba, and Samsung
are the most popular manufacturers of Flash Memory chips (silicon wafers).
These wafers are typically 150 mm, 200 mm, or 300 mm in diameter.
What is a scanner?
Scanner is a device that can be connected to a computer to capture either
an image of a text document or a picture and transfer it into bits of
information, which a computer can understand and manipulate. It can

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capture images from photographic

prints, posters, magazine pages, and
similar sources for computer editing and
display. Scanners come in and flatbed
types and for scanning black-and-white
only or even colour. Scanner uses a light
source, typically a cold cathode lamp to
illuminate the scanned object. The light is then reflected off the object
and into a Charged Coupled Device (CCD).
Scanners usually come with software that lets you resize and otherwise
modify a captured image. With the help of an Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) software one can convert text-based document images
into text that can be edited by a word-processing software.
What is Simputer?
The Simputer is a small handheld computer,
intended to bring computing power to the masses
of India and other developing countries. The
device was designed by the Simputer Trust, a
non-profit organization formed in November
1999. The word “Simputer” is an acronym for “simple, inexpensive and
multilingual people’s computer”, and is a trademark of the Simputer Trust.
It includes text-to-speech software and runs the GNU/Linux operating
system. Similar in appearance to the Palm Pilot class of handheld
computers, the touch sensitive screen is operated on with a stylus; simple
handwriting recognition software is provided by the program Tapatap.
The Simputer specifications are released under an open distribution
license called the Simputer General Public License or the SGPL. The
organisation is actively encouraging free software developers to port their
applications to the Simputer.

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What is Bluetooth technology?

Until recently, if you wanted to print from your palmtop or digital camera
you needed to get a cable and then plug it into the PC - which then sent
the data to the printer. It’s a lot of work, so companies developed a
technology to avoid the hassle. With this one can point a device, which
communicates using infrared rays with one another, without any cables!
Bluetooth is a technology that lets
a computer, monitor, mouse,
keyboard, PDA, in fact anything with
a Bluetooth chip communicates by
radio instead of cables. It is useful
because it not only saves on messy
cables but also allows you to easily synchronize information between
devices. The problem with this is that you had to have a ‘line-of-sight’
from one of the devices to the other. With Bluetooth, and other wireless
technologies, the devices just need to be within range of each other. For
Bluetooth, this is within about 10 metres.
Bluetooth isn’t one company, but a standard way of getting computers
and other devices to talk together. There are now thousands of companies
using Bluetooth in their products but the first ones to get together were
Erickson, Intel, Nokia, Toshiba and IBM. The name Bluetooth comes
from 10th Century Danish Viking King, King Blatand (or Bluetooth in
English).
What is broadband?
“Broadband” refers to the technology for high-
speed Internet connections that allow for
transfer of information at rates far faster than
those of dial-up modems. While the Internet

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has often been jokingly referred to as the “World Wide Wait” on account
of slow downloads, broadband connections allow people to view streaming
media at speeds closer to what might be associated with television, rather
than the herky-jerky experience that characterizes dial-up modems. Transfer
speeds for broadband are up to 50 times faster than via dial-up modems,
creating the opportunity for people to download MP3s (compressed digital
audio files) or films without having to wait for hours. It is generally 10-20
times faster than dial-up modem. A typical dial-up modem operates in
the range of 30 to 50 kbit/s. A broadband connection operates at between
256 kbit/s and 10 Mbit/s,
Broadband connections are offered on a variety of platforms, including
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), cable, satellite, and wireless.
What is a DVD?
DVD, digital video/versatile disc, is the new
generation of optical disc storage technology.
DVD is essentially a high-capacity, faster CD
that can hold cinema-like video, better-than-CD
audio, still photos, and computer data. A DVD
can store upto 4.5 GB of information as
compared to 700 MB on a CD.
DVD aims to encompass home entertainment, computers, and business
information with a single digital format. It is well on the way to replace
videotape and video game cartridges, and could eventually replace audio
CD and CD-ROM.
With this unprecedented support, DVD has become the most
successful consumer electronics product of all time in less than three years
of its introduction.

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A DVD can be used to store big files from a computer or send them to
others just like a CD, but for doing so one needs a DVD writer installed
on one’s PC.
What is a laser printer?

Laser printer is a type of computer printers that utilizes a laser beam to
print. The laser beam alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it
hits. The drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner (ink), which is
picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is
transferred to the paper through a combination
of heat and pressure.
One of the chief characteristics of laser
printers is their resolution: how many dots per
inch (dpi) they lay down. The available
resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end to
1200 dpi. Some laser printers achieve higher resolutions with special
techniques known generally as resolution enhancement.
In addition to the standard monochrome laser printer, which uses a
single toner, there also exist colour laser printers that use four toners to
print in full colour. Colour laser printers tend to be about five to ten times
as expensive as their monochrome siblings. Laser printers produce very
high-quality print and are capable of printing an almost unlimited variety
of fonts.
What is inkjet printing?

The inkjet printer, as its name implies, makes an image by spraying tiny
jets of ink onto the paper. It is a printing device that generates images by
shooting dots of liquid ink against a printing surface. Resolutions vary

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between 300 and 1200 dpi (dots per inch).

Higher the dpi, the sharper is the image.
Inkjet printers themselves are very
inexpensive; however the cost of printing is
relatively high because of the cost of ink.
Many inkjet printers are also capable of
printing in colour. Like most print processes,
inkjet printers use a limited number of ink
colours. Full colour can be derived from three
primary colours, just like a monitor. For monitors, these are red, green,
and blue because monitors emit light resulting in an additive colour process.
Inks, on the other hand, absorb light so printing is a subtractive process.
Therefore, the colours used in common inkjet printers are not really capable
of producing photorealistic quality results since they are red (not magenta),
blue (not cyan), and yellow. These are optimized for nice saturated primary
colours when used independently.
How and when telecom became possible?

Telecommunication, popularly known as telecom, is communication
through electromagnetic waves, besides light. The story of its invention is
rather long but can be very interesting.
Many inventors in different countries tried simultaneously to invent a
communication device using radio waves. For example, in 1893 a scientist
born in Hungary, Nikola Tesla, made the first public demonstration of
such a system. He described and demonstrated in detail the principles of
radio communication. The apparatus that he used contained almost all
the elements that were used later. In 1894, an Indian scientist, Jagdis
Chandra Bose, also demonstrated publicly the use of electromagnetic waves
in Kolkata. He was not interested in patenting his work, so his work is not
recognized internationally. In the same year a British physicist, Sir Oliver

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Lodge, demonstrated the reception of Morse code signalling using radio

waves with the help of a detecting device — a coherer. This coherer was
a tube filled with iron filings. An Italian, Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti,
invented it in 1884 to drain off electricity during lightening. Edouard Branly
of France and Alexander Popov of Russia later produced improved versions
of the coherer. Many people claim that Popov was the first person to
develop a practical communication system.
The inventor who is
generally recognized as the
inventor of wireless telegraph
is Gugliemo Marconi, an
Italian. He began by building
an apparatus similar to the
one used by Hertz. He added
a telegraph key to the spark
generator, so that he could
send signals corresponding to
the dots and dashes of the Morse code. To check whether it was a practical
communication device Marconi moved his apparatus outdoors to try its
transmission- reception over long distances. During these experiments he
made a lucky discovery: When one terminal of the generator and receiver
were connected to the ground, communication was possible across longer
distances. He also discovered the need for antenna (aerials); they transmit
signals from the transmitter to space and from space to the receiver
equipment. By 1895, Marconi had developed a device with which he could
send signals across a few kilometres. Marconi got a patent for his inventions
in 1896, the world’s first patent for “radio communication”. After patenting
his invention Marconi established a company called Marconi’s Wireless
Telegraph Company in London. In 1898 Marconi successfully transmitted
signals across the English Channel. The most dramatic use of wireless
was for rescuing ships in distress. Several ships were equipped with wireless

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telegraphy equipment; they could send or receive distress messages from

ships sailing nearby.
Till the beginning of the twentieth century, wireless communication
was limited to telegraphy. Many people dreamt of wireless telephony at
that time, but the technology to achieve that was not available.
Sound waves are continuous waves; their frequency is much lower
than that of electromagnetic waves. For wireless communication a sound
signal has to be converted into a radio wave. It was soon found that any
electric signal can be carried on a radio wave (modulation of
electromagnetic waves). All that was necessary for wireless communication
of sound was equipment that could generate electric current having
frequency of the radio waves. Several inventors invented such devices.
The most notable amongst them was Nikola Tesla, who invented the
alternating current and Ernst Alexanderson who built the first alternator
that could produce alternating current having frequency about 50 thousand
cycles.
Although the exact time when the human voice was first transmitted
by radio is debateable, it is claimed that speech was first transmitted across
the American continent, from New York City to San Francisco, in 1915.
During the First World War radiotelephony between ground and aircraft
was also tried. The first ship-to-shore two way radio conversations occurred
in 1922. However, a public radiotelephone service for people at sea was
inaugurated in 1929. At that time telephone contact could be made only
with ships within 2000 km of shore. Today every large ship wherever it
may be on the globe can be contacted using wireless equipment.
How cell phones work?

Cell phones are based on networks of many radio transmitters/receivers.
Each cell phone company has its own network. These networks are cellular

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akin to the body of a living organism. The area covered by a

cell phone company, a city, a state or a country for its services
is divided into zones that are called its cells. The network of a
cellular company is made up of many such cells. Each cell has
a radio transmitter/receiver and a ‘computer’, located at a place
known as its base station. These base stations can communicate
with other base stations. . A cell phone handset is also a low
power radio transceiver and a kind of computer. It can transmit and receive
signals from its closest base station (when it is powered on.) It transmits a
signal to the base station of its parent company every few seconds to
enable computers attached to these transceivers keep track of all the
handsets registered with a company present in a cell. This is done with the
help of computers that can communicate this information from one base
station to another. Thus base station of each cell knows the location of
every powered ON.
When one dials a number on a handset signals are first converted into
electricity and then into electromagnetic waves that are transmitted by it.
The radio receiver of the cell in which handset is located at that time
receives this signal. It is in then communicated to its computer to find the
nature of the addressed party. If it is addressed to another cell phone
serviced by the parent company, it finds out the location of the addressed
handset and transmits signals to that base station, which in turn alerts the
handset about the incoming call. In case the call is addressed to a cell
phone serviced by another company or to a landline telephone the cell
directs the call into relevant network, which then directs the call in a
similar fashion.
What are GSM and CDMA?

GSM is an acronym for Global System for Mobile
Telecommunications; cellular companies like AirTel,

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Hutch, Idea use this technology for providing mobile phone connectivity
to their subscribers. This technology is older then CDMA. In this
technology mobile phones convert voices into a series of on-or-off
electrical pulses, which are relayed in short bursts as packages of data.
GSM is efficient because in the intervals between bursts, other phones
can also send packets of data: in this way, this digital technology enables
up to eight conversations to be held on the same channel virtually
simultaneously. GSM is the international standard in Europe, Australia
and much of Asia and Africa. In covered areas, cell-phone users can buy
one phone that will work anywhere where the standard is supported.
CDMA is the acronym for the more recent technology called Code
Division Multiple Access. CDMA takes an entirely different approach
from GSM. Therefore handsets that are used for GSM services cannot be
used for CDMA and vice versa. In this technology, a spoken word or
sentence from a user is first digitized, that is converted into electrical
pulses like in GSM. But these pulses are coded and transmitted using the
entire range of frequencies after ascribing them a particular code. At the
receiving end they are combined together through the same code.
What is bandwidth?
The amount of data that can be transmitted in a given time period is
known as bandwidth. Why width? Consider a pipe carrying water. The
wider the pipe, the more water can be carried in a given amount of time.
Bandwidth is measured in bits per
second (bps) and its multiples.
In technical terms, bandwidth is
explained a bit differently. We know
that telecommunication uses
electromagnetic waves. The
electromagnetic waves used for a

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particular application of telecommunication have a certain frequency range.

Thus a radio transmitter sends a message using electromagnetic waves in
a certain range. This range is called frequency band. The difference between
the upper and lower frequencies in a band is called bandwidth. It determines
how quickly bits of information may be sent through a telecommunication
medium. In analog systems, such as communication through telephones,
bandwidth is defined in terms of the frequency signal components,
measured in cycles per second (hertz). The bandwidth of a typical voice
signal is approximately three kilohertz (3 kHz), while an analog television
broadcast video signal has a bandwidth of six megahertz (6 MHz) —
some 2,000 times as wide as the voice signal. In digital systems, bandwidth
is measured as data speed in bits per second (bps). Transmitters and
receivers have bandwidths. The “wider” the receiver’s bandwidth is, the
more information it can receive on different frequencies.
How does cable TV work?

Cable television allows us to view several TV stations with the help of
geostationary communication satellites. Satellite TV is a wireless system
for delivering TV programming directly to a viewer’s house. The ultimate
source of this radio signal is the broadcast station.
They use a powerful antenna to transmit their
broadcasts to the viewers. However, these radio
signals can travel only in straight lines. So the
viewer on his receiver can’t capture the signal
unless he is in the line of sight of the broadcaster’s
signal. Tall buildings, trees, and other such
obstructions, can’t block the signal, but it could
be blocked by the curvature of the Earth.
Therefore, broadcasters use satellites to transmit
their signals to the viewers.

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Each cable operator installs huge satellite that picks up the TV programs
telecasted by various stations; even live feeds between broadcast stations.
The cable operator then decodes/modulates and transmits these signals
to the clients through cables. The operator needs to decode the signals,
because many TV channels are pay channels, that is, they want the cable
operator to pay them a fixed regular amount of money from each of his
clients.
What is modulation?
You must have heard of the terms FM and AM in the context of radio
transistors and radio stations. The term FM stands for frequency
modulation.
Modulation in layman’s language is packaging information for
broadcasting. We are all familiar with packaging of consumer goods, in
pouches, cartons, paper covers etc. Packaging saves the product sold from
outside interference during its journey from the factory to the shop; it also
helps the consumer recognize the product from other products displayed
in a shop. Similarly, modulation is the process of packing a signal wave
into radio waves. In radio communication an information-bearing signal is
superimposed onto a carrier signal. These high frequency carrier signals
can be transmitted over the air easily and are capable of travelling long
distances. The characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier
signal are varied in accordance with
the information-bearing signal. The
modulating signal is a slowly varying
signal as opposed to the rapidly
varying carrier frequency.
Frequency modulation is a type of
modulation where the frequency of
the carrier is varied in accordance with

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the modulating signal. The amplitude of the carrier remains constant. The
information-bearing signal (the modulating signal) changes the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier. Since the amplitude is kept constant,
FM modulation is a low-noise process and provides a high quality
modulation technique, which is used for music and speech in hi-fidelity
broadcasts.
What is DTH and how does it work?

DTH refers to direct-to-home satellite television. DTH does away with
the need for a local cable operator and comes directly from the satellite to
the house of the viewer. DTH TV can be viewed at home by using a small
antenna, set-top box (STB) and LNBF (low-
noise block down converter). Originally
developed for connecting far-flung areas
which do not have cable access, this
technology is now used world-wide for
premium programming direct to the home
bypassing cable operators or other forms of
satellite TV delivery.
A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre, satellites, encoders,
multiplexers, modulators and DTH receivers. A DTH service provider
has to lease Ku-band transponders from the satellite. The encoder converts
the audio, video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer
mixes these signals. At the user end, there will be a small dish antenna and
set-top box to decode and view numerous channels. Receiving dishes can
be as small as 45 cm in diameter at the user’s end. In DTH, TV channels
are transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on the
rooftop of the subscriber’s home. So the broadcaster directly connects to
the user. DTH can reach remote areas since it does away with the
intermediate step of a cable operator and the wires (cables) that come

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from the cable operator to the house of the subscriber. DTH reception is
superior to that through cable TV. This is because cable transmission is
largely analog. Apart from enhanced picture quality, DTH also allows for
interactive TV services such as movie-on-demand, Internet access, video
conferencing and e-mail.
What is computer animation?

Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D artwork or
model positions that creates an illusion of movement due to the
phenomenon of persistence of vision. Computer animation is the art of
creating such moving images via the use
of computers.
Cel animation the traditional technique
for animation was the process used for
most animated films of the 20th century.
The individual frames of a traditionally
animated film were photographs of
drawings, which were first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of
movement, each drawing differed slightly from the one before it. The
traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the
21st century. Today, the animators’ drawings and the backgrounds are
either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system.
Computers today replace cel-animation. Drawings are simply scanned
into a computer and small changes in each frame incorporated, rather
than reproduced multiple times on sheets. All of the scanned images can
be imposed on top of one another creating depth in the picture. There are
two main types of animation: 2-D (or paint systems) and 3-D. While
animation itself started to become popular at the beginning of the
twentieth century, it wasn’t until the 1960 s that computer scientists, with

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the help of artists, started to experiment with technology. Various software

programs are used to colour the drawings and simulate camera movement
and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery
mediums, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media such as digital
video. The “look” of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the
character animators’ work has remained essentially the same over the past
70 years.
Computer-Generated Imagery (CGI) is an important part of the
animation. It creates the characters and background, without taking the
pictures, and animates them. Maquettes, which are small sculptures, are
where CGI created characters begin.
What is multimedia?
Multimedia simply means being able to communicate in more than one
way. The term ‘multimedia’ once meant that your PC had a soundcard
with an output marginally better
than the PC speaker. Computer
multimedia today is a mixture of
things: sound, images and moving
video. The ability to play music in
many formats (for example, wave,
MIDI and MOD files), view
pictures (JPEG, bitmap and
TIFFs), and watch movies (AVI, MPG and RealVideo) is often taken for
granted on a modern PC. One can watch movies, make international
telephone calls, see television programs, play DVDs, the list is almost
endless.
Multimedia can flow both ways, as input and output. Thus a multimedia
PC is often equipped with two speakers; a microphone web camera and a
scanner.

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What is Internet?
Internet is a network of millions
of server computers spread
worldwide that are connected
to each other through cables
and satellites. These server
computers can constantly communicate with one another. People can connect
their Personal computers to the Internet through the services provided by
many companies. Often a modem is necessary to do so.
One can acquire one’s own little corner on the internet having a unique
address at a very low cost and put there any information one wants to
communicate with anybody who is interested. The Internet has information
on almost all topics. Thus it has information on most topics. Most often it
is more than what any library anywhere can have. It also helps people to
send messages and chat with their friends. People who do not have a
computer at home, can often avail this facility through commercial outlets,
often called a cyber cafe, that charge a small fee for an hour of usage.
What is URL?
A URL is the Internet address of a particular site or document available
via the World Wide Web. URL stands for “Uniform Resource Locator”. It
is a draft standard for specifying an object on the Internet, such as a file or
newsgroup.
Uniform Resource Locator
http://dst.gov.in/about_us/far99-2000-ai-vp.htm
protocol address of host computer path file name

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URLs are composed of several parts, indicating (a) the Internet protocol
used to access the document or site you are trying to reach, (b) the Internet
address of the “host computer,” on which the document you want is stored,
(c). The directory path on the host computer that will take you to the
exact file you are trying to retrieve, and finally the name of the file you are
trying to retrieve.
What is an ISP?
An ISP is a company that provides access to the
Internet to individuals or companies. ISPs provide
local dial-up access from your personal computer
to their computer network and their network
connects you to the Internet.
Internet Service Provider provides the connection between the user
and the Internet. It supplies the computer(s), high speed communications
links to the rest of the Internet, phone lines so you can dial in, technical
support for the machines and customer support for customers who need
help. An ISP may also be host your web site.
What is domain name?

A domain name is a name of a computer
on the Internet that distinguishes it from
the other systems on the network. They
are sometimes colloquially (and
incorrectly) referred to by marketers as
“web addresses”.
It is the text name corresponding to
the numeric IP address of a computer on
the Internet. Every website, email account,

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on the Internet is hosted on a server computer. Each server has a unique

IP address, which is nothing but a set of numbers, such as
“207.142.131.235”. An IP address is a unique number, similar in concept
to a telephone number, used by network devices (routers, computers, time-
servers, FAX machines, some telephones) attached to a network to refer
to each other when sending information through a LAN (Local Area
Network) or a WAN (Wide Area Network) or the Internet. To access a
particular Internet service, one has to specify its IP address in an appropriate
application, however because it is difficult to remember numbers, an IP
address is associated with a fully qualified host name (a domain name).
Obviously a domain name must be unique. Earlier the length of permissible
domain names used to be up to fifteen characters, but can now be up to
sixty-seven characters.
What is a modem?
It is a device that can be connected externally to a computer, or which
may be present inside the CPU of a PC. It allows you to send and receive
information over the phone line with your
computer. You could send a picture of your
dog to a friend, or receive (download) a
document sent to you via email.
“Modem” is an acronym that stands for
“MOdulator/DEModulator. These are the
technical terms for the way your modem
converts information you send from your computer into sounds (the
MOdulator part), which a modem on the other end of the phone line can
translate back into information (the DEModulator part).
The speed of a modem is measured by the rate at which it sends and
receives data. This is expressed as bits per second (bps) or thousands of bits
per second (Kbps). The term baud is approximately equivalent to bps.

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What is a gateway?
Whenever a computer is
connected to the internet, it
has to pass through a
gateway. A PC is connected
to a small network and there
is a gateway that connects
the smaller network to the
Internet. A gateway passes information from one network to another
network as information travels across the Internet.
A gateway helps to break the network down into smaller, more usable
segments. The gateway, which is a router, determines where the information
needs to be sent. If it is within the segment, it keeps the traffic local,
reducing network traffic. If it can determine that it belongs on another
segment, it will send it to that gateway for routing. If it cannot determine
where it should go, it broadcasts it out on the network. Eventually, if no
gateway, bridge or computer recognizes the address, it will die on the
network. This feature is built into the Internet packet. Without it the
network would crash due to an overload of undeliverable Internet packets.
Most of the Internet communications is done over TCP/IP, but if a
network is communicating over some other protocol the gateway translates
this information and passes it along.
What is a LAN?
LAN is the acronym for local Area Network. A network is a number of
computers connected to one another through cables or satellites. A Local-
Area Network is a relatively small group of computers running on a network
inside a building. There are two main kinds of LAN. One is client server
LAN and other is peer-to-peer network. In client server networks each

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user PC is connected to a server

computer, thus all communication
between different computers is through
the server. In peer-to-peer networking
each PC can communicate with each
other PC through cables.
The main advantage of Networking
is the capability to share resources. Files,
printers, fax, the Internet, all of these
are resources. Each user/computer on
the network has the potential to access data stored on other machines.
Expensive peripherals such as colour laser printers etc, can also be shared
rather than one machine using a printer on its own.
What is email?
Email is a shortened version of the two words ‘electronic’ and ‘mail’ and
is the electronic version of the letter. It is one of the most used and popular
services on the Internet. It enables messages to be transferred from an
individual to another individual or from an individual to a group of people.
These messages are most commonly text messages, but one can send
messages through pictures or sounds also.
Documents (audio, video, pictures etc.) can
be attached to email messages and sent with
the text message.
Email can be sent and viewed various
ways - the most common through a computer
program, such as ‘Outlook’.
Email can be sent to anywhere in the
world where internet facilities are available

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and viewed whenever the computer user logs onto the local network or
the Internet and checks the ‘mailbox’ where emails are stored, but to do
so one has to register with a service provider, e.g. hotmail; gmail; yahoo
mail; rediff mail; vsnl etc.
What is spam?
Spam is flooding the Internet with many
copies of the same message, in an attempt
to force the message on people who would
not otherwise choose to receive it. Most
spam is commercial advertising, often for
dubious products, get-rich-quick schemes,
or quasi-legal services. Spam costs the
sender very little to send — most of the
costs are paid for by the recipient or the
carriers rather than by the sender.
There are two main types of spam, and they have different effects on
Internet users. Cancellable Usenet spam is a single message sent to 20 or
more Usenet newsgroups. Usenet spam is aimed at “lurkers”, people who
read newsgroups but rarely or never post and give their address away.
Usenet spam robs users of the utility of the newsgroups by overwhelming
them with a barrage of advertising or other irrelevant posts.
Email spam targets individual users with direct mail messages. Scanning
Usenet postings, stealing Internet mailing lists, or searching the Web for
addresses often creates email spam lists. Email spams typically cost users
money out-of-pocket to receive. Many people - anyone with measured
phone service - read or receive their mail while the meter is running, so to
speak. Spam costs them additional money. On top of that, it costs money
for ISPs and online services to transmit spam, and these costs are
transmitted directly to subscribers.

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What is a web server?

A web server is a server computer, which
contains the files of a web site and allows them
to be accessed by people on the Internet. A
server is usually connected to the Internet
continually with webmasters wanting their web
site to be online 100% of the year; most web
servers are therefore connected to the other
computers through optical fibres or satellite link. However the best servers
can only guarantee 99% uptime due to server errors and updates to hardware.
The term “web server” also refers to the piece of software that runs
on server computers, accepting HTTP connections from web browsers
and delivering web pages and other files to them, as well as processing
form submissions. The most common web server software is Apache,
followed by Microsoft Internet Information server; many, many other web
server programs also exist.
What is a web camera?

A web camera (or webcam) is a real time camera whose images can be
accessed using the World Wide Web, instant messaging,
or a PC videoconferencing. Generally, a digital camera
delivers images to a web server, either continuously
or at regular intervals. It is a small digital camera with
a cable that connects it to the computers’ parallel or
USB port. It has very low cost but not very good picture
quality. You usually do not have to use batteries with a web camera since
the PC supplies their power.
Using a web camera allows learners to be a part of either a conference
or class/studio. They can see, hear and interact with people in real time.

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WebCams can help maintain the learner’s interest in the course, by making
current visual information available, and thus, help promote active learning.
What is USB port?

The channels through which a PC communicates
with various peripheral devices are known as
communication ports. Ports are to a computer
just as seaports and airports are to a country. They facilitate communication
with the external world. In a PC there are certain some sockets at the back
of the CPU cabinet through which information can be fed or taken out of
the PC. Till a few years ago these sockets included serial ports and Parallel
ports. Serial ports were used to connect the mouse, scanner etc and the
parallel port to connect a printer. USB, the Universal Serial Bus, is the
communication port, which is becoming common in the new PCs. It allows
virtually unlimited PC expansion ‘outside the box’. USB features a ‘one-
size-fits-all’ connector that makes it easy to add and unplug peripherals
without ever opening the PC. USB’s ‘hot insertion and removal’ feature
makes expansion even easier, because users can add peripherals without
turning off their PC.
What is a website?
A website is a collection of electronic documents linked together logically
in order to provide consistent information. It is called a website because it
represents one of many possible distinct locations (or sites) where
information is available within the World Wide Web. Documents available
on a website are stored on a computer that is connected to the Internet,
and made available via the World Wide Web.
In general terms, a website is a communication tool, its primary
function being to enable individuals and organisations to share and

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exchange information over the Internet. Through a website, it is possible

to make information available in electronic format or to gather information
and to provide electronic services. For these reasons, websites can be
useful tools for any organization be it a school; college; university; industry;
a business house or a government.
How can one make a website?

One can indeed make one’s own website
provided you have a reasonable access
to a computer linked to the Internet. This
is really not very difficult if you live in a
city. You can walk into a cybercafe, (such
as Reliance Webworld) which charge you
a nominal fee per hour of use.
If you know HTML you know nothing else, you can write your
webpages using a text editor, such as Notepad in “Windows”. However,

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if you do not know HTML you can still design a webpage, but for doing
so you need an application software such as “Microsoft Frontpage”;
“Macromedia Dreamweaver’” etc. You can also download a webpage editor
from a shareware website.
Once you have made your webpages you will need to upload them to a
webserver. For that you will need FTP software. If you want your own domain
name you need to register and pay the charges. Alternatively you can host
your webpages on a websites that host amateur website free of cost.
What is downloading?
To download a file is to get it from someone
else’s computer, over a network, and save it on
your own computer or floppy disk. Download
means “receive.” One can download many kinds
of files from the Internet, including images and software. The time it takes
to download data depends on the size of the file and network speed.
Small Web pages take a few seconds if everything is running smoothly,
but a 10MB video file can take a half hour. Downloading over DSL or
cable modem can be up to 100 times faster. Downloading from a file
server on a local network (LAN) can be faster yet.
Downloading files from the Internet has become a snap with “click
here to download this file” messages on Web pages. Your Web browser
prompts you where to save the file. If the file is software that has to be
installed, most browsers give you the option of running the program
without worrying about where to save it first.
What is FTP?
It is the acronym for File Transfer Protocol, the protocol
for exchanging files over the Internet. A communications

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protocol is the set of standard rules for data representation, signalling,

authentication, and error detection required to send information over a
communications channel. FTP works in the same way as HTTP for
transferring Web pages from a server to a user’s browser and SMTP for
transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that, like these technologies,
FTP uses the Internet’s TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer.
FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using
the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g., uploading a Web page file
to a server).
Files can be transferred between a pair of machines with the FTP
command, given that: The machine you are using, the “local host machine”,
is running FTP application software and is also connected to the Internet.
It is also necessary that the machine you want files to be transferred to/
from, the “remote host machine”, is also running FTP and is attached to
the Internet computer network.
What is a portal?

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A portal is a private space that gives employees in a company the ability

to organize information, readily access that information, manage
documents, share calendars and enable efficient collaboration, all in a
familiar, browser-based environment.
In a conventional website, users navigate to locate content of interest
and everyone sees the same version of each page. Portals are very different
because they deliver unique and customised views to different people,
presenting a personalized view of diverse information and services relevant
to the individual who needs it in one convenient desktop location. Many
business organizations have discovered unique and creative uses for intranet
technology to solve real business problems by developing their own portal.
Because all the important information about a business enterprise
resides in a central repository, it’s available at any time, from anywhere in
the world, using a simple web browser.
What is a newsgroup?
Newsgroups are discussion groups that are all part of a global system
called Usenet (there are over 250,000 different Usenet sites). It is almost
impossible to know how many
different newsgroups there are. The
reason for this is that new ones
come on board, and others leave
every single day. It is said that there
are currently over 20,000 different
newsgroups from all over the world.
Newsgroups are started to carry on
discussions about all sorts of
things. There are special programs
that have to be used to read from

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and write to a newsgroup, referred to as news readers. If you are using

Netscape or Explorer to navigate the World Wide Web, these two browsers
have incorporated a newsreader in their software. There are also newsreader
programs available whose sole purpose is to read newsgroups.
Not all Internet service providers (ISPs) carry all newsgroups. If your
ISP doesn’t carry the newsgroups you are interested in, then you have to
find another ISP or start your own news server.
What is a blog?
To be present on the Internet one need not really spend money to make a
website; one can put information or thoughts that one wants to share with
world at large through websites known as blogger sites.
A blog is a diary or journal where the writer or “blogger” will write
his/her observations and provide links to other websites that s/he
considers useful for the reader. Bloggers, write about different themes,
sort of like a newspaper columnist but with no specialized training
necessary. Many blogs serve as discussion communities about particular
issues. A blog does not have to have one author only. Some of the most
interesting blogs
have multiple
r e g u l a r
contributors.
The first blog
is said also to
have been the
first website in
1992. Blogs
didn’t really start
to take off until

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the late nineties, however, and they gained in popularity after 2000. Early
blogs were mostly lists of recommended links with some commentary.
Since then, they’ve evolved to something different. Now anyone who
fancies himself a writer, and even some people who don’t, has a blog on
the Internet. Thanks to easy-to-use programs and websites, the most
technically challenged person can get a blog online. This isn’t a bad thing,
as there’s something out there for everyone.
What is Intranet?
An intranet is a mini internet inside an
organization. A firewall is used to
selectively isolate the intranet from the
internet. Usually, users inside the
intranet are given access to most or the
entire internet. Usually, outsiders are given little or no access to the
information inside the intranet. Access in either direction can be controlled
right down to the level of an individual computer. A VPN or Virtual Private
Network allows a home office or the intranet in a field office to connect
them via the internet. The field office will have the same access as those
at the home office.

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The word ‘Information’ has many different

Communication is the process of exchanging information. People

About some substances and their discoveries 1

of individuals using various communication media such as newspapers,

What are electromagnetic waves?

2 About some substances and their discoveries

current induced in the second coil is proportional to its number of turns.

About some substances and their discoveries 3

Can plants communicate?

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current through them.) A microprocessor is somewhat like a brain. All

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Access Memory). This type of memory is also

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What is inside a CPU?

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the microprocessor through sockets and tracks of copper printed on a

What is speed of a computer?

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a computer has a chip — an

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How does a CD-ROM store information?

What is Pentium, Celeron, Athlon, Core 2 Duo?

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What is a computer mouse?

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What is Hard Disk Drive?

What is a Pen Drive?

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USB flash drives offer potential

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What is a notebook computer?

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What is a digital camera?

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on a computer make them more attractive and popular.

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What is Flash Memory?

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capture images from photographic

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What is Bluetooth technology?

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What is a laser printer?

What is inkjet printing?

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between 300 and 1200 dpi (dots per inch).

How and when telecom became possible?

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Lodge, demonstrated the reception of Morse code signalling using radio

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telegraphy equipment; they could send or receive distress messages from

How cell phones work?

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akin to the body of a living organism. The area covered by a

What are GSM and CDMA?

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particular application of telecommunication have a certain frequency range.