Derivatives and Their Applications - Intro To Limits

Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative
Velocity
Let f(t) denote the distance, in kilometers, a train has traveled in
time t, t>0.
Let h>0. The distance the train has traveled in
the time interval from time t=t
0
to time t=t
0
+h is
f(t
0
+h)-f(t
0
).
Hence thee average speed during this time interval
is (f(t
0
+h)-f(t
0
))/h.
Taking the limit as h approaches 0 gives the
speed of the train at time t=t
0
.
Estimate the speed of the train at time t=t
0
.
Solution
Problem
Conclusion The speed of the train at time t = t
0
is

lim
h0
f t
0
+ h
( )
f t
0
( )
h
.
Velocity
Galileo made experiments that lead
to the discovery of gravity. In the
experiments he let various objects
fall from the tower of Pisa.
The top floor of the tower (above
which the bells are hanging and
from which objects can be dropped)
is about 48 meters above the
ground.
Given that the equation of motion for a freely falling
object is s=f(t)=4.9t
2
, compute the speed at which
a freely falling object hits the ground when it is
dropped from the top floor of the tower of Pisa.
Example
Velocity
Given that the equation of motion for a freely
falling object is s=f(t)=4.9t
2
, compute the
speed at which a freely falling object hits the
ground when it is dropped from the top floor
of the tower of Pisa.
Let us first compute the speed of the
object at time t=t
0
. By the previous
considerations we get:

= lim
h0
4.9 t
0
2
+ 2ht
0
+ h
2
( )
4.9t
0
2
h
= lim
h0
4.9 2ht
0
+ h
2
( )
h
= lim
h0
4.9 2t
0
+ h
( )
= 9.8t
0
.
Conclusion
Solution
Problem

= lim
h0
f t
0
+ h
( )
f t
0
( )
h
= lim
h0
4.9 t
0
+ h
( )
2
4.9t
0
2
h
Speed at time t
0
Velocity
Given that the equation of motion for a freely
falling object is s=f(t)=4.9t
2
, compute the
speed at which a freely falling object hits the
ground when it is dropped from the top floor
of the tower of Pisa.
Height of the tower
Distance fallen in time t
We know that the speed of the falling
object at time t = t
0
is 9.8t
0
(m/s).

To find out how long it takes for the
falling object to reach the ground,
solve t from the equation
48 = 4.9t
2
.
One gets t 3.13 seconds. By the previously found formula for the
speed we get:
Conclusion
Solution
(contd)
Problem
The object hits the ground with the speed of
30.7 m/s = 68.67 miles per hour.
The Derivative and the Rate
of Change
In the previous examples, we computed limit of .
Writing x = x
0
+ h one gets
where x = x-x
0
is the change of the variable x, and

f(x
0
) = f(x) f(x
0
) is the corresponding change in the values of
the function.
The Derivative and the Rate
of Change
Definition The limit is the derivative of the
function f at the point x
0
.
lim
x0
f x
0
( )
x
This definition assumes that the limit exists. If it does, we say
that the function f is differentiable at the point x
0
.
It is fairly straightforward,
that if f is differentiable
at x
0
, then f must be
continuous at x
0
. But
continuity does not
guarantee differentiability.
x
0
The function shown in the figure is continuous at x = x
0
but not
differentiable, because the graph of the function does not have a unique
tangent line at that point.

No unique
tangent line.
Applications of Derivatives
Depending on the situation, the derivatives of
functions may model, for example, one of the
following:
1. The slope of the tangent line.
2. The speed of an object.
3. The rate at which an investment in a bank
account grows.
4. The speed at which a hot object cools down or
the speed at which a cold object warms up.
5. Population growth or decay.
Introduction to Limits
The Slope of a Tangent Line as a Limit
The Area of a Disk as a Limit
The Area Under t he Graph of a Funct ion
Summary
I nt roduct ion t o Limit s
Tangent Lines
x x+ h
h
f( x+ h) - f( x)
Consider t he problem of
det ermining t he line t angent
t o t he graph of a funct ion f at
t he point ( x, f( x) ) .
St art by drawing a secant
line t hat int ersect s t he graph
of t he funct ion f at t he
point s ( x, f( x) ) and
( x+ h, f( x+ h) ) ( t he blue line
in t he pict ure) .
The slope of t he blue secant
( ) ( )
f f
.
x h x
h
+
=
Let t ing h approach 0, t he blue secant line will approach t he red
t angent line as t he limit .
The slope of t he red t angent line is
t he l i mi t of t he slopes of t he
secant lines as h approaches 0.
Slope of t he t angent
( ) ( )
0
f f
lim
h
x h x
h
+
Area of a Disk
To det ermine t he area A of a disk of radius
r one can approximat e such a disk wit h
regular polygons.
To comput e t he area of such a regular polygon
wit h n sides, decompose t he polygon first t o
t riangles as indicat ed in t he pict ure.
Each angle wit h vert ex at t he cent er is ( in radians) 2/ n.
The polygon consist s of n t riangles each
having t he area
2
sin cos .
T
A r
n n

=

The area of t he disk of radius r is t he limit
of t he areas of t he polygons as n approaches
t he infinit y.
The Area of t he
Disk of Radius r
2
lim sin cos
n
nr
n n

The familiar formula, A = r
2
, for t he area of
a disk of radius r can be derived from t his limit .
r
The pict ure shows an
approximat ion of t he disk by an oct agon.
cos r
n

sin r
n

Estimate Areas
Consider t he problem of det ermining t he area of
t he domain bounded by t he graph of t he funct ion
x
2
, t he x- axis, and t he lines x= 0 and x= 1.
As t he number n of t he
approximat ing rect angles grows,
t he approximat ion get s bet t er.
At t he l i mi t we get t he area of
t he blue domain under t he
graph of t he funct ion y = x
2
.
This met hod can be applied t o
almost all funct ions.
We det ermine t he area by approximat ing t he
domain wit h t hin rect angles for which t he area can be direct ly
comput ed. Let t ing t hese rect angles get t hinner, t he approximat ion
get s bet t er and, at t he limit , we get t he area of t he domain in quest ion.
1 0
y=x
2
Limits
Underst anding how funct ions behave as t he variable approaches
cert ain values is import ant for many pract ical applicat ions.
Here we have discussed applicat ions t o comput ing t he slope of a
t angent line, or t o comput ing areas of cert ain domains. I n physics,
limit s are needed, for example, in t he comput at ion of t he speed of
an obj ect .
I n all of t he applicat ions present ed here, t he
difficult y in comput ing t he limit is in t he fact
t hat , when insert ing t he limit value for t he
variable, t he expression evaluat es t o 0/ 0 or t o
0. These are undefined expressions. I n
such cases, a value can be assigned t o t he
limit by suit able rewrit ings of t he original
expression. There are ot her met hods t oo.
The l i mi t of a f unct i on i s an i mpor t ant
cent r al concept of cal cul us.
Slope of t he t angent
I nsert ing h = 0, we
get 0/ 0, which is
not a number.
( ) ( )
0
f f
lim .
h
x h x
h
+
IntroductiontoLimitsof
Functions
HeuristicDefinitionofFiniteLimitsofFunctions
ExamplesofLimitComputations
InfiniteLimitsandAsymptotes
Summary
LimitsofFunctions
Definition
Example
Notation
A function f has the finite l i mi t L at
a point x
0
if the values f(x) get
arbitrarily close to the finite number
L as x gets close to x
0
but is not x
0
.
Observe that the
value of f at x
0
has no effect on
the limit value (if
one exists). The
limit may exist
even if the
function is not
defined for x = x
0
.
The function
has the limit 0 as x 0 even though
f(0) = 1.
( )
1
sin , 0
f
1, 0
x x
x x
x
( )
0
limf
x x
x L
=
Functions/Limits of Functions/I nt r oduct i on t o Li mi t s of Funct i ons
FirstStepsinComputingLimits
To compute the limit of a function f at a number x
0
, the first thing
to do is to evaluate the function at x = x
0
. If the value of the
function is a well defined number, then, in most cases, this value is
the actual limit.
Example
Compute the limit
2
1
1
lim .
1
x
x
x
+
Solution Evaluating at x = 1, yields the value 0.
2
1
1
x
x

+
We conclude that
2
1
1
lim 0.
1
x
x
x
=
+
This is, indeed, correct as can be seen from the rewriting
( ) ( )
2
1
1 1
1
1 0.
1 1
x
x x
x
x
x x

+
= =
+ +
GuessingLimitswithCalculations
Val ue of
x
1.1 2.1
1.001 2.001
1.00001 2.000
Val ue of
x
0.9 1.9
0.999 1.999
0.999999 2.000
In general, we may find the correct limit value by simply
calculating the values of the function near the limit point.
Example
Find the value of the limit
By calculating values of near x = 1,
2
1
1
lim
1
x
x
x
2
1
1
x
x

Solution
2
1
1
x
x

2
1
1
x
x

One concludes that

the limit is
apparently 2. This
is, indeed, the
correct result as one
can easily show by
other methods to be
introduced later.
GuessingLimitswithCalculations
Val ue of
x
0.1 0.4999
0.01 0.5000
0.001 0.0000
Calculators cannot, however, be always trusted.
Example
Guess the value of the limit
by calculating values of near x = 0.
4
4
0
1 1
lim
x
x
x
+
4
4
1 1 x
x
+
Solution
The limit appears to be 0.
This result is incorrect
4
4
1 1 x
x
+
For positive values of x
smaller than 0.001, a
typical calculator gives the
value 0 for the function.
Problems of this type arise from the
rounding errors that any calculator
makes in numeric computations.
Computing using limit laws
shows that
4
4
0
1 1 1
lim .
2
x
x
x
+
=
RoundingErrors
The following graphs of the function
illustrate the rounding errors in the computation of the values of
this expression.
( )
4
4
1 1
f
x
x
x
+
=
-0.001 < x < 0.001 -1 < x < 1
These graphs, produced by a computer mathematics system,
illustrate the rounding error problem. The graph on the left gives a
correct idea of the behavior of the function f near x = 0. Zooming
in to the origin results to a mistake due to rounding errors.
InfiniteLimits
Definition
Notation
A function f has the l i mi t + at a point x
0
if the
values f(x) get arbitrarily large as x gets close to x
0
but is not x
0
.
( )
0
limf
x x
x
= +
Example
2
0
1
lim
x
x
= +
This follows, since if x is very close to
0, then 1/x
2
is large.
For example, if x = 0.01,
( )
2 2
1 1
10000.
0.01
x
= =
The fact that means that the graph of
the function has a vertical asymptote at x = 0.
2
0
1
lim
x
x
=
2
1
x
InfiniteLimits
Definition
Notation
A function f has the l i mi t at a point x
0
if the
values f(x) get arbitrarily large negative numbers as
x gets close to x
0
but is not x
0
.
( )
0
limf
x x
x
=
Example
2
0
1
lim
x
x
x
=
This follows, since if x is very close to 0,
the (x1)/x
2
is a large negative number.
For example, if x = 0.01,
( )
2 2
1 0.1 1
9000.
0.01
x
x

= =
Also in this case, the fact that
means that the graph of the function
has a v er t i cal asy mpt ot e at x = 0.
2
0
1
lim
x
x
x
=
2
1 x
x

Definition
Notation
A function f has the l i mi t L as x approaches +
or , if the values f(x) get arbitrarily close to the
value L as x gets sufficiently large positive number
or sufficiently large negative number.
( )
limf
x
x L
=
Example
2
1
lim 0
x
x
=
This follows, since if x is large, 1/x
2
is close to 0.
For example, if x = 1000,
( )
2 2
1 1
0.000001.
1000
x
= =
The fact that means that the graph of
the function has the horizontal asymptote y = 0.
2
1
lim 0
x
x
=
2
1
x
and
( )
lim f .
x
x L
=
ComputingLimitsat Infinity
To compute limits at the infinity one
can use the following rules:
1. (a positive number) =
2. (a negative number) =
3. + (any finite number) =
4. (any number)/ = 0
WARNI NG. The following
are undefined:
, 0
0
, /
Example
2
2
1
lim 1
1
x
x x
x
+
=
+
since
2
2
2
2
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
x
x x
x x
x
x

+
+
=
+
+
because both 1/x and 1/x
2
approach 0 as x grows arbitrarily large.
No Limit
The funct ion f does not
have a limit at x= 0 since
arbit rarily close t o x= 0 t he
funct ion f t akes any value
bet ween - 1 and 1.
Let

f x
( )
=
sin
1
x
_
,
, x = 0
0, x = 0
Funct ions/ Limit s of Funct ions/ Li mi t Rul es

Summary
The limit of a function x at a number x
0
is the number which the
values of f approach as x x
0
.
By approach here we mean that the values of f get arbitrarily close
to the limit value as x gets sufficiently close to the limit number x
0
.
WARNING
The value of the function f at x = x
0
does not
affect the limit at all.
x
0
L

In precise terms, getting
arbitrarily close to the limit
value is expressed as getting
closer than any given positive
distance .
Sufficiently close to x
0
is
then expressed as the
existence of a positive
number as in the figure.
Limit Rules
Properties of Limits
The Squeeze Theorem
Examples
Limits of Functions
Definit ion
A funct ion f has t he finit e l i mi t L at a
point x
0
if t he values f( x) get arbit rarily
close t o t he finit e number L as x get s
close t o x
0
but is not x
0
.
This definit ion applies wit h obvious
modificat ions in t he case of infinit e limit s at
finit e point s and in t he case of limit s at posit ive
infinit y and at t he negat ive infinit y.
Assume t hat , , and let
c R.

lim
xx
0
f x
( )
= a

lim
xx
0
g x
( )
= b

lim
xx
0
f x
( )
g x
( )
=
a
b
provided t hat b 0.

lim
xx
0
f x
( )
g x
( ) ( )
= ab

lim
xx
0
c f x
( ) ( )
= ca

lim
xx
0
f x
( )
+ g x
( ) ( )
= a + b
I f , t hen exist s
and
lim
xx
0
g x
( )
= a.

lim
xx
0
g x
( )
Assume t hat near t he number x
0
, but not
necessarily at x
0
,
f( x) g( x) h( x) .

lim
xx
0
f x
( )
= lim
xx
0
h x
( )
= a
h
f
g
Squeeze Theorem Graphically
if , t hen exist s,
and
lim
xx
0
g x
( )
= a.

lim
xx
0
g x
( )
I f f( x) g( x) h( x) near x
0
, and

lim
xx
0
f x
( )
= lim
xx
0
h x
( )
= a
The values of t he
funct ion h near t he
point x
0
are squeezed
bet ween t he values of
t he funct ions f and g.
Hence g has t he same
limit as h and f.
How to Compute Limits (1)
Met hods t o comput e limit s:
1. I f t he funct ion f is defined by an algebraic
expression t hat has finit e value at t he limit
point , t hen t his finit e value is t he limit .
2. I f t he funct ion f is defined by an expression
whose value is undefined at t he limit point ,
t hen one eit her has t o rewrit e t he expression
t o a more suit able form or one has t o use t he
Squeeze Theorem.

lim
x1
x 1
1 + x
2

=
1 1
1 +1
2
= 0

lim
x1
sin
1
x
1 + cos
2
x
( )
=
sin 1
( )
1 + cos
2
1
( )

= lim
x0
x 1 + x + 1 x
( )
1 + x 1 x
( )
1 + x + 1 x
( )
Mult iply bot h t he numerat or and t he denominat or
by t he conj ugat e of t he denominat or t o get rid of
t he square root s in t he denominat or.

lim
x0
x
1 + x 1 x

= lim
x0
x 1 + x + 1 x
( )
1 + x
( )
2
1 x
( )
2
= lim
x0
x 1 + x + 1 x
( )
1 + x
( )
1 x
( )

= lim
x0
x 1 + x + 1 x
( )
2x

= lim
x0
1 + x + 1 x
( )
2
= 1

lim
x0
x
1 + x 1 x

lim
x0
x sin
1
x
For all , - 1 sin() 1.

Hence for all x 0.

x x sin
1
x
x
Since , we can use t he
Squeeze Theorem t o conclude t hat

lim
x0
x
( )
= lim
x0
x = 0

lim
x0
x sin
1
x
= 0.
MainComputationMethods
If a square root appears in the expression, then multiply and
divide by the conjugate of the square root expression.
3
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
3
0
1 2 1 2
x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x x x x

+ + + +
+ =
+ +
+
= =
+ + + + +
Cancel out common factors of rational functions.
2
( ) ( )
2
1
1 1
1
1 2.
1 1
x
x x
x
x
x x

+
= = +

Frequently needed rule 1 ( ) ( )
2 2
. a b a b a b + =
Functions/LimitsofFunctions/SolvedProblemsonLimit
MainMethodsofLimitComputations
If the function, for which the limit needs to be computed, is
defined by an algebraic expression, which takes a finite value at
the limit point, then this finite value is the limit value.
3
If the function, for which the limit needs to be computed, cannot
be evaluated at the limit point (i.e. the value is an undefined
expression like in (1)), then find a rewriting of the function to a
form which can be evaluated at the limit point. If it is not
possible to use rewriting, use the Squeeze Theorem.
4
In the evaluation of expressions, use the rules 2
( )
0, , negativenumber .
positive number
a
= = =
The following undefined quantities cause problems: 1

0 0
0
0 , , , ,0 , .
0

SolvedProblemsonLimit
Rules
Problems
1
2
3
4
5
2
2
3 2
lim
2
x
x x
x
3 2
3 2
1
lim
3 5 2
x
x x x
x x x
+ + +
+ + +
2 2
lim 1 1
x
x x
+
2 2
lim 1 1
x
x x x x
+ +
2 2 0
2
lim
2 1 3 1
x
x
x x x x
+ + +
LimitsbyRewriting
1
2
2
3 2
lim
2
x
x x
x
Solution
( )( )
2
1 2
3 2
Rewrite 1.
2 2
x x
x x
x
x x

+
= =

( )
2
2 2
3 2
Hence lim lim 1 1.
2
x x
x x
x
x

+
= =

Derivatives and Their Applications - Intro To Limits

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Differentiation/Introduction to Differentiation/Tangents, Velocity, and the Derivative

One concludes that

Functions/Limits of Functions/I nt r oduct i on t o Li mi t s of Funct i ons

Funct ions/ Limit s of Funct ions/ Li mi t Rul es

For all , - 1 sin() 1.

The following undefined quantities cause problems: 1

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