Grade Eleven Chemistry Notes

Bridget Walsh Periodic Trends Trends for Atomic Size (radius) As you go down each group in the periodic table, the size of an atom increases o Valence electrons occupy an energy level farther away from the nucleus o In addition electrons in the inner energy levels shield the valence electrons from the attraction of the nucleus As you go across a period (left to right) the size of the atom decreases o Size of atom decreases because the positive charge on the nucleus also increases as you move left to right. As well without energy, electrons are restricted to their energy level, as a result positive force pulls electrons closer

Trends for Ionization Energy Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom Ionization energy deceases down a group o Valence electrons are farther from nucleus, so its easier to remove Ionization energy increases across a period

Trends for Electron Affinity Electron affinity is the measure of change in energy that occurs when an electron is added to the outer energy level o Electron affinity decreases down a group o Increases across a period

Bonding Bonding involves the interaction between the valence electrons of atoms o Usually the formation of a bond = more stable than either atom on their own When atoms exchange electrons they form an ionic bond When they share electrons they form a covalent bond You can predict the bond type by calculating the difference in the elements electronegetivity, if the difference is greater than 1.7 the elements will form an ionic bond if its less, a covalent bond will form Octet rule- atoms bond in order to achieve the electron configuration of their closest noble gas Isoelectronic- have the same electron configuration Conductivity of ionic compounds

Do not conduct electricity well in their solid state, particles need to be free to move around a bit, in their dissociated liquid state they do conduct electricity well Covalent bonding o When two atoms of the same element share electrons equally this is called a pure covalent bond o Elements that bond in this way are called diatomic elements o You can have double or triple bonds (sharing more than one electron) o Explaining the low conductivity of covalent compounds Covalent bonds are very strong They dont break up into ions when they melt or boil, instead they remain bonded together in molecules thus they are sometimes called molecular compounds Polar covalent bonds o Electronegetivity difference is less than 1.7 but more than 0.5 Lone pairs of electrons are pairs not involved in bonding Bonding pairs are involved in bonding (durr)

Electronegativity: Attracting Electrons When two atoms form a bond each atom attracts the other atoms electrons as well as its own. The electronegetivity of an atom is a measure of an atoms ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond Trend is the opposite of atomic radius trend

Kinetic Molecular Theory Solids and Liquids o Incompressible, particles cannot move independently from each other, movement of one particle affects movement of another o All particles that make up matter are in constant motion o In solids range of motion is most constricted move with vibrational motion o In liquids particles can move more freely but still not independently move with rotational motion as well as vibrational o Solids and liquids have definite volumes Gases o Able to move independently with translational motion o Particles move faster o Are compressible Particle theory o Attractive forces between particles, weaker the attractive force the freer the particles are to move o Attractive forces are strongest in the solid state o Depends on two major factors: type of force and temperature

Kinetic energy o Higher temp= higher kinetic energy Kinetic molecular theory (gases) o The volume of and individual gas molecule is negligible compared to the volume of the container holding the gas o There are neither attractive nor repulsive forces between gas molecules o Move randomly in all directions, in straight lines o When particles collide they are elastic , no loss of kinetic energy o Average kinetic energy is directly related to temperature o Kinetic molecular theory describes an ideal gas, use kinetic molecular theory to show that nearly all gases behave in similar and predictable ways (however there is no ideal gases in the world) Daltons law of partial pressure o Total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures of each of the individual gases Avogadros hypothesis o Equal volumes of all ideal gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules o One mole of a gas takes up the same amount of space as one mole of another gas if the temperature and pressure are constant Standard temperature- freezing point of water 0 degrees Standard pressure 101.325 kPa

Reaction Type Synthesis- elements react to form compound A + B--> C Decomposition- opposite of synthesis CA+B Combustion-reaction of a compound or element with O (complete combustion) (incomplete combustion produces carbon monoxide and water) Single displacement- A +BC AC+ B o Metal displaces a metal in an ionic compound o Treat hydrogen as a metal o Treat acids as ionic compounds o Treat water as ionic o Also see the activity series a metal in a compound will replace and metal below it on the activity series Double displacement- exchange of cations between two ionic compounds AB + CD- CB+AD o You can tell a double displacement reaction has occurred when A solid precipitate is formed A gas is produced

Also if water is formed but with some its hard to tell because they take place in water

Avogadro 6.02 X 10 is his constant Mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities as exactly 12g of carbon-12 Mass = moles X molar mass Moles X constant= formula units (number of particles or whatever)

Percent Yield Percent yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) X 100% E.g. on usage: the question and then what I did to solve it

To find the mass of a compound given the balanced equation and the mass of one compound:

known mass of CH
use moles = mass/molar mass to find the moles

use molar ratio given in chemical equation (do cross multiplication)

known moles of CH

find mass of HO!

mass=moles x molar mass

A limiting reactant is the reactant that determines the amount of product that will be formed in a chemical reaction 100% yield is not achievable in chemical reactions because reverse reactions can occur, products of reaction can undergo side reactions, and experimental processes and design prevent complete recovery of products Excess reactants will be present in the reaction vessel after a chemical reaction is finished

Solution and Solubility Types of Solutions Solution- homogenous mixture Solvent- substance that has other substances dissolved in it Solute- the thing dissolved Variable composition- different ratios of solvent to solute are possible, not possible with pure substances e.g. water Miscible- liquids that dissolve into one another e.g. water- ethanol Immiscible- liquids that do not readily dissolve into one e.g. water- oil Solubility- the amount of solute that dissolves into a given solvent at a certain temperature

Saturated solution- when no more of a solute will dissolve into a solution Unsaturated solution- solution not yet saturated o Water as a universal solvent o Water is called the the universal solvent because of it's ability to dissolve or dissociate most compounds. It can do this because of it's polarity. Oxygen has a higher electronegativity (meaning a stronger affinity for electrons) than Hydrogen so the oxygen side of a water molecule is slightly negative and the hydrogen side is slightly positive. In a solution, the positive hydrogen side of water is attracted to the negative parts of the compound it is dissolving while the negative oxygen is attracted to the positive parts. This allows water to dissociate and break apart ionic compounds. In addition the hydrogen bonding is weak.

Factors that Affect Solubility Rate of dissolving- how quickly a solute dissolves o For most solid solutes the rate of dissolving is greater at higher temperatures. At higher temperatures the solvent molecules have greater kinetic energy = colliding with undissolved solid molecules more frequently o Agitating a mixture by stirring or shaking increases the rate of dissolving. Agitation brings fresh solvent into contact with undissolved solid o Decreasing the size of the particles increases the rate of dissolving. Breaking up a large mass into many smaller masses increases surface area that is in contact with solvent

Solubility and particle attraction When the forces of attraction between different particles in a mixture are stronger than the forces of attraction between like particles in the mixture a solution forms. The strength of attraction affects the solubility o Step #1- the forces between particles must be broken. Requires energy (solid) o Step #2- some intermolecular forces between particles must be broken. Requires energy (liquid) o Step #3- attraction between particles of solid and liquid. Gives off energy More likely to dissolve if energy change in step 3 is greater that the sum of energy changes in steps 1 and 2

Solubility and Intermolecular forces Polar dissolves polar, non-polar dissolves non- polar Dipole- consists of 2 opposite charges separated by a short distance Dipole- dipole attraction- attraction between the opposite charges on two different polar molecules, usually intermolecular (between molecules) about 1% as strong as ionic or covalent bonding

Hydrogen bonding- occurs between the oxygen atom on one molecule and the hydrogen atom on another. Much stronger than ordinary dipole-dipole attraction but weaker than a covalent bond

Ion Dipole attractions Ion dipole attractions- attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule o If ion-dipole attractions can replace the ionic bonds between cations and anions, the compound will dissolve. Generally an ionic compound will dissolves in a polar solvent Electrolyte- a solute that forms an aqueous solution with the ability to conduct electricity

Predicting solubility If the difference between electronegetivities of a binary compound is large, it will probably dissolve in water

Solubility of covalent compounds Most are not soluable in water, however there are some exceptions (sugar) o Able to dissolve because they contain polar bonds, which are able to form hydrogen bonds with water. The molecules separate and become hydrated, just like dissolved ions however they remain neutral = not electrolytes In general, ionic solutes and polar covalent solutes both dissolve in polar solvents. Non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents

Factors the affect solubility Molecule size o Small molecules often more soluble, larger molecules less polar overall = less soluable Temperature o Solids- energy is needed to break up the strong bonds between particles. Higher temperature= more energy So: the solubility of most solids increases with temperature o Liquids- bonds not as strong as in solid. When a liquid dissolves in a liquid, additional energy is not needed So: the solubility of most liquids is not greatly affected by temperature o Gases- gas particles move more quickly = greater kinetic energy. When gas dissolves in a liquid it loses some of that energy So: the solubility of gases decreases with temperature Pressure o Changes in pressure have hardly any effect of solid and liquid solutions o However the solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure above it e.g. pop

Concentration of Solutions

Concentration- amount of solute per quantity of solvent Concentration as a mass/volume percent o Gives the mass of solute dissolved in a volume of solution Mass volume %=( mass of solute(g)/ volume of solution (mL) ) x 100% Concentration as a volume/volume percent o Gives the volume of solute per quantity of solution Volume/volume %= (volume of solute (mL)/ volume of soltution (mL)) x 100% Concentration in parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) o Both usually describe mass/mass relationships Ppm= (mass of solute/mass of solution) x 10 Ppb= (mass of solute/mass of solution) x 10 Molar concentration o Number of moles of solute in 1L of solution Molar concentration= solute (mol)/volume (L) Concentration as Mass/mass percent o Gives the mass of solute per mass quantity of solution Mass/mass %= (mass of solute (g)/ mass of solution (g)) x 100%

Acids and Bases Arrhenius Theory An acid is a substance that dissociates in water to produce one or more H+ ions A base is a substance that dissociates in water to form one or more OH- ions Hydronium ion- HO+, a hydrated proton

Bronsted Lowry Theory General Conjugate acid base pair- two molecules or ions that are related by the transfer of a proton Strong acid- dissociates completely in water o Eg. Hydrochloric acid HCl o Hydrobromic acid HBr o Hydroiodic acid HI o Nitric acid HNO o Sulphuric acid HSO o Perchloric acid HClO Weak acid- dissociates very slightly in a water solution o Eg acetic acid An acid is a substance from which a proton (H+ ion) can be removed A base is a substance that can remove a proton (H+ ion) from an acid

Naming pH

The concentration of hyrdonium ions in a solution of a weak acid is always less than the concentration of the dissolved acid Reversible chemical equation= weak acid Strong base- dissociates completely in water o Group 1 hydroxides o Group 2 hydroxides Concentration of hydronium in a strong acid solution is equal to the concentration of the acid Concentration of hydroxide= concentration of base

Binary- prefix hydro then the root of the non-metal, then suffix ic example hydrochloric acid Oxoacids- formed from a polyatomic ion, contains oxygen hydrogen and another element If it ends in ite change to ous and ate to ic eg. Hydrochlorate hydrochloric acid

pH scale is a logarithmic scale, the logarithm of a number is the power that you must raise ten to equal that number. E.g. the log 1 = 10 o log2 = 10= 100 to calculate pH use (-log(HO+)) pH less than 7 is acidic, higher is basic

Acid Base Reactions adding an acid to a base neutralizes the acids acidic properties this is called a neutralization reaction o the reaction between an acid and a base produces an ionic compound (a salt) and water o acid +base- salt +water o a salt is an ionic compound composed of the anion from an acid and the cation from the base o when any strong acid reacts with any strong base in the mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation, a neutral aqueous solution of a salt is formed (pH 7) Steps to calculate things involving neutralization reactions o Concentration o 1) write the balanced chemical equation o 2) calculate the amount (in moles) of the compound added based on the volume and concentration of solution Moles= concentration (mol/L) X volume (L) o 3) determine the amount (in moles) of the unknown concentrate needed to neutralize (use molar ratio given by balanced chemical equation) o 4) find concentration based on the amount and volume of solution needed Concentration (mol/L)= amount (in moles)/ volume (L)