HD 1170 Final Study Guide Achievement What did McClelland mean by need for achievement and fear of failure?

Need for achievement: the extent to which an individual strives for success o Intrinsically motivated desire to perform well that operates even in the absence of external rewards for success Fear of failure: often manifested in feelings of anxiety during tests or in other evaluative situations; can interefere with successful performance o A moderate amount of fear may improve performance by increasing ones concentration Need for achievement and fear of failure work together to pull the individual toward achievement situations Examples of self-handicapping strategies and reasons that students would use them. Joking around in class, waiting until the last minute to study for a test, turning in incomplete homework, or partying excessively the night before a big exam Self-protection, enhancing their self-presentation Boys: attribute their poor performance to a lack of effort Girls: mention emotional problems What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? Intrinsic: motivation based on the pleasure one will experience from mastering a task Extrinsic: motivation based on the rewards one will receive for successful performance What is stereotype threat and how does it influence students performance? The harmful effect that exposure to stereotypes about ethnic or sex differences in ability has on student performance When students are told that members of their ethnic group usually perform poorly on a particular test, their performance suffers Performance may be enhanced or depressed depending on how the stereotype works in or against their favor Dwecks achievement motivation model and achievement attributions: Motivational Process Model o Has established some evidence of cause in the processes linking achievement related beliefs, achievement strategies and achievement outcomes o Motivational factors are unrelated to ability Relationship between individuals beliefs and adaptive and maladaptive coping patterns in achievement situations Theory of Goal Orientation Confidence in Behavior Pattern Intelligence Intelligence Entity Theory: Intelligence=fixed Incremental Theory: Intelligence=malleable Perform. Goalgain positive judgments Learning Goal Increase competence If HIGH If LOW If HIGH or LOW Mastery oriented Helpless Mastery oriented

What kind of parenting is associated with academic success for adolescents and why? What are cultural capital and social capital and how are they related to students achievement? Authoritative parenting: warm, firm, fair Shown through better performance, better attendance, higher expectations, more positive academic self-conceptions, and stronger engagement in classroom Promotes the development of a healthy achievement orientationemphasis on intrinsic motivation and a healthier attributional style Less likely to be overly controlling More involvement in school activities How do parents and peers operate together to affect adolescents school achievement? How are the following factors related to educational achievement: socioeconomic status, ethnicity, beliefs about the importance of effort and ability, and recent immigration status? Family environment has an effect on adolescents choice of friendsinfluence school achievement Having friends who value school can positively affect academic achievement and having friends who disparage school can negatively affect achievement How is stress related to socioeconomic status and achievement? Adolescents who come from lower-class backgrounds experience more stressful life events, report more daily hassles, and attend schools with more negative climates Adversely affect adolescents mental health, well-being, and school performance Describe the trends in the performance of American adolescents on standardized achievement tests in the last 40 years. According to the NAEP reports, adolescent achievement in reading, writing, math, and science has improved only slightly among 13-year-olds and not at all among 17-year-olds over the past 40 years, despite massive national efforts at education reform Contemporary 17-year-olds score no better than their counterparts did in the early 1970s in reading or math and worse than their counterparts did in science 13-year-olds: reading scores in 2008 were marginally better than they had been in the 1970s and science scores showed no improvement between 1970 and 2000; science scores declined in the 1990s and have remained flat since then; math scores have slowly improved gains in achievement that have occurred in relatively simple skills How does the standardized test performance of American high school students compare to students in other industrialized countries? Mediocre in comparison with scores of other industrialized countries Gap widens from elementary to middle to high school What is the high school dropout rate for American adolescents, defined as the proportion of those aged 16 to 24 who are not in school and have not earned a GED? 9% What are the differences in the high school dropout rate for Black, White, American-born Hispanic, foreign-born Hispanic and Asian adolescents? Black and American-born Hispanic youngsters drop out at twice the rate of white youngsters, and six times more frequently than Asian youngsters Foreign-born Hispanic youngsters drop out at more than 3 times the rate of Americanborn Hispanic youth (lack of proficiency in English)

Approximately what percentage of high school dropouts obtains a GED? Between 33.33% and 50% What is the best predictor of eventual occupational success for adolescents? The number of years of schooling an individual completes Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck For seventh graders an incremental theory of intelligence was positively associated with what kind of goals and strategies and what kind of math grades over the two years of junior high school? More positive motivational patterns, positive effort beliefs, learning goals, low helpless attributions, positive strategies Increase in math grades Do students who were taught the incremental theory of intelligence show greater effort and higher math grades than those who were taught other useful skills, but who were not taught that intelligence is malleable? Yes; prevented a decline/stagnancy in intelligence What was the key message in the intervention to teach students that intelligence is malleable? Adolescents who endorse more of an incremental theory of malleable intelligence also endorse stronger learning goals, hold more positive beliefs about effort, and make fewer ability-based, helpless attributions, with the result that they choose more positive, effortbased strategies in response to failure Psychosocial problems in adolescence Steinberg proposes four general principles about adolescent psychosocial problems: Most problems reflect transitory experimentation: rates of occasional, usually harmless, experimentation far exceed rates of enduring problems Not all problems begin in adolescence: because a problem may be displayed during adolescence does not mean that it is a problem of adolescence Most problems do not persist into adulthood: relatively transitory in nature and are resolved by the beginning of adulthood Problems during adolescence are not caused by adolescence: when a young person exhibits a serious psychosocial problem, the worst possible interpretation is that it is a normal part of growing up Name and give examples of the three broad categories of problems in adolescence. Substance abuse: the misuse of alcohol or other drugs to a degree that causes problems in the individuals life Internalizing disorders: psychosocial problems that are manifested in a turning of the symptoms inward, as in depression or anxiety Externalizing disorders: psychosocial problems that are manifested in a turning of the symptoms outward, as in aggression or delinquency Approximately what percentage of high school seniors in recent years have tried alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana and what are the general trends in their use during the last few decades? 75% (alcohol), 45% (cigarettes), 43% (marijuana)

 marijuana use: declined steadily since the late 1970s and then rose sharply during the mid 1990s alcohol use: declined steadily during the 1980 cigarette use: increased during the 1990s and dropped significantly since 1997 due to increases in the price of cigarettes Why is early experimentation with alcohol, cigarettes, and other substances of particular concern? How are the effects of alcohol and cigarette use in adolescence related to brain functioning and addiction later in life? Dopamine: neurotransmitter that makes the user feel good; frequent drug use signals the brain to reduce levels of natural dopamine, in order to main the proper level, because the dopamine receptors cant tell the difference between the drug molecules and dopamine molecules; the more you use, the less natural dopamine circulates Changes in the limbic system is changing during early adolescencecan permanently affect the way the dopamine system functions Repeated exposure to drugs during this period of heightened malleability in the limbic system can affect the brain in ways that make it necessary to use drugs in order to experience normal amounts of pleasure (less changeable in adulthood) Alcohol for adolescents: more positivesocial; can drink more than adults without feeling the negative effects; harms planning and regulation of impulses How does the use of drugs and alcohol compare among White, Black, Asian, Hispanic, and American Indian adolescents? Highest: American indian adolescents White and hispanic > black and Asian Foreign born and less Americanized minority < American-born/acculturated minority How are adolescents who experiment with, abstain from, or abuse alcohol and marijuana different from each other, on average? Experimenters and abstainers score higher on measures of psychological adjustment than frequent users; moderate alcohol use during adolescence does not have negative long-term effects Irrational abstainers: over-controlled, narrow in their interests, anxious, and inhibited Abusers: lower psychological adjustment; not getting along well with other children, not showing concern for moral issues, not planful/likely to think ahead; deviant, emotionally unstable, stubborn, inattentive Is occasional alcohol and marijuana use normative for American adolescents today? What are the risk factors and protective factors for adolescent substance abuse? Yes, typically used in social situations Better adjusted and more interpersonally competent young people are likely to participate in social activities in which alcohol and other drugs are present Likely to experience problems at school, suffer from psychological distress and depression, become involved in dangerous or deviant activities, and engage in unprotected sex; health problems, unemployment, wedlock children Psychological (anger, impulsivity, inattentiveness); distant, hostile, or conflicted family relationships (excessively permissive, uninvolved, neglectful, or rejecting); more likely to have friends who use and tolerate the use of drugs; live in context that makes drug use easier Protective factors: positive mental health, high academic achievement, engagement in school, close family relationship, and involvement in religious activities

What kinds of programs have been successful and unsuccessful in preventing adolescent substance abuse? Successful: raising the price of alcohol and cigarettes; programs designed to bring in the whole community Unsuccessful: enforce laws governing their purchase; programs designed solely for information to prevent drug use, DARE Distinguish between drug use and drug abuse What is a status offense? Violation of the law that pertain to minors but not adults At approximately what age does violent criminal activity peak? 18 (onset: 13-16) Since the mid 1990s describe how the rates of violent crime among adolescents have changed. Who are most likely to be the victims of violent crime? Since 1993, violent crime among young people declined dramatically; began to rise very slightly in the mid 2000s Adolescents; single-parent homes in poor neighborhoods, poverty Name some factors that are strongly linked to violence and aggression in adolescents. Poor parenting Affiliation with antisocial peers What kind of programs have been successful and unsuccessful in preventing and treating adolescent externalizing problems? Evidence-based practicesgood Unsuccessful: group antisocial youth togetherinadvertently foster friendships among delinquent youth Teach how to resist peer pressure and settle conflicts without aggression Minimize the number of opportunities adolescent have to engage in peer-oriented misbehavior Encourage prosocial behavior What is the most common internalizing problem among adolescents? depression At what point does the sex difference in depression change? From early adolescence until late adulthood, twice as many females as males suffer from depressive disorder and females are more likely than males to report depressed mood Heightened self-consciousness and increased concern over popularity Name some risk factors for attempting suicide during adolescence. Having a psychiatric problem, having a history of suicide in the family, being under stress, experiencing parental rejection, family disruption or extensive conflict Adolescents who have attempted suicide once are at risk for attempting it again Do adolescent suicide attempts increase after publicity about a suicide? yes What approaches have been effective in treating adolescent depression? Psychotherapy Evidence-based practices Antidepressants (SSRIs) Name some factors that make some adolescents more vulnerable to the effects of stress than other adolescents. Any one stressor is exacerbated if it is accompanied by other stressors

 Adolescents with other resources are less likely to be adversely affected by stress than their peers (high self steem, healthy identity development, high intelligence, or strong feelings of competnence) Using more effective coping strategies Families In what areas do adolescents typically have similar beliefs to their parents and in what areas do they typically have different beliefs? Share a common social, regional, and cultural background; importance of hard work, educational and occupational ambitions, and the personal characteristics and attributes that they feel are important and desirable; basic, core values concerning religion, work, education, etc Difference in matters of personal tastestyles of dress, preferences in music, and patterns of leisure activity In what areas are adolescents and parents likely to bicker? Everyday issues, such as time spent on schoolwork, household chores, and choice of friends Parents view many issues as matters of right and wrongnot necessarily in a moral sense, but as matters of custom or convention Adolescents are likely to define these same issues as matters of personal choice How are differences between the role of mothers and fathers in our culture related to differences in adolescents relationships with their parents? Adolescents tend to be closer to their mother, to sepnd more time alone with their mother, and to feel more comfortable talking to their mother about problems and other emotional matters; tend to be more involved than fathers in their adolescents lives Fathers often rely on mothers for information about their adolescents activities; perceived as relatively distant authority figures who may be consulted for objective information; rarely sought for support or guidance Fight more with mothersmore controlling; does not jeopardize closeness Know Baumrinds model of parenting styles, including the four styles and the variables on which they differ. Demandingness: degree to which the parent expects and insists on mature, responsible behavior from the child Responsiveness: degree to which the parent responds to the childs needs in an accepting, supportive manner Authoritative: use warmth, firm control, and rational, issue-oriented discipline, in which emphasis is placed on the development of self-direction; place a high value on the development of autonomy and self-direction but assume the ultimate responsibility for their childs behavior Authoritarian: use punitive, absolute, and forceful discipline, and who place a premium on obedience and conformity Indulgent: characterized by responsiveness but low demandingness, and who are mainly concerned with childs happiness Indifferent: low levels of both responsiveness and demandingness What characteristics of adolescents are associated with each style of parenting? Authoritative: self-reliant and who has a strong sense of initiative; responsible, creative, self-assured, intellectually curious, socially skilled, and academically successful

 Authoritarian: dependent, more passive, less socially adept, less self-assured, and less intellectually curious Indulgent: less mature, less responsible and more conforming to their peers Indifferent: impulsive and more likely to be involved in delinquent behavior and in precocious experiments with sex, drugs, and alcohol What are some ethnic differences in parenting styles and how are they related to adolescents behavior? Authoritative parenting is less prevalent among black, Asian, or Hispanic families than among white familiesbeneficial Ethnic minority youngsters benefit from parenting that is responsive and demanding Authoritarian parenting is not necessarily bad if control is combined with warmth (not as harmful as it is with white adolescents) How is the ability to have both attachment and autonomy in a family related to adolescents psychological health? Do best when they grow up in a family atmosphere that permits the development of individuality against a backdrop of close family ties Conflict can be good-adolescents are encouraged to express their opinions in an atmosphere that does not risk severing the emotional attachment How are adolescents relationships with siblings similar to and different from their relationships with parents and peers? Similar to parents in terms of companionship and importance Similar to friendships in term of respect to power, assistance, and their satisfaction with the relationship What are shared and nonshared environmental influences and how are they related to siblings development? Shared: nongenetic influences that make individuals living in the same family similar to each other o Socioeconomic status, neighborhoodless influential Nonshared: nongenetic influences in individuals lives that make them different from people they live with o Siblings treated differently by parentsdifferent experiences in the same context o Peer relations, school relations What does research indicate about the following factors and their relationship to adolescent development: 1) the importance of the number of parents in an adolescents house versus the quality of the adolescents relationship with them: quality of relationships is more important a. stepfamiliesmore problems than single-parent homes b. single-parents families without divorceless difficulties than those with divorced/remarried families c. adolescents without dadbetter off than those with adolescents who show no interest in them 2) the importance of the process of going through a divorce versus the resulting family structure: the process of going through a divorce, not the resulting family structure that matters most for adolescents mental health; signs of difficulty after the divorce, but the majority has adjusted to the change and behave like other peers after two or three years

3) exposure to marital conflict, disorganized or disrupted parenting, and increases in household stress: more adversely affected by it when they are aware of it than when it is more covert, when it leads to feelings of insecurity or self-blame, when it disrupts the quality of the parent-child relationships ; conflict between parents often spill over into parent-child relationship, making mothers and fathers more hostile, more irritable, and less effective; depression, distress, aggression How great are the effect sizes in differences between adolescents from divorced and nondivorced parents? More educational and behavioral problemshigher levels of marital unhappiness and conflict with strained parent-child relationships In the adverse effects of divorce are attributable to the immediate problems of adjusting to a new household structure or due to exposure to intense marital conflict before and during the divorce, these effects will dissipate within a few years Average effect size is small The effects of divorce tend to be stronger among school-aged individuals than preschoolers or college students More common in US and more likely to have access to psychological services, such as counseling What are some of the sleeper effects of divorceproblems that appear in adolescents several years after their parents have divorced? Adjustment difficulties may not be expressed until adolescent; increased drug use and higher rates of early pregnancy Particular developmental challenge of adolescenceintimate sexual relationshipsaffects ones conceptions of relationships or views of romantic commitment How are fighting between divorced parents and consistent discipline from divorced parents related to adolescents adjustment to divorce? Nature of the relationship between the adolescents divorced parents, not which one he/she lives with that makes a difference Adolescents with parents with a congenial, cooperative relationship and appropriate discipline from both homesfewer behavioral problems and less emotional difficulty Suffer when conflict is intense Is it more difficult for children or adolescents to deal with the remarriage of their parents? What style of step-parenting is most effective? Adolescents Consistent, supportive, authoritative style of parenting How is parents income loss and unemployment related to adolescent development? Disruptions in parentingadolescent difficulties Girls: demands for maturity and increased responsibility around the housepessimistic expectations about their own occupational futures Boys: more frequent conflict with fathers More involvement in problem behavior and heightened irresponsibility Often exposed to harsh, uninvolved and inconsistent parentinggreater risk for psychological and behavioral problems Marital conflictproblems (affects quality of parenting); less involved, less nurturing, harsher, and less consistent in their discipline How is chronic family poverty related to adolescent development?

 Increases in anxiety and depression, more frequent conduct problems, and diminished school performance Violence, stress, depression, suicidal thoughts, academic difficulties, and behavior problems What family factor has the strongest relationship to adolescent development? Teenagers feeling of connectedness with parents and family; feeling loved and cared for by parents Peer Groups How is the development of age-segregated peer groups related to whether a society has particularistic or universalistic norms? Particularistic: guidelines for behavior that vary from one individual to another; more commonly found in less industrialized societies o Family background, not age, determinds what their rights and responsibilities are o Socialization best in family groups, where elders can pass on the familys particular values and norms to their younger relatives Universalistic: guidelines for behavior that apply to all members of a community; more common in industrialized societies o Norms that apply to one apply to everyone Modernization created age groupsuniversalistic In what four ways are adolescent peer groups different from peer groups in childhood? Sharp increase during adolescence in the sheer amount of time individuals spend with their peers and in the relative time they spend in the company of peers versus adults Peer groups function much more often without adult supervision than they do during childhood, partly because adolescents are more mobile and partly because they seek, and are granted more independence Increasingly more contact with peers is with other-sex friends Emergence of larger collectives of peers, or crowds What are cliques and what purpose do they serve for adolescents? Small, tightly knit groups of between 2 and 12 friends, generally of the same sex and age Common activities; friendship Provides the main social context in which adolescents interact with one another; social setting in which adolescents hang out, talk to each other and form close relationships What are crowds and what purpose do they serve for adolescents? Large, loosely organized groups of young people, composed of several cliques and typically organized around a common shared activity Reputation and stereotype How do researchers study cliques and crowds? Participant observation: researcher infiltrates a group of individuals in order to study their behavior and relationships ; observed is also a participant How do cliques and crowds change during adolescence? Due to increased importance of romantic relationships Early adolescence: same-sex cliquesboys and girls may go to parties or hang out together but they still spend time with peers of the same sexromantic interestsmiddle to lateadolescence mixed-sex cliques Late adolescence: peer crowds begin to disintegrate

 Larger peer group is replaced by loosely associated sets of couples Maturitycrowds in terms of abstract, global characteristics rather than concrete, behavioral features More consciously aware of the crowd structure in school Crowd structure becomes more differentiated, more permeable, and less hierarchical allows more freedom to change crowds and enhance their status How do crowds serve as reference groups? Provide members with an identity in the eyes of other adolescents Judge one another on the basis of the company t hey keep and they become branded on the basis of whom they hang out iwth What is the most important influence on the composition of cliques and how does it change over time? Similarity Typically composed of people who are of the same age and the same ethnicity, from the same socioeconomic background, and during early and middle adolescence, the same sex Describe how cliques are related to an adolescents age, social class, race and ethnicity, sex, orientation toward school, orientation toward the teen culture, and involvement in antisocial activities. Age segregation: result from the structure of schools; not many chances to make different age friends in school; more likely to make friends of different ages outside of school Sex segregation o Early and middle adolescence: same sex o Cliques: generally interested in different things o Sensitivity about sex roles Social class segregation: adolescents associated mainly with peers from the same social class or adjacent social classes Ethnic segregation: more ethnically segregated with age o Cross-ethnic friendships are less common in ethnically diverse schools than in schools where one ethnic group predominates o More powerful determinant of friendship patterns (more than socioeconomic status) o Academic achievement, attitudinal How are gangs similar to and different from other adolescent peer groups? Groups of adolescents who are similar in background and orientation, share common interests and activities, and use the group to derive a sense of identity Tend to be more isolated from their family, to have more emotional and behavioral problems, and to have poorer self-conceptions than other adolescents Relationships are not close or intimate Dont have much reason to maintain friendship in the absence of their shared interest in antisocial activities How do selection and socialization influence similarity between friends? Both selection and socialization are at work across a variety of attitudinal and behavioral domains, including school achievement, drug use, mental health, and delinquency Those who use alcohol or tobacco are likely to choose friends who also use drugs Spending time who use drugs also increases adolescents use as well

 Socialization (peer influence) is far stronger over day-to-day preferences in things like clothing or music; selection may be a somewhat stronger factor as far as delinquency and gang membership What is the difference between sociometric popularity and perceived popularity? Sociometric: how well-liked an individual is; determined mainly by social skills, friendliness, sense of humor; determinants are variable Perceived: how much status or prestige an individual has; variable and ever changing; goodlooking and athletic or rebellious, delinquent; peer norms change How are aggressive, withdrawn, and aggressive-withdrawn adolescents different from each other? Aggressive: have trouble controlling their aggression Withdrawn: shy, anxious, and inhibited; often the victims of bullying, especially when they are boys Both: have problems controlling their hostility, but like other withdrawn children, they tend to be nervous about initiating friendships with other adolescents What is relational aggression and which adolescents typically use it? Acts intended to harm another through the manipulation of his or her relationships with others, as in malicious gossip Girls: exclude others from social activities, damage reputations of others, withdraw attention and friendship What is hostile attributional bias and how does it relate to adolescents behavior? Tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile Unpopular younsters lack social skills and social understandings necessary to be popular with peers; unpopular aggressive children are ore likely than their peers to think that other childrens behavior is deliberately hostile, even when it is not More likely to retaliate Plays a central role in the aggressive behavior of rejected adolescents Do the same adolescents who engage in traditional bullying also engage in cyberbullying? Yes; victims of bullying are also victims of cyberbullying Most internet bullying is not anonymous What does research indicate about the adjustment problems of individuals who function as both bullies and victims? Victims: low self-esteem, depression, and academic difficulties Bullies: problems in social skills and in the control of aggression Both aggressive and withdrawnmost disturbed Bullying and victimization in the same childrenelements of the broader context: climate of schoolincrease likelihood of aggression between classmates Schools What are some of the goals of the comprehensive high school in the United States? Educational institution that promised to meet the needs of a diverse and growing population of young people Classes in general education, college preparation and vocational education were all in one building Classes in music, art, family life, health, PE, and other subjects to prepare adolescents for family and leisure as well as work roles How is school size related to student learning and engagement?

 Student performance and interest in school improve when their schools are made less bureaucratic and more intimate Achieve more when they attend smaller schools that create a cohesive sense of community May affect academic outcomes, but it does not necessarily affect students emotion attachment to the institution or their mental health (intimacy by breaking up into small groups within large schools) Large schools may have more activitiesless spots for activities; small school students are more active in a wider range of activities Small schoolsstudents can do more things that develop their skills and abilities; make them feel needed and important; more likely to have positions of leadership How is class size related to student learning? Classroom sizes from 20 to 40 studentsno effect on achievement during adolescence Small classes may help young elementary school children, but adolescent in class with 40 students learn just as much in class with 20 students What are some of the variables that are related to the successful transition of adolescents into secondary schools? Academic motivation and school grades drop as they move from elementary to middle/middle to high school Disrupt academic performance, behavior and self-image of adolescents; temporary Stable family and peer relations Teachers regulations and grading patterns Changing schools is easier for students who move into small rather than large institutions Teachers must be supportive What is tracking and what are some of the advantages and disadvantages? The grouping of students according to ability into different levels of classes within the same school grade Pros: allows teachers to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to students abilities, Cons: students in lower track may receive poorer-quality education; discriminate against poor or ethnic minority groups and may hinder rather than enhance their academic progress Influence adolescents friendshipstend to socialize with peers from the same academic group; polarization Affluent people tend to be able to move up more easily How are high ability boys and girls treated differently with regard to tracking in math? Boys are more likely than girls to be placed in more advanced math classes (even though girls score higher than boys on standardized tests in elementary school) Girls are less likely to be moved from a lower to a higher math class How do the effects of tracking differ for students in the high, low, and middle tracks? High: more challenging instruction and better teaching; more likely to engage in classroom activities that emphasize critical thinking; positive influence on school achievement, on subsequent course selection, and on ultimate educational attainment Lower tracks: inferior education; increase preexisting differences among students; students who need the most help are assigned to the tracks in which the quality of instruction is the poorest; exert less effortlimit learning Academically rich get richer, poor get poorer Desegregation on academic achievement: students have a wider range of students to compare themselves to; high ability studentsexpectations raised for them and their

teachers evaluations of them; low ability studentslowered expectations and get worse grades from teachers; high look better, low look worse What does research indicate about the effect of desegregation on academic achievement and self-esteem for minority and white adolescents? Little impact on the achievement levels of either minority or white youngsters Minority youngsters self-esteem is higher when they attend schools in which they are in the majority Fare better psychologically when the cultural environment of their neighborhood is consonant with the cultural environment of their school Attachment is higher when more classmates are from the same ethnic group Safer, less lonely, and less harassed in relatively more diverse schools How does being a racial or ethnic minority affect adjustment to school? Uncomfortable if there arent a lot of others of the same racial ethnicity Notice the little things more often than other people Prejudice How is academic achievement related to whether adolescents attend public, private, or charter schools and what variables seem to be related to this? Public: less safe Private: higher test scores; more safe; racial segregation (affluence); less likely to have gangs or fighting; social capital (strong communities with interpersonal resources); typically assigning more homework and are more orderly and disciplined Charter: more safe; help inner city students with free education but with better options May be more affected by background than the schools themselves What aspects of the school and classroom climate have important effects on adolescents achievement? What style of teaching is most effective for adolescents achievement and their engagement in school? Schools that are responding and demanding Relationships between students and teachers are positive; teachers are both supportive and demandingpsychological well-being Moderate degree of structure with high student involvement and high teacher support Encourage student participation High proportion of time on lesson, begin and end on time, provide clear feedback to students, give ample praise with good performance Promote cooperation over competition The performance of which kind of students appears to be tied more strongly to teacher expectations? Academically weaker students (self-fulfilling prophecy) How are students ethnicity and socioeconomic background related to teacher expectations? Teacher expectations create self-fulfilling prophecies that ultimately influence how their students behave Consciously and unconsciously shape teachers expectations, which affect student learning May call on poor or minority students less often than they call on white of affluent students (believe their responses are more worthy than the poor/minority students) Having low expectations for some ethnic groups and high expectations for others can contribute to feelings of hostility between students from different ethnicities Which strategies have been successful and unsuccessful at reducing school violence?

 Unsuccessful: zero tolerance policymany students end up with arrest records and contact with the justice system for acts that in the past would have been treated as disciplinary infractions by school officials Successful: programs that attempt to create a more humane climate; intervene to change behavior or disruptive students at an earlier age What percentage of high school graduates enroll in college immediately after graduation? How do college graduation rates compare to college enrollment rates? 70% of white and 60% of black and Hispanic high school graduates go directly into college fewer than 60% of all students who enroll in a four-year college complete their degree within 6 years What are some recommendations to help the one-third of adolescents who do not go directly to college make the transition from school to work? Apprenticeship; vocational skills during high school Use some of the money for financial aid to subsidize college tuition and give it to those who do not go to college Based on what we know from research, what are five characteristics of good schools for adolescents? Emphasize intellectual activities (nature and size of the student body, quality education valued by all Teachers are committed to their students and are given a good deal of freedom and autonomy by administrators in the way that this commitment is expressed in the classroom Well integrated into the communities they serve; involve parents Composed of good classrooms; active participants, atmosphere is order, not repressive; debate Staffed by teachers who have received specific training in teaching adolescents