The Sociological Perspective

Sociological Perspective
Peter Berger: seeing the general in the particular
possible to identify general patterns in the behavior of particular people

C. Wright Mills: sociological imagination

understand the connection between history and biography awareness of the relationship between private experience and (external influences in the) wider society

our experiences in group interactions influence our perceptions of social reality and our reaction to it (social behavior)

Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

helps us assess the truth of common sense assumptions prompts us to assess both the opportunities and constraints that characterize our lives empowers us to participate actively in our society

helps us recognize human variety and confront the challenges of living in a diverse world

Importance of a Global Perspective

societies are increasingly interconnected many problems we face are more serious elsewhere thinking globally is a good way to learn more about ourselves

Development of Sociology
origins in Europe during mid-1800s
Industrial Revolution (urbanization, rapid social change) colonization success of natural sciences (positivism)

expansion in America at the turn of the century

immigration emphasis on social reform

applied sociology
public policy evaluation research

Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

sociology is a multiple paradigm science
a paradigm is a perspective or basic image of society that guides thinking and research

functional perspective (focuses on macro level)

sees society as complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability; maintain equilibrium

conflict perspective (focuses on macro level)

sees society as arena of inequality that generates conflict and change; groups competing for scarce resources

symbolic interaction perspective (micro level)

sees society as product of the everyday interactions between individuals; how people use symbols to develop and share views of the world

Sociological Investigation
How do we know what is truth?
ways of knowing or kinds of truth
faith wisdom of experts general agreement among people empirical evidence (information we can verify with our senses)

Science is a logical system based on direct, systematic observations.

Research Model
selecting a topic defining the problem reviewing the literature formulating a hypothesis choosing a research method collecting the data analyzing the data drawing conclusions sharing the results

Research Methods
Henslin (text)
surveys participant observation secondary analysis documents unobtrusive measures experiments

another method of categorization

experiments
laboratory field

surveys
interviews questionnaires

observational studies
participant detached

secondary analysis
govt. statistics previous research data

Important Concepts in Research

variable: a concept whose value changes from case to case measurement: the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case
operational definitions of variables specify exactly what will be measured in assigning a value to a variable reliability: consistency in measurement validity: measuring precisely what one intends to measure

relationships among variables

cause & effect: change in one variable causes change in another (independent, dependent) correlation: two or more variables change together controlling for intervening variables

population: people who are the focus of the research (target group you wish to study) sample: part of the population that represents the whole
random sample, stratified random sample

questionnaire: series of written questions that a researcher presents to subjects

closed-ended, open-ended

interview: series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents

rapport

Research Ethics
use of data
openness honesty

no invasion of privacy informed consent no harm to participants avoid deception

Interplay of Theory and Research

Theory and research are interdependent.
Inductive reasoning transforms specific observations into general theory.
Theory is used to interpret research data and research data is used to generate theory .

Deductive reasoning transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for scientific research.
Theory generates questions which need to be answered.

Objectivity vs. Subjectivity

These concepts are best understood as points on a continuum, not mutually exclusive categories. Sociologists minimize bias and personal value judgments in the collection and analysis of data by:
adhering to the scientific method openly stating their perspective (and sources of research funding) reliance on replication or repetition of research by others A.S.A. code of ethics critical review by peers

Limitations of Sociological Research

Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any individuals actions. Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behavior being studied.
Hawthorne effect

Social patterns change constantly; what is true in one time or place may not hold true in another. Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value free when conducting social research is difficult.