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ANNEX N X. SURGE CALCULATION

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INDEX AX.1.- INTRODUCTION AX.2.- CCALCULATION CRITERIA AX.2.1.- SHUT DOWN TIME (T) AX.2.2.- CELERITY (a) AX.2.3.- SURGE (DH) AX.2.3.1.- Short surge AX.2.3.2.- Long surge AX.3.- INITIAL DATA AX.4.- OVERPRESSURE FROM SURGE DETERMINATION AX.5.- SURGE WITH DEPRESSION A X.6.- GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF SURGE A X.7.- SECURITY DEVICES A X.8.- TRANSIENT EVENT STUDY A X.8.1.- INSTALLATION COMPONENTS A X.8.2.- SIMULATION MODEL A X.8.2.1.- Initial conditions A X.8.2.2.- Matemathical modelization A X.8.2.3.- Numerical model: Characteristic's method A X.8.3.- REPORTS AND CHARTS A X.8.3.1.- Evolvent Pressures A X.8.3.2.- Installation reports A X.8.3.3.- Maximum and minimum pressures in profile points A X.8.3.4.- Stationary regime chart A X.8.3.5.- Transitory regime chart

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A X.1.- INTRODUCTION Surge is a phenomenon of great interest due to the important repercussions that it can have in pressure pipes. It consists of a pressure variation provoked by changes in the normal conditions of the flow parameters. A great number of scientists have realised studies in order to develop mathematical calculations to describe surge, the conclusions of which have been relied upon by numerous experts to continue studying this phenomenon. In this annex, we have listed the criterias used for calculating surge in a pipe and determined the maximum overpressure that can be reached according to the installation charactersitics. This data is accompanied by graphic representations.

According to the results obatined, the adequate safety measures will be adopted.

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A X.2.- CALCULATION CRITERIA A X.2.1.- SHUTDOWN TIME (T) Following the sudden cut off of a pumping group where the velocity reaches zero, the so-called shutdown time (T) occurs, producing the hydraulic transient event. The shutdown time T is determined according to Mendiluces` expression:

T = C +

KLV gH m

where: T: C, K: L: V: Stop time (s) Variable dimensionless coefficients Pumping length (m) Regime velocity (m/s). The formula is valid only for velocities bigger than 0,5 m/s

2 g: Acceleration of gravity (m/s ) Hm: Manometric head (m.w.c.)

The coefficient C has been required experimentally and is function of the pipe pitch (Hm/L). The adopted values can be:

C=1 C=0 C = 0,6

m < 0 , 20 L

m 0 , 40 L H m @ 0 , 30 L

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The coefficient K mainly represents the inertial effect of the pumping group. Its experimental values may vary with the pumping length:

K=2 K = 1,75 K = 1,50 K = 1,25 K=1

L < 500 L ~ 500 500 < L < 1.500 L ~ 1.500 L > 1.500

A X.2.2.- CELERITY (a) Once the shutdown time (T) is known, the value of celerity (a), defined as the propogation velocity of the pressure waves for the water contained in the pipe, can be determined. For this calculation Allievi has deduced the following expression:

a=

9.900 48,3 + K D m e

where: a: D: e: Km: Celerity (m/s) Interior diameter of the pipe (mm) Pipe thickness (mm) Coefficient depending on the material

The Km values depending on the pipe material are shown in the table below:

Material

Km

PVC Polyester Asbesto-cement Cast iron Steel

33.3 6.6 5.4 1 0.5

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A X.2.3.- SURGE (H) Once the shutdown time (T) values and the celerity (a) values are known, it is possible to determine the maximum value of the overpressure produced in the pipe. Two cases are distinguished:

A X.2.3.1.- Short surge It is called short surge when:

T >

2L a

In this case, the Michaud expression is used for the calculation of the overpressure:

DH =

2Lv gT

where: H = overpressure produced (m.w.c.)

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A X.2.3.2.- Long surge In the case of a long surge:

T <

2L a

The overpressure is determined by the Allievi formula:

DH =

av g

Analysing the expressions, it can be seen that the Michaud formula may be equal to the Allievi formula where:

T=

2L a

Therefore, at the end of pumping distance:

Lc =

aT 2

the Michaud and Allievi values concur, and at this point, the increasing overpressures line representing the former formula changes into a horizontal line.

This length Lc is named "Critical length" and the concurrence point is named "Critical point".

Where: Si L< Lc Si L> Lc Michaud formula Allievi formula

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A X.3.- INITIAL DATA Interior diameter of the pipe (mm) Pipe thickness (mm): Pipe material: Pipe length (m): Maximum flow (m/h): Fluid velocity (m/s): Maximum geometric head (m): Manometric head (m.w.c.): 204.5 22.7 HDPE 10000 87.2 0.74 218 247.64

A X.4.- OVERPRESSURE FROM SURGE DETERMINATION Variable coefficient (K): Variable coefficient (C): Coefficient depending on the material (Km): Propagation velocity (a): Stop time (T): Crtical length (Lc): 1.00 1.00 33.3 530.5 m/s 4 sec. 1070.4 m

Overpressure produced (m.w.c.): (LONG SURGE) (Alievi formula)

39.88

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With the surge value obtained we may calculate the pressures in the most unfavourable cases:

Maximum overpressure in pump discharge (m.w.c.): Maximum depression in pump discharge (m.w.c.):

258 178

We can observe that a negative depression in the pump discharge has been obtained, thereby supposing a future danger for the pipe. In the following part, we will show the reasoning which justifies the "normality" of this data.

In this case, we obtained maximum values of overpressure and depression that are perfectly realistic for the type of network designed and for the safety devices detailed below.

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A X.5.- SURGE WITH DEPRESSION In most studies on the surge in pipes, it can be observed that the pressure value reached during a surge is less than the static pressure, while later, at the maximum depression moment right after the engine has shut down, the pressure in the pipe continues to be positive. In spite of these observations, it is normal that contradictory results may be obtained from the calculations carried out, as in our case, where the overpressure value is higher that the geometrical head. In a significant proportion of elevations (around 40%) which work perfectly in spite of the production of depressions, researchers have carried out experimental studies demonstrating that the excess pressure is linked directly to geometric head, which is why the the depressions provoked by the engine shutdown cannot be very elevated.

Studies on cavitation are also important in understanding this phenomenon. Cavitation can be defined as the vaporization of a fluid that flows through a zone in which the pressure is sufficiently low, given its temperature, as to actually produce a change in its condition from liquid to gaseous, forming vacuum bags or vapours, which disappear by condensation when they are translated to areas of higher pressure. These vacuum bags separate the flow in two parts: one of them will continue in the same direction while the possibility exists that the other will flow back downwards. As a consequence of the reflexion at the extremity, these two flows may meet each other at inverse speeds, producing very high overpressures. Nevertheless, it has been proved that water can withstand great descents below athmospheric pressure without changing its state. This implies that the pressure required for water to vaporize at the temperatures usually encountered in the pumping system is so close to absolute vacuum that it is not possible for cavitation to be produced with released air because the simple action of the unforeseen engine shutdown prevents it.

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To illustrate the aforementioned, it is appropriate to make reference to some significant values demonstrating the boiling points of water at different depressions and absolute vacuum.

Boiling Point Temps. ( C) Absolute Pressure mm Hg 100 50 20 15 10 5 760 92 17 12 9 6.2

Depression mm Hg % 0 0 665 87 743 97.7 747 98.4 751 98.8 753 99.1

As we can see, the absolute pressures necessary for cavitation to occur in water at 10 to 15 degrees, temperatures that are usually encountered in pumping systems, stand at 9 to 12 mm Hg. Said pressures correspond to depressions of 98,4 to 98,8 percent of absolute vacuum; almost no industrial machine can reach such extreme values.

The vacuum increase caused by a linear decrease in pressure must be exponential and not linear as usually considered. The expression relating negative pressures to vacuums is the following: V (cm Hg)= P 0.8 (m.w.c.)

Taking this into account in the conduction that concern us, we calculate a vacuum of 631,8 mm Hg, which corresponds to 8,6 m.w.c. These values indicate a boiling point of water at this pressure taht is far superior to the temperature actually present in the conduction.

In light of this information and the security mechanisms that are described later on, we can conclude that the installation is free of danger in the event that an instant shutdown is produced in the pumping group.

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A X.6.- GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE OVERPRESSURE SHUTDOWN

SURGE

300

250

Field line
200

Static head line Maximum head in shutdown

m150

Minimum head in shutdown

Manometric head line

100

50

0
0 2000 4000

m 6000

8000

10000

12000

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A X.7.- SECURITY MECHANISMS Once the overpressure that the unforeseen shutdown of the pumping group could produce in the installation is calculated and represented, we can study the use of devices that are able to reduce and control it. In many cases, the pipes have sufficient safety margins to withstand foreseen overpressure; nevertheless, sudden pressure alterations with wide oscillations causing quick material tension variations are not advisable for the good conservation of the pipes - for this reason, it is advisable to use some type of protection to lessen these maximum pressure oscillations. It is possible to utilize numerous systems to achieve this objective; in this case, the following devices are determined based on the elevation characteristics. - Due to the crucial influence of the shutdown time in the value of the surge, a flywheel is incorporated in the rotary part of the elevation group, the inertia of which will delay engine revolution loss and, as a consequence, increase the shutdown time of the water.

- Installation of a balance chimney, whose mission is to facilitate the oscillation in mass of the water, eliminating the overpressure of shutdown. - Fitting of an air container to the elevation pipe, consisting of a hermetical camera filled partially with air which is compressed to the manometric pressure at the fitting point. This device achieves two objectives: the potential energy of the compressed air favours water moving in an upwards direction inmediately after shutdown when it combines with the cinetic energy of the water, meanwhile, in the backward phase it acts as a brake, absorbing most of the gravity energy. The result is that it favours mass oscillation, widely obtained in chimneys, minimizing importance to the wave movement which can be very dangerous.

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- One type of air container is the air bladder bumper of compressed air. It has the advantage that since the air is enclosed inside a bladder, it cannot be be dissolved or escaped, provided that a good valve is used.

- Incorporation of release valves or discharge valves which automatically and suddenly allow the release of the necessary quantity of water so that the pipeline pressure does not exceed the limit.

- Incorporation of optimizer pumping valves, which are automatic retention valves that work in combination with the start-up or shutdown of the pumps as well as in the case of an eventual abrupt shutdown such as during an energy supply failure.

- As an additional safety measure, check valves will be installed that prevent flow from moving in a reverse direction to that established, thereby preventing the passage of overpressure waves originating at the end of the installation. In addition, in the lower segment, they serve to unload the static pressure of the upper section.

- Check valves with diferential by-pass that are made up of a main body that, in essence, is similar to those of ordinary retention. - Placement of air valves at the high points of the profile that open once the pressure reached is equal to the atmospheric one, accepting air inside the pipe to avoid the formation of vacuums.

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A X.8.- TRANSIENT EVENT STUDY The evolution of the pressure transitories created in a conduction by disturbances that survive in a programmed or unexpected manner in one or several of its points can produce undesired effects that could ultimately have catastrophic proportions. For this reason, it is important to foresee these events in order to prevent their effects.

Adequate protection elements and their location and behaviour must be carefully studied in order to keep the installation safe at all times. Computer simulation of the behaviour of such devices is an irreplaceable tool to elaborate the most adecuate surge protection diagram. For this simulation, we have used the computer package DYAGATS (Diseo Y Anlisis del Golpe de Ariete en Tubera Simple - Design and Analysis of Surge in a Simple Pipe) developed in the Mechanic Docent Teaching of Fluids of the Hydraulic Engineering and Environmental Department of the Politechnic of Valencia (Spain), whose objective is precisely the aforementioned.

As its name indicates, the package allows for the analysis of the transient event (surge) which occurs in a simple pipe (pumped and/or gravity) when one or more disturbance(s) divert the system away from its stationary regime. The option of using the data bases incorporated in the package, the ability to easily vary the type, location and / or characteristics of various protection devices and the opportunity to reanalize the problem, allows us to develop a design work that yields one or more strategies from which a choice based on non-technical criteria can be made.

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As its name indicates, the package allows for the analysis of the transient event (surge) which occurs in TITULO DEL PROYECTO (PROVINCIA) a simple pipe (pumped and/or gravity) when one or more disturbance(s) divert the system away from its TIPO DE PROYECTO stationary regime. The option of using the data bases incorporated in the package, the ability to easily vary the type, location and / or characteristics ofHIDRULICOS CLCULOS various protection devices and the opportunity to reanalize the problem, allows us to develop a design work that yields one or more strategies from which a choice based on non-technical criteria can be made.

A X.8.1.- INSTALLATION COMPONENTS A pressurised pipe is composed of the following elements: the transported fluid, the pipelines that transport it and the devices mounted in certain points of the installation that speed up or slow down the rate of transportation by introducing or capturing energy from the system,. DYAGATS's aim is to simulate the combined behavior of the fluid, pipelines (conductors) and devices in a simple pipeline. This simulation is obtained from the superimposition of the behaviour of each one of the elements present. The behaviour of each element comes described in physical-mathematics models that allow for the numeric cuantification of the variables that characterise the behaviours.

A X.8.2.- SIMULATION MODEL A hydraulic transitory is analyzed by the combined solution of the equations that describe the management of the pressure waves inside the pipelines and the equations that express the limit conditions or behavior of the devices that start and / or modify the disturbances. Specifically, it is a question of solving the system described by the continuity and movement equations within the limit conditions of the system.

The aim is to obtain a quantitative description of the transitory by understanding the unkown functions, generally Piezometric Head H, Speed V or Flow Q, in the points of interest of the system (which is probably all of them) at the time in which the transitory turns out to be relevant.

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The aim is to obtain a quantitative description of the transitory by understanding the unkown functions, generally Piezometric Head H, Speed V or Flow Q, in the points of interest of the system (which is probably all of them) at the time in which the transitory turns out to be relevant. A X.8.2.1.- The Initial Condition The transitory modifies a previous state of equilibrium (generally the permanent regime) and drives the system to another state of final "equilibrium". The initial equilibrium condition can be described in terms of various pressure values, piezometric heads, and speeds and flows which are necessary to know and which constitue the commencement point of the surge.

Since this condition is, in general, a stationary condition, it can be described given the heights of the system nodes and the flow or speed in the lines. From the mathematical point of view, these values constitute the initial condition for the integration process that is used to solve the system of differential equations in partial derivatives that constitute the continuity and movement equations.

The calculation of the permanent regime or the initial stationary state is direct and can be precisely obtained provided that the friction and pipeline losses are suitably represented. A program that perfoms simulations of transitories must include a calculation method for the initial condition, since it is the starting point of the transitory.

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A X.8.2.2.- The Mathematic Model The general approach to the problem of a simple pipeline involves solving the following problem for each section of the pipeline, which we will suppose extends from x = 0 to x = L. Using Flow instead of Speed, the problem for one section is:

"Determine H (x ,t ), and Q (x ,t ) for 0 <= x <= L , t > 0 from a) the initial condition is given by: H(x,0), Q(x,0) para 0 <= x <= L b) ecuation for the elastic model

c) the limit conditions a (t ,H 0,Q 0) = 0, b(t ,H L ,Q L ) = 0 where a and b represent the relation that states the extreme limit conditions 0 and L ." If the equipment to be analized is made up of different sections of lengths Li, the beginning and end of each section will be considered limit conditions to be managed simultaneously with the rest of the equations. No expression exists which provides the solution for this hyperbolic and nearly linear system in a closed form.

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Therefore, the only alternative for the rigourous solution of the complete system is numeric analysis. Important numeric analysis techniques have only been efficient since the development of computers.

Amongst the numeric techniques employed to solve the problem that concerns us, - some of which have been developed very recently -, the most popular and widespread form is the classic method of the characteristics (CM). This program has proved to be superior to others in various aspects. It is simple to programme and computationally efficient, allowing us to better capture abrupt wave fronts and perfectly illustrate wave propagation. This is the technique used by DYAGATS.

A X.8.2.3.- The numeric model: Characteristic Method The method is based on the observation that along some lines of the integration area, called characteristic curves , the partial derivative ecuation system turns into a total derivative ecuation system. Such curves, - that exist if the system is a hyperboloidal type - for the particular case of surge where V << a (the velocity of the fluid is greatly inferior to the propagation celerity of the wave), are straight lines with the slope a that are denoted by C+ y C-.

These differential equations are easily integrated according to the curve characteristics, transforming into a means of propagation for the information (disturbancies) from one moment to the next.

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A X.8.3.- REPORTS & GRAPHICS In order to illustrate everything referred to above and to show the results obtained, a series of graphics and reports provided by the I.T packet DYAGATS are included below:

A X.8.3.1.- Envolvent Pressures A X.8.3.2.- Installation Reports A X.8.3.3.- Minimum and Maximum Pressures in Profile Points A X.8.3.4.- Stationary Regime Graphic A X.8.3.5.- Transitory Regime Graphic

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A X.8.3.1.- Envolvent Pressures

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A X.8.3.2.- Installation Reports

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A X.8.3.3.- Minimum and Maximum Pressures in Profile Points

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A X.8.3.4.- Stationary Regime Chart

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A X.8.3.5.- Transitory Regime Chart

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