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Uhemca| Montorng and Management Uhemca| Montorng and Management Uhemca| Montorng and Management Uhemca| Montorng and Management

1. Much of the work of chemsts nvo|ves montorng the reactants and products of reactons
and managng reacton condtons
0utllne the role of a chemlst employed ln a named lndustry or enterprlse, ldentlfylng the branch of chemlstry undertaken by the chemlst and
explalnlng a chemlcal prlnclple that the chemlst uses

urhan Uemkonak| s a P|ant Uhemst P|ant Uhemst P|ant Uhemst P|ant Uhemst at enos enos enos enos (a chemca| manufacturng company that makes ethy|ene
from ethene and then po|ymerses to po|yethy|ene)
Ps ro|es nc|ude:
Montorng the qua|ty of ethy|ene and propy|ene products and detect any mpurtes
Montorng waste water at the enos comp|ex before t s dscharged to meet the envronmenta|
requrements
Ad[ust operatng condtons at the crackng furnace n order to optmze product ye|ds.

Branch of chemistry: Ana|ytca| chemstry Ana|ytca| chemstry Ana|ytca| chemstry Ana|ytca| chemstry- the part of chemstry concerned wth determnng what substances
and how much of t are present n matera|s

Chemical principles involved:
1he chemca| prncp|es nvo|ved for ths chemst are adsorpton and so|ub|ty.
A mxture s vapoursed nto a stream of he|um that f|ows over a statonary phase (so|d or |qud coat on
the surface of a so|d)
As t passes through a so|d statonary phase the components of the mxture adsorb (stck) onto the surface
to dfferng extents and passes through the co|umn at dfferent rates and so are separated.

Guidelines to answer a question from this point:
Name the chemst and the ndustry n whch they work
Lxp|an what the chemst does at the workp|ace
0escrbe the tertary qua|fcatons needed for ths emp|oyment
Identfy the chemca| prncp|e they are app|yng
5uggest any future professona| deve|opment they ntend to comp|ete

ldentlfy the need for collaboratlon between chemlsts as they collect and analyse data
Recognise:
Uhemsts need to co||aborate (work together), often n teams as they co||ect and ana|yse data.
1here are genera||y too many [obs n one p|ant for a chemst to manage so there must be co||aboraton for
the [ob to be comp|eted.
Example:
Montorng the ozone |ayer requres many detectors spread over the wor|d so chemsts are needed and
co||aboraton s requred to fnd the resu|t
0escrlbe an examples of a chemlcal reactlon such as combustlon, where reactants form dlfferent products under dlfferent condltlons and
thus would need monltorlng
Uombuston reactons can produce so|e|y carbon doxde or a mxture of
2
CO , CO and soot, dependng on
the re|atve amount of oxygen.
Lg. O H CO O H C
2 2 2 18 8
18 16 25 2 + + When supp|y of oxygen s p|entfu| (e excess)
O H C CO O H C
2 2 18 8
9 7 8 + + + Less supp|y of oxygen (ncomp|ete reacton)

1he need to montor the products of combuston s very mportant snce the products for ncomp|ete
combuston are posonous to humans and damagng to the envronment. Products such as carbon
monoxde and soot can brng about premature death. Many combuston type motor vehc|es requre
montorng as they may produce carbon monoxde. It s mportant that comp|ete combuston takes p|ace as
much as possb|e

0ather process and present lnformatlon from secondary sources about the work of practlclng sclentlsts ldentlfylng ~ the varlety of chemlcal
occupatlons, - a speclflc chemlcal occupatlon for a more detalled study.

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Lnvronmenta| chemsts Lnvronmenta| chemsts Lnvronmenta| chemsts Lnvronmenta| chemsts

Lnvronmenta| chemsts montor po||uton n ar, chemca| sp||s, survey |and and water po||uton. 1hey
usua||y work for the Uovernment or prvate companes to ensure they comp|y wth envronmenta| gude|nes.

Meta||urgca| chem Meta||urgca| chem Meta||urgca| chem Meta||urgca| chemsts sts sts sts
Meta||urgca| chemsts study meta|s, a||oys and ther propertes. 1hey a|so research n the deve|opment of
new a||oys and optmse ther producton. 1hese chemsts work for companes such as PP.

ochemst ochemst ochemst ochemst
ochemsts study the chemca| structure and functons of mo|ecu|es (eg. carbohydrates, fats, protens,
nuc|ec acds) n |vng thngs. 1hrough ther research new medca|, ndustra| and agrcu|tura| products are
deve|oped.

Po|ymer chemst Po|ymer chemst Po|ymer chemst Po|ymer chemst
Po|ymer chemsts nvestgate the propertes of |arge po|ymerc mo|ecu|es. 1hey manpu|ate ther structure
to a|ter ther propertes n order to produce new and usefu| p|astc products and matera|s.

Industra| chemst Industra| chemst Industra| chemst Industra| chemst
Industra| chemsts study the structure and chemca| reactons of matera|s that can be used n ndustry.
1her research and deve|opment programs |ead to the producton of a wde varety of commerca| products
rangng from petrochemca|s, detergents, and p|astcs to semconductors. Industra| chemsts may be
speca|sts n ana|ytca| chemstry, organc chemstry or norganc chemstry. An ndustra| chemst works n
a team. Pesearch deas are deve|oped nto expermenta| procedures on a sma|| sca|e. Uonsderaton s
norma||y gven to factors such as reacton speed, use of cata|ysts and the poston of the reacton
equ|brum. Wth the ad of chemca| engneers, the procedures are sca|ed up to the ndustra| producton
|eve|s. Uhemca| montorng procedures, qua|ty contro| testng and envronmenta| montorng procedures
are desgned. An ndustra| chemst works c|ose|y wth envronmenta| offcers and marketng and
management personne|. P|annng and organsatona| sk||s as we|| as ana|ytca| and |aboratory sk||s are
vta| for n ndustra| chemst.

2. Uhemca| processes n ndustry requre montorng and management to maxmze
producton
ldentlfy and descrlbe the lndustrlal uses of ammonla
Industra| uses of ammona:
Iert|sers (
3 4
NO NH )
Producton of fbres and p|astcs - rayon, acry|cs, ny|on
Pouseho|d c|eaners
Ureate ntrc acd whch s used to make dyes, synthetc fbres, p|astcs and exp|osves such as
1N1 and dynamte

ldentlfy that ammonla can be syntheslzed from lts component gases nltrogen and hydrogen
Recognise:
Ammona can be syntheszed from ts component gases ntrogen and hydrogen:
H g NH g H g N + + ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (
3 2 2

1hs s ca||ed the Paber Process Paber Process Paber Process Paber Process

0escrlbe that synthesls of ammonla occurs as a reverslble reactlon that wlll reach equlllbrlum
1he synthess of ammona (descrbed n the equaton above) occurs as a reversb|e reacton and w|| reach
equ|brum. At room temperature and pressure, the equ|brum |es we|| to the |eft.
1hs s due to the strong cova|ent bondng between the ntrogen and hydrogen atoms and so the actvaton
energy s very hgh.

ldentlfy the reactlon of hydrogen wlth nltrogen as exothermlc
Recognise:
1he synthess of ammona by the reacton of hydrogen and ntrogen s exothermc
H g NH g H g N + + ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (
3 2 2

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Lxplaln why the rate of reactlon ls lncreased by hlgher temperatures
1he rate of reacton ncreases as the temperature of the reacton system ncreases.
When a reacton vesse| s heated, ths causes the sma|| mo|ecu|es of ntrogen and hydrogen gas to ncrease
n knetc energy. 5nce there s an overa|| ncrease n knetc energy, these mo|ecu|es w|| have a greater
chance of co||dng wth each other and wth enough energy to combne to form ammona gas.

Lxplaln why the yleld of product ln the Raber process ls reduced at hlgher temperatures uslng Le 0hateller's prlnclple
When the temperature ncreases, there s a dsturbance n the equ|brum and Le Uhate|er's prncp|e
states that when a system at equ|brum s dsturbed, t w|| try to mnmse the dsturbance, thus shftng
the equ|brum.
H g NH g H g N + + ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (
3 2 2

5nce the Paber process s an exothermc reacton, when the temperatures are ncreased, the equ|brum
reacton w|| favour the endothermc reacton (due to Le Uhate|er's prncp|e), shftng the equ|brum to the
reactant's sde. 1hus ncreasng the temperature w|| favour the reverse reacton and reduce the ye|d.

Lxplaln why the Raber process ls based on a dellcate balanclng act lnvolvlng reactlon energy, reactlon rate and equlllbrlum
Uettng maxmum ye|d of ammona from the Paber process nvo|ves ba|ancng reacton energy, reacton
rate and equ|brum. If the temperature s |ow, the reacton rate w|| be very s|ow, however the ye|d wou|d
be hgh snce the equ|brum wou|d shft more to the product sde. Uonverse|y, f the temperature s hgh,
the reacton rate w|| be very hgh but the ye|d wou|d be very |ow.
ecause the knetc (heatng) and equ|brum effects are conf|ctng, a compromse condton s therefore
used.
1he compromse condtons used are:
1:3 mo|e rato of ntrogen to hydrogen n reacton mxture
Pgh pressures of 250-300 atmospheres
A temperature of C
o
500 400
Iron oxde
4 3
O Fe (magnette) as a cata|yst to |ower the actvaton energy to ncrease
reacton rate wthout ncreasng the temperature
Ammona s constant|y removed as |qud
Unused reactants are recyc|ed, so that after 5-6 cyc|es, near|y 100% of the reactants have been
converted to ammona

Lxplaln that the use of a catalyst wlll lower the reactlon temperature requlred and ldentlfy the catalyst(s) used ln the Raber process
1he man ro|e of ncreasng the temperature s to speed up reachng of equ|brum. Powever, snce the
Paber process s exothermc, heatng reduces the ye|d of products.
y usng a cata|yst, the rate of forward and reverse reacton w|| ncrease wthout affectng the poston of
the equ|brum, hence the ye|d.
1herefore, cata|ysts reduce the actvaton energy requred for reacton, speedng up the reachng of
equ|brum wthout a|terng the ye|d.

Uata|yst used n the Paber process: Magnette (ron oxde
4 3
O Fe )

Analyse the lmpact of lncreased pressure on the system lnvolved ln the Raber process
H g NH g H g N + + ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) (
3 2 2

An ncrease n pressure w|| shft the equ|brum to the rght, snce there are fewer mo|es of gas on the
product sde and both reactants and products are gases (Le Uhate|er's Prncp|e predcts that ncreased
pressure on the system w|| favour the reacton wth the |ower number of mo|es).
1herefore, by ncreasng the pressure, there s an ncrease n ye|d.
Uonsequent|y, the Paber process operates at hgh pressures of 250-300 atmospheres

Lxplaln why monltorlng of the reactlon vessel used ln the Raber process ls cruclal and dlscuss the monltorlng requlred
Many condtons must be mantaned for the effcent and safe operaton of the Paber process.

Iemperature and pressure
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1he temperature and pressure of the reacton system must be montored to mantan optmum condtons
for maxmum ye|d and the |east possb|e waste. Iurthermore, excessve|y hgh temperatures can damage
the cata|yst.

0omposltlon of lncomlng gas
1he rato of hydrogen to ntrogen s kept at ts stochometrc rato, whch s 3:1, to avod excess bu|d up of
one reactant.
A|so t s mportant that no oxygen enters the system snce t wou|d become exp|osve.
Any bu|d-up of unreactve gases such as argon and methane needs to be watched a|so because that can
|ower the effcency of the converson.

Ihe catalyst
1he cata|yst needs to be mantaned c|ean and c|ear of any other substance, whch may react wth the ron
oxde cata|yst, so that t can be reused and recyc|ed.
1he cata|yst s a|so montored to ensure that t s not posoned by gases such as U0 whch are by-products of
the hydrogen producton process. Uata|ysts can |ast up to 8 years f t s we|| mantaned.

0ather and process lnformatlon from secondary sources to descrlbe the condltlons under whlch Raber developed the lndustrlal synthesls of
ammonla and evaluate lts slgnlflcance at that tlme ln world hlstory

Rlstory
0urng the ear|y 20
th
century, the wor|dwde demand for ntrogen based fert|sers was far greater than
ava|ab|e supp|es. 1he |argest exstng supp|y came from ntrate deposts by guano's n Uh|e.
At the tme of Wor|d War 1, Uermany was hgh|y dependent on overseas supp|es of ntrate for agrcu|ture
and the manufacture of exp|osves. Powever, due to war, the a||ed forces b|ocked Uermany's supp|y of
ntrate.
Paber rea|zed that the producton of ammona was the key to deve|op fert|sers to ad food producton and
to deve|op exp|osves for the war.

0ondltlons under whlch Raber develop ammonla
Paber's fu|| sca|e ndustra| producton of ammona nvo|ved crcu|atng hydrogen and ntrogen gases over
an ron cata|yst at a pressure of 150-200 atmospheres and a temperature of around 500 degrees U.

Slgnlflcance of Raber's synthesls of ammonla
A|though the a||ed forces had b|ocked Uermany's supp|y of ntrate sa|ts, the Paber process provded
a way to make ammona and exp|osves wthout re|yng on mports. 1herefore Uermany was ab|e to
manufacture ts own fert|sers and exp|osves. Wthout ths ndustra| process, the Uerman war
effort cou|d not have been sustaned and food crops cou|d not have been grown at suffcent rates to
feed the popu|aton

3. Manufactured products, nc|udng food, drugs and househo|d chemca|s, are ana|ysed to
determne or ensure ther chemca| composton
0educe the lons present ln a sample from the results of tests

Iest for anlons
Anon Anon Anon Anon 1est used 1est used 1est used 1est used Postve resu|t Postve resu|t Postve resu|t Postve resu|t
Phosphate
3
4
PO
Add
3
AgNO so|uton Ye||ow c|oudness due to
4 3
PO Ag precptate
5u|fate
2
4
SO
Add barum ons (eg.
2
BaCl ) 0ense whte precptate of
4
BaSO
Uarbonate
2
3
CO
Add d|ute hydroch|orc acd
2
CO s re|eased:
O H g CO H CO
2 2
2
3
) ( 2 + +
+

1hs turns |mewater m|ky
Uh|orde

Cl Add
3
AgNO so|uton
Whte precptate of s|ver ch|orde AgCl

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Iest for catlons

Uat Uat Uat Uaton on on on 1est used 1est used 1est used 1est used Postve resu|t Postve resu|t Postve resu|t Postve resu|t
arum
+ 2
Ba
I|ame test
Add su|fate ons
Produces app|e green f|ame upon f|ame test
Whte precptate of barum su|fate forms
Ua|cum
+ 2
Ca
I|ame test
Add carbonate ons
Produces orange/red f|ame upon f|ame test
Whte precptate of ca|cum carbonate forms
Lead
+ 2
Pb
Add odde ons Ye||ow precptate of |ead odde forms
Uopper
+
Cu or
+ 2
Cu
I|ame test
Add hydroxde ons (eg. Na0P)
Produces b|ue/green f|ame upon f|ame test
0eep b|ue precptate whch dsso|ves n excess
hydroxde forms
Iron (II)
+ 2
Fe
Add hydroxde ons (eg. Na0P) Whte precptate of ron(II) hydroxde whch quck|y
oxdzes n ar to red-brown ron(III) hydroxde forms
Iron (III)
+ 3
Fe
Add hydroxde ons (eg. Na0P) Ped-brown ge|atnous precptate of ron(III)
hydroxde forms

Irom the above tests, we can deduce the ons present n a samp|e.
Ior mu|tp|e ons, tests need to be performed n an order, makng sure that sa|ts that w|| not react are used
(e. N03
-
tests wth anons). When precptates form, the reacton needs to be drven to comp|eton and then
the precptate f|tered (or preferab|y centrfuged off) and the f|trate tested.

I|ame tests: I|ame tests: I|ame tests: I|ame tests:
I|ame tests can be used to dstngush between two meta| ons.

Must memorise for exams:
Meta| ons Meta| ons Meta| ons Meta| ons Uo|our under f|ame Uo|our under f|ame Uo|our under f|ame Uo|our under f|ame
arum
+ 2
Ba
Ye||ow - green
Ua|cum
+ 2
Ca
Ped
Uopper
+ 2
Cu
Lmera|d green
Lthum
+
Li
0eep red
Potassum
+
K
vo|et
5odum
+
Na
Ye||ow

5o|u 5o|u 5o|u 5o|ub|ty b|ty b|ty b|ty: :: :
Must memorise for exams: (If unable to memorise, use memory dump method)

0escrlbe the use of atomlc absorptlon spectroscopy (AAS) ln detectlng concentratlons of metal lons ln solutlons and assess lts lmpact on
sclentlflc understandlng of the effects of trace elements
5o|ub|e 5o|ub|e 5o|ub|e 5o|ub|e (No precptate) (No precptate) (No precptate) (No precptate) Lxceptons: Lxceptons: Lxceptons: Lxceptons:
A|| group 1 catons and
+
4
NH
None

Cl ,

Br and

I Ag, Pb, Pg
2
4
SO
a, Pb, Ua, Pg
Inso|ub|e Inso|ub|e Inso|ub|e Inso|ub|e (Precptate) (Precptate) (Precptate) (Precptate) Lxceptons: Lxceptons: Lxceptons: Lxceptons:
2
3
SO ,
2
3
CO and
3
4
PO A|| group 1 catons and
+
4
NH
2
S
A|| group 1,2 and
+
4
NH
2
O A|| group 1,
+ 2
Ba and
+ 2
Ca

OH
A|| group 1,
+
4
NH ,
+ 2
Ba and
+ 2
Ca
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Atomic absorption spectroscopy Atomic absorption spectroscopy Atomic absorption spectroscopy Atomic absorption spectroscopy: technique used to measure the concentrations of metals in various materials by utilizing the
absorption of light.

AA5 s a very senstve technque, beng ab|e to detect the concentratons of tny amounts of meta|s n
so|utons contanng comp|ex mxtures.

AA5 technque:
1he AA5 s ca|brated for use wth a partcu|ar meta| to ana|yse the concentraton of ts ons.
1he so|uton beng ana|ysed s vaporsed n a f|ame of furnace.

A |ght beam s passed through the vapoursed samp|e (d|ute so|uton) and some of the |ght s absorbed by
the samp|e. 1hs s because a specfc e|ectromagnetc wave s absorbed by some e|ectrons n atoms of the
samp|e and ths ntake of energy s dfferent between dfferent substances. 0fferent substances vaporsed
n a f|ame absorb |ght of specfc frequences.

5nce some frequences of |ght are absorbed, they appear mssng and |eave dark spaces n the spectrum.
1hs radaton not absorbed by the samp|e s recorded to produce an absorpton spectrum.
1he greater the number of a specfc mo|ecu|e, the more a specfc type of radaton s absorbed. Irom the
ntensty of absorpton of |ght of a partcu|ar frequency, the ana|yte concentraton s determned.

Uses of atomc absorpton spectroscopy:
AA5 s an mportant technque n the determnaton of the |eve|s of mcronutrents or essenta| trace
e|ements n the so|, p|ants and anma|s.
AA5 s very usefu| n montorng the concentraton of heavy meta|s (such as mercury, |ead and
cadmum) n po||uted water and so| as we|| as ther |eve|s n food.

Impact on scentfc understandng:
Trace elements: Trace elements: Trace elements: Trace elements: elements that are required by living organisms in very small amounts. These include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen.

Advantages: efore AA5, common|y used ana|ytca| methods weren't senstve enough to detect the presence
of the trace e|ements. AA5 have a||owed extreme|y accurate ana|yss of unknown substances snce t s a
very senstve technque.
1he need for most of these trace e|ements was on|y frst recognzed after scentsts usng AA5 for
measurng concentratons of speces n so|s and organsms.
AA5 has mproved the understandng of the effects of trace e|ements and the concentraton of these
requred for hea|thy deve|opment of crops and |vestock.
Iurthermore, the advantage of AA5 s that t s a fast, re|atve|y smp|e technque and re|atve|y nexpensve
to operate.
Disadvantages: Powever, the downfa|| of AA5 s that t can on|y test for one on at a tme.

Judgment of value: AA5 not on|y showed the presence of trace e|ements, t a|so he|ped demonstrate that these
trace e|ements were necessary for the we|| beng of organsms.

0ather, process and present lnformatlon to descrlbe and explaln evldence for the need to monltor levels of one of the above lons ln
substances used ln soclety
1he concentratons of |ead n the envronment must be montored n order to ensure that peop|e are not
exposed to excessve concentratons. 1hs s because |ead (often re|eased from some petro|) may affect the
nte||ectua| deve|opment n each ndvdua|.

Phosphate contents must a|so be montored especa||y n waterways snce excessve amounts may |ead to
a|ga| b|ooms. 1hs rapd process may comp|ete|y cover |akes and destroy aquatc |fe. 1he a|gae's death
after the dep|eton of phosphate s a|so detrmenta| to the water body. 1hus the amount of phosphate n
consumer goods that u|tmate|y end up n waterways must be montored.

ldentlfy data, plan, select equlpment and perform flrst hand lnvestlgatlons to measure the sulfate content of lawn fertlllzer and explaln the
chemlstry lnvolved
0reated by lsaac Seunglee Suh. Page 7 of l6
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Procedure:
Lawn fert|zer s ( )
4 2 4
SO NH
1. Add 1 gram of ammonum su|fate nto a vo|umetrc f|ask
2. Add 500mLs of water and dsso|ve fu||y by gent|y shakng
3. 5|ow|y drop n aU|2 to precptate the su|fate, str a |tt|e
4. Peat gent|y for ha|f and hour to coagu|ate the partc|es
5. I|ter the mxture severa| tmes
6. 1est f|trate to see f t has comp|ete|y precptated
7. Wash the precptate and dry the f|ter paper
8. Wegh the fna| resu|t

Chemistry:
5u|fate ons n |awn fert|zer react wth barum ons to form a hgh|y nso|ub|e precptate a504.
( ) ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) (
4 4 2 4 2 4
aq Cl NH s BaSO aq BaCl aq SO NH + +

Analyse lnformatlon to evaluate the rellablllty of the results of the above lnvestlgatlon and to propose solutlons to problems encountered ln
the procedure
1he fo||owng methods w|| mprove the re|ab|ty:
Pepeat the ana|yss at |east three tmes and average the resu|ts
Use a |arger mass of fert|zer to mnmse the percentage error
1he precptate shou|d be washed thorough|y wth warm water to remove any so|ub|e speces
and the thorough|y dred n a desccator
Pepeat the f|traton severa| tmes

0ather, process and present lnformatlon to lnterpret secondary data from AAS measurements and evaluate the effectlveness of thls ln
pollutlon control
AA5 s most usefu| n the dentfcaton of meta| ons n trace (ppm or ppb) concentratons. Pror to the
nventon of AA5, these trace e|ements were vrtua||y undetectab|e. As trace e|ements such as Pb and Pg
are posonous at |ow concentratons and boaccumu|ates n the food chan, the ear|y detecton of such
po||utants s vta| to our contnued good hea|th. 5amp|es from hgh rsk stes, such as rvers near |andf||, can
be taken and ana|ysed wthout sgnfcant cost or tme wastng to montor the waterways. A|though AA5 can
he|p wth ear|y warnng of affected stes, these measurements do not stop the dumpng of po||utants
wthout the |obbyng of organzatons such as the LPA.

Practse questons from Matrx theory book UMM 4 P15-19

4. Puman actvty has caused changes n the composton and the structure of the atmosphere.
Uhemsts montor these changes so that further damage can be |mted
0escrlbe the composltlon and layered structure of the atmosphere
1he atmosphere s composed of a seres of |ayers: troposphere troposphere troposphere troposphere, stratosphere stratosphere stratosphere stratosphere, and onosphere onosphere onosphere onosphere, , , , whch
are separated by temperature dfferences.

1roposphere:
1he troposphere s the |owest |ayer of the atmosphere (0-15km) and contans 75% of the mass of
the atmosphere.
1he essenta| gases requred by most |fe forms are contaned here. (ntrogen, oxygen and carbon
doxde). U|oud, ran and snow a|| form n the troposphere.
May contan some ozone

5tratosphere:
1he stratosphere s the second |ayer of the atmosphere (15-50km) and conssts of around 9% of the
mass of the atmosphere. It has much |ower pressures and temperatures range from -15 to 0
o
U.
1he ozone |ayer ozone |ayer ozone |ayer ozone |ayer s found n the stratosphere, whch concentraton varyng from 2ppm to 8ppm.

Mesosphere & 1hermosphere:
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1he mesosphere and thermosphere are often [ont|y referred to as the onosphere and conssts of
around 1% of the atmosphere. It s the outer |ayer of the atmosphere (50-120km above the earth's
surface, thermosphere s above the mesosphere). It has very |ow pressures and temperatures can
f|uctuate from -100 to 100
o
U due to so|ar radaton.
1hs |ayer conssts of gaseous ons and free e|ectrons.

Uomposton of the atmosphere:
Uases Uases Uases Uases Uomposton Uomposton Uomposton Uomposton
Ntrogen 78%
0xygen 21%
Argon 1%
Uarbon 0.04%
0ther <0.01%

ldentlfy the maln pollutants found ln the lower atmosphere and thelr source
Memorise: SHVNOC
Man po||uta Man po||uta Man po||uta Man po||utants nts nts nts 5ource 5ource 5ource 5ource
5u|fur doxde Uombuston from fue| mpurtes, sme|tng of meta|, burnng of foss|
fue|s, vo|canoes
Pydrocarbons Unburnt exhaust gases from vehc|es and factores
Industra| so|vents
vo|at|e organc
compounds (v0Us)
Lvaporaton of unburnt fue|s, so|vents and pants
Ntrous oxdes (N0x) Lghtnng, hgh temperature combustons n combuston chambers
0zone Photochemca| smog
Uarbon monoxde vehc|e emssons, bushfres, ncomp|ete combuston of fue|s
Maln pollutants (also lncludlng carbon dloxlde)

0escrlbe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere uv radlatlon shleld and a lower atmosphere pollutant
In the upper atmosphere, ozone acts as a Uv radaton she|d that protects a|| |fe forms n earth. It
forms a thn |ayer n the stratosphere and f|ters out short wave|ength Uv |ght whch damages |vng
tssue by absorbng them n.
0zone absorbs Uv radaton and decomposes to form mo|ecu|ar oxygen and oxygen atoms
) ( ) ( ) (
2 3
g O g O UV g O + +

In the |ower atmosphere, the decomposton of gases n the atmosphere to ozone by sun|ght forms
photochemca| smog, whch s posonous to humans and other |fe forms f nha|ed. It can cause
breathng dffcu|ty and respratory prob|ems.
0zone s formed by the decomposton of the po||utant ntrogen doxde gas n the atmosphere by
sun|ght. Ntrogen doxde s decomposed to N0 and energzed oxygen atoms. 1hese energzed
atoms then react wth oxygen n ar to form ozone:
) ( ) ( ) (
2
g O g NO g NO
UV
+
) ( ) ( ) (
3 2
g O g O g O +

0escrlbe the formatlon of a coordlnate covalent bond
Coordinate bond: covalent bond in which both of the shared electrons come from the one atom

Uoordnate cova|ent bonds are formed when an atom n a bond does not have a fu|| outer she|| and
the other does and has an unshared e|ectron par. It therefore shares ths par wth the atom and
creates a coordnate cova|ent bond.
1o form a coordnate cova|ent bond, 1 atom has |one par e|ectrons, and the other has 2 spaces of
the par of e|ectrons to form a fu|| outer she|| (octet ru|e).

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0escrlbe the formatlon of coordlnate covalent bonds uslng Lewls electron dot structure
1he formaton of ammonum:

1he formaton of ozone:

0ompare the propertles of the oxygen allotropes 02 and 03 and account for them on the basls of molecular structure and bondlng
Structure of oxygen molecule and ozone:
0xygen conssts of a par of oxygen atoms [oned together by a doub|e cova|ent bond, whereas ozone
conssts of 3 oxygen atoms [oned together. 1here s a doub|e cova|ent bond between 2 of the oxygen
atoms and one of the |one pars of e|ectrons on one of the oxygen atom forms a coordnate cova|ent bond
wth the thrd oxygen atom.
Property Property Property Property 0xygen (0 0xygen (0 0xygen (0 0xygen (02 22 2) )) ) 0zone(0 0zone(0 0zone(0 0zone(03 33 3) )) )
Bolllng polnt -183
o
U, |ower than ozone snce t has a |near
structure and ntermo|ecu|ar forces on|y
consst of dsperson forces. 0xygen a|so has
|ower mo|ar mass, therefore |ess dsperson
forces
-111
o
U hgher snce ts mo|ecu|e has a bent
structure, resu|tng n a net dpo|e, therefore
havng po|arty. Po|ar mo|ecu|es have hgher
bo|ng ponts.
0zone a|so has hgher mo|ar mass, therefore
more dsperson forces than oxygen
Reactlvlty Peacts wth most other e|ements to form
oxdes
Moderate|y strong oxdzng agent
0xygen s stab|e to Uv |ght snce t has a
strong doub|e bond
Much more reactve than oxygen snce the
cova|ent|y bonded 0 s eas|y sp|t off.
very strong oxdzng agent
0zone s unstab|e n the presence of Uv |ght and
decomposes to 02. 1hs s because the
ntramo|ecu|ar forces n ozone are much more
unstab|e.
0olour Uas: Uo|or|ess
Lqud: pa|e b|ue
5o|d: pa|e b|ue
Uas: Pa|e b|ue
Lqud: deep b|ue
5o|d: vo|et-b|ack
0enslty 5|ght|y denser than ar About 1.5 tmes denser than ar. More dense
than oxygen mo|ecu|es snce t has more oxygen
atoms, therefore more mo|ecu|ar mass per
vo|ume.
Solublllty 5parng|y so|ub|e Uonsderab|y more so|ub|e than oxygen snce t s
a bent, and therefore po|ar. Po|ar mo|ecu|es can
eas|y dsso|ve n po|ar water due to ther
nteractons
Model answer: Compare the physical properties of oxygen and ozone
0xygen s a stab|e, odour|ess, co|our|ess gas, s|ght|y denser than ar wth a bo|ng pont of -193
o
U. 0zone s
an unstab|e, pa|e b|ue gas wth a pungent odour and s 1.5 tmes denser than ar wth a bo|ng pont of
--111
o
U

0ompare the propertles of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radlcal
When a datomc oxygen mo|ecu|e s sp|t by hgh energy Uv the atoms produced are represented on
the Lews dagram by:


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1hese energetc oxygen atoms have 2 unpared e|ectrons and are ca||ed free radca|s. 1he unpared
e|ectrons make the radca| very reactve, more so than datomc oxygen and ozone. 1he other four
e|ectrons of the oxygen radca| are n pars.

ldentlfy the orlglns of chlorofluorocarbons (0F0s) and halons ln the atmosphere

CFCs: Haloalkanes in which all hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluoro- and chloro- functional groups
Halons: Haloalkanes in which all hydrogen atoms are replaced by bromo-, chloro- and fluoro-functional groups

Uh|orof|uorocarbons (UIUs) are present n the atmosphere as resu|t of the use of refrgerants, ar
condtoners, aeroso| prope||ants, so|vents and p|astc manufactures. When mo|ecu|es of these
compounds are used or |eaked out, they escape nto the atmosphere and may damage the ozone
|ayer n the stratosphere.

Pa|ons were orgna||y deve|oped for fre extngushng systems. Pa|ons cause more damage to the
ozone |ayer than UIUs. Pa|ons produce bromo radca|s whch react wth ozone more rapd|y than
UIUs. In fact 20% of ozone destructon s by ha|ons

In summary:
0rgns of UIUs:
refrgerants, such as freezers, frdges, ar condtoners
aeroso| prope||ants such as nsect repe||ent sprays
5o|vents such as for c|eanng e|ectrca| crcuts and dry c|eanng
P|astc manufacturng such as b|owng agents to form po|ystyrene foams

0rgns of ha|ons:
Ire extngushng systems

ldentlfy and name examples of lsomers (excludlng geometrlcal and optlcal) of Raloalkanes up to elght carbon atoms
5teps to name ha|oa|kanes
Use prefxes for the ha|ogen group (f|uoro, ch|oro, bromo and odo)
If more than one ha|ogen atom s present, |st them n a|phabetca| order
Number the carbon wth the ha|ogen attached, gvng preference to any doub|e bond, otherwse
gvng the |owest number to the ha|ogen group.

0lscuss the problems assoclated wlth the use of 0F0s and assess the effectlveness of steps taken to allevlate these problems
Problems associated with the use of CFCs:
UIUs do not get destroyed at |ower a|ttudes by sun|ght and are nso|ub|e n water, therefore are not
washed away or precptated off. 1hey reman n the troposphere and dffuse nto the stratosphere
and when they are struck by Uv rays from sun|ght, they gve off ch|orne free radca|s and they react
wth ozone, destroyng t.
F CCl Cl F CCl
UV
2 3
+
2 3
O ClO O Cl + +
Cl O O ClO + +
2

1he destructve ch|orne s not used up durng the reacton and attacks more ozone mo|ecu|es,
contnuous|y repeatng ts process. 1herefore one UIU mo|ecu|e can do tremendous damage to our
ozone |ayer.
1he destructon of ozone decreases ozone concentraton n the troposphere, creatng an 'ozone ho|e'.
1hs a||ows harmfu| Uv rays to enter nto the |ower atmosphere and even onto earth, harmng
varous |fe forms.

Effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems:
When the ozone ho|e was dscovered n 1985, peop|e have rea|zed that ha|ogenated hydrocarbons
needed to be comp|ete|y phased out and a|ternatves found.
In 1987, the UN conventon estab|shed the Montrea| protoco|, whch tghtened the gaseous emssons
contro|. 1hs agreement was estab|shed n 1992 and t was to:
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5top usng ha|ons by the end of 1994

Uease the manufacture of UIUs by 1996
Phase out PUIUs by ear|y 21
st
century
Alternative sources:
PUIUs (hydroch|orof|uorocarbons) were the frst rep|acement for UIUs. 1he U-P bonds were susceptb|e to
attack by reactve radca|s n the troposphere and wou|d decompose, so ozone destroyng capacty s
much |ess than UIUs a|though ts ozone destroyng capacty s st|| sgnfcant. It was on|y ntended for use
as a temporary substtute.

PIUs (hydrof|uorocarbons) are now wde|y used as a rep|acement. It has no ozone destroyng capacty
snce they have no U-U| bonds that form U| atoms. It s more expensve than UIUs and |ess effcent, but
these are sma|| prces to pay for protectng the ozone |ayer.

Conclusion: It w|| take 50-100 years before a comp|ete recovery of the ozone |ayer, because there s t|| a
sgnfcant amount of UIUs n the troposphere whch w|| take a |ong tme to be dffused then destroyed.
Uovernments over many countres have mp|emented |aws to restrct UIU emssons. As we reduce
emssons of UIUs n to the troposphere, the concentraton of UIUs there w|| fa|| and so dffuson nto the
stratosphere and ozone destructon w|| decrease.

Analyse the lnformatlon avallable that lndlcates changes ln atmospherlc ozone concentratlons, descrlbe the changes observed and explaln
how thls lnformatlon was obtalned
Changes observed:
UIU-12 concentratons were |ess than 100 parts per tr||on by vo|ume when they were frst measured n
the 1960s.
etween 1975 and 1987, concentratons more than doub|ed from |ess than 200 parts per tr||on by
vo|ume to more than 400 parts per tr||on by vo|ume. 1he amount of ch|orne n the stratosphere
ncreased by a factor of 2 to 3.

5centsts be|eve that contnued bu|d up of UIUs cou|d |ead to severe ozone |oss wor|dwde. 0ngong
studes are mportant snce they provde necessary understandng of the causes of ozone dep|eton.

1he hstory of UIUs demonstrates that human actvtes can have an unexpected |ong term effect on the
envronment.

Present lnformatlon from secondary sources to wrlte the equatlons to show the reactlons lnvolvlng 0F0s and ozone to demonstrate the
removal of ozone from the atmosphere
F CCl Cl F CCl
UV
2 3
+
2 3
O ClO O Cl + +
Cl O O ClO + +
2


Present lnformatlon from secondary sources to ldentlfy alternatlve chemlcals used to replace 0F0s and evaluate the effectlveness of thelr
use as a replacement for 0F0s
UIUs have been temporar|y rep|aced wth other ha|oa|kanes such as hydroch|orof|uorocarbons PUIUs
and hydrof|uorocarbons PIUs. 1hese rep|acements are wde|y used as refrgerants and n home ar
condtoners.

PUIUs have a much |ower ozone dep|etng potenta| than UIUs snce the hydrogen enab|es PUIUs to react
wth 0P free radca|s n the troposphere. A|though some sma|| amounts of PUIUs may reach the
stratosphere, many react n the troposphere and are washed away.

PIUs have zero ozone dep|eton potenta| snce they do not contan any destructve ch|orne or bromne.
PIUs, |ke PUIUs are destroyed n the troposphere by 0P free radca|s. It s more expensve than UIUs and
|ess effcent, but these are sma|| prces to pay for protectng the ozone |ayer.

5. Puman actvty a|so mpacts on waterways. Uhemca| montorng and management assst n
provdng safe water for human use and to protect the habtats of other organsms
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ldentlfy that water quallty can be determlned by conslderlng -concentratlons of common lons; - total dlssolved sollds; - hardness; - turbldlty; -
acldlty; - dlssolved oxygen and blochemlcal oxygen demand
1he qua|ty of water can be determned by conductng a range of chemca| and nstrumenta| tests.

Concentrations of common ions:
1he concentraton of common catons n water, such as Na
+
, Mg
2+
, K
+
, and Ie
3+
can be determned by
usng atomc absorpton spectroscopy.

1he concentraton of common anons such as U|
-
, PU03
-
and 504
2-
can be determned by the use of
gravmetrc ana|yss or vo|umetrc ana|yss (ttraton). Uravmetrc ana|yss can be used to determne
quanttes of precptated catons and anons.


Total dissolved solids:
1he dsso|ved so|ds n a water samp|e are usua||y onc sa|ts. 1here are two methods whch can be used
to ana|yse dsso|ved so|ds.

1ota| dsso|ved so|ds n a water samp|e can be determned by smp|e evaporaton of a f|tered samp|e
and weghng the remanng so|ds. (5a|nty)
0r e|ectrca| conductvty meter s used to measure the tota| dsso|ved so|ds n water samp|es. 1he
greater the concentraton of dsso|ved sa|ts, the hgher the e|ectrca| conductvty.

Hardness:
1ota| hardness s a measure of the tota| concentraton of ca|cum and magnesum ons n water expressed
as equva|ent amount of dsso|ved UaU03.

1he |eve|s of ca|cum and magnesum ons n a water samp|e can be determned by ttraton wth
ethy|enedamnetetraacetc acd (L01A) and an ndcator s used. L01A forms stab|e comp|exes wth
ca|cum and magnesum ons.

Turbidity:
1urbdty s the measure of the amount of co||oda| suspended matter n the water.
1here are 2 tests whch can be used to determne water turbdty. It can be measured vsua||y by a
turbdty dsk, whch s a dsk that s |owered nto the water unt| the cross mark on t can no |onger be
seen. 1he greater the concentraton of suspended so|ds n water, the more quck|y the mark w||
dsappear.
1urbdty can a|so be measured usng gravmetrc ana|yss. 1he tota| suspended so|ds n a water samp|e
s f|tered and then weghed.

Acidity:
1he acdty of the water s measured n a pP sca|e. 1he pP of waterways can be estmated usng unversa|
ndcator so|uton or pP meters

Dissolved oxygen:
0sso|ved oxygen n water may be produced by oxygen dsso|ved from the atmosphere or oxygen produced
by photosynthess by aquatc p|ants. 0sso|ved oxygen s senstve to temperature, the presence of organc
wastes and the overa|| hea|th of the system, therefore the concentraton of dsso|ved oxygen s an
exce||ent ndcator of water qua|ty.

0sso|ved oxygen can be determned by the Wnk|er method whch s a ttraton process. Another method
to determne dsso|ved oxygen s by usng an oxygen meter, whch contans a ca|brated oxygen sensor
e|ectrode.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD):
00 s the amount of dsso|ved oxygen that aerobc organsms need to respre organc matter n the water.
Pgh 00 |eve|s are ndcators of po||uted water.

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1he 00 s determned by dvdng a samp|e of water nto 2 parts. 0ne ha|f s the 00 of the contro| samp|e
and n the other ha|f (1L), nutrents are added to t. 1he samp|e s then ncubated n the dark for 5 days at
20
0
U. 1he resdua| 00 s then measured. 1he dfference n 00 between the samp|es s the 00.
dark in days after
initial
DO DO BOD
5
=

ldentlfy factors that affect the concentratlons of a range of lons ln solutlon ln natural bodles of water such as rlvers and oceans
1he concentraton of ons n rvers and freshwater |akes vary due to many factors. 1hese factors nc|ude:
1he mnera|s present n rocks and so|, whch s transported to freshwaters through groundwater
Actvty of aquatc organsms n extractng ons from the water
Pathway from ranwater to the body of water. Pan contans sma|| amounts of ons such as
dsso|ved
2
CO ,
+
Na ,

Cl ,
2
4
SO . When ran runs off bush |and nto streams, t pcks up sma||
amounts of ntrates and phosphates from natura| nutrents
Acdty of ran and groundwater. 1he more acdc the ran s, the more t s ab|e to |each catons such
as Ua, Mg and Ie from the so| t passes by
Agrcu|tura| practces (eff|uent runoff) such as the use of fert|sers whch contan ammonum,
ntrate and phosphate ons
0scharges of waste so|utons from ndustres and mnes nto bodes of freshwater

0escrlbe and assess the effectlveness of methods used to purlfy and sanltlze mass water supplles
Methods used to sanitise mass water supplies:
1. 5creenng: 5creenng: 5creenng: 5creenng: 1he water from the dam s frst|y screened screened screened screened to remove |arge debrs.
2. Aeraton Aeraton Aeraton Aeraton: 1he screened water s then sprayed nto the ar to ncrease the oxygen |eve|s so that ron sa|t
become oxdzed and forms nso|ub|e sa|ts oxdes whch can be removed
3. I|occu|aton: I|occu|aton: I|occu|aton: I|occu|aton: 1hs step removes the co||oda| and partcu|ate mpurtes. Uhemca|s such as ron (III)
ch|orde are added to cause the mpurtes n water to thcken together and form f|ocs.
4. 5edmentaton: 5edmentaton: 5edmentaton: 5edmentaton: 1he f|ocs are then a||owed to sett|e to the bottom of the water tank and form s|udge.
5. I|traton: I|traton: I|traton: I|traton: 1he water from the sett|ng tanks s then pped to f|traton tanks and s f|tered. 1he water
at ths stage s c|ear
6. Uh|ornaton: Uh|ornaton: Uh|ornaton: Uh|ornaton: 1he f|tered water s then dsnfected wth ch|orne gas to k|| mcroorgansms such as
bactera.
7. pP ad[ustment: pP ad[ustment: pP ad[ustment: pP ad[ustment: ufferng chemca|s such as carbonates are then added to water to acheve the
requred pP, that s between 7 to 8.5
8. I|uordaton: I|uordaton: I|uordaton: I|uordaton: 5ydney water adds f|uorde to he|p prevent tooth decay

Assess Assess Assess Assessng ng ng ng the methods used to the methods used to the methods used to the methods used to santse mass water supp|es: santse mass water supp|es: santse mass water supp|es: santse mass water supp|es:
General statement: 1he effectveness of water purfcaton s a ba|ance between cost and qua|ty of the
fnshed product.

Advantages: 5ydney's screenng and f|occu|aton methods are very effectve compared to wor|d
standards. 5and f|traton removes a hgh proporton of mpurtes n water after f|occu|aton but not
extreme|y sma|| partc|es. 1he use of sand f|traton a||ows fast producton of |arge vo|umes of
treated water necessary for |arge ctes.
Iurthermore, ch|ornaton s a cost-effectve method of removng most dsease causng agents.

Disadvantages: Powever, there has been a fa|ure n mantanng effectve water purfcaton n 1998,
where water was contamnated by mcro-organsms such as Uryptospordum and Uarda. 1here can
be stuatons when sand f|traton and ch|ornaton are not adequate for removng harmfu|
organsms.
As a resu|t, water supp|es are now montored da|y at water treatment p|ants and throughout each
catchment durng storms or other events that cause a rse n stream water |eve|s and cou|d
nf|uence water qua|ty. 1he use of membrane f|ters wou|d be more effectve n removng harmfu|
mcroorgansms, however there wou|d be consderab|y ncreased costs.

Judgment of value: 1he da|y montorng of water p|ants have shown to be effectve, as the cost of
treatment of a|| water supp|es wth membrane f|ters wou|d make treatment very expensve.
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0escrlbe the deslgn and composltlon of mlcroscoplc membrane fllters and explaln how they purlfy contamlnated water
General statement:
Mcroscopc membrane f|ters are used to remove so|utes, co||oda| partc|es and mcroorgansms from
water that cannot be removed b the norma| treatment process.

Composition: A membrane f|ter s a thn f|m of synthetc po|ymer wth mcroscopc pores that are re|atve|y
unform n sze.
1he po|ymer sheets are fo|ded or wound around a centra|, rgd core to form a cartrdge that can be
rep|aced as requred. 1hs f|ter cartrdge s p|aced n a sutab|e housng mounted n the water ppe and
f|ters the water as t f|ows through t.

Function:
Impure water under pressure f|ows across the mcroscopc membrane. 1he mcroscopc pores on|y a||ow
water to f|ow through and then t f|ters out unwanted substances such as so|utes, co||oda| partc|es,
mcro-organsms (bactera) and vruses.
1he sze of the pore determnes whch szed partc|e or organsm may pass through the membrane. 1he
fner the pore sze the sma||er the partc|es trapped and the more expensve the membrane.

Another type of membrane f|ter has the porous matera| made nto ho||ow cap||ares wth an outsde
dameter of about 200 m, nsde dameter about 100 to 130 m and a pore sze of 0.2 to 0.5 m.
Ior each cap||ary, drty water f|ows from the outsde through the wa|| of the cap||ary and c|ean water
comes out of the nsde. Large numbers of such cap||ares are bund|ed together to make a f|terng unt
wth a very |arge surface area.
1o c|ean the membrane f|ters, ar s b|own from the c|ean sde to ds|odge trapped partc|es, whch are
then washed away by the drty water.

0reated by lsaac Seunglee Suh. Page l5 of l6
These notes may contain information from other sources and are not acknowledged. Please dont sue me
1o acheve the mpossb|e, one must thnk the absurd, to |ook where everyone e|se has |ooked, but to see what no one e|se
has seen.

Advantages of membrane f|ters:

1hey can f|ter out much sma||er partc|es than paper or sand f|ters
1hey f|ter out vrtua||y a|| partc|es |arger than ther specfed pore
szes
1hey are qute thn and so |quds f|ow through them far|y rapd|y
1hey are reasonab|y strong and so can wthstand pressure
dfferences across them of typca||y 2 to 5 atmospheres
1hey can be c|eaned (back-f|ushed) and reused

0sadvantage:
It s qute cost|y




0ather, process and present lnformatlon on the range and chemlstry of the tests used to -ldentlfy heavy metal pollutlon of water; -monltor
posslble eutrophlcatlon of waterways
Heavy metal test:
Peavy meta|s such as |ead, cadmum and mercury can be posonous to marne |fe and humans and so
montorng waterways s very mportant.

5mp|e technques to dentfy the presence of heavy meta|s nc|ude precptaton and f|ame testng.
1he presence of heavy meta|s can be determned by addng a sma|| amount of Na25 so|uton to an
acdfed samp|e of water. If a precptate forms, then one or more of the fo||owng meta|s are present n
so|uton: Pb
2+
, Ag
+
, Ud
2+
, Pg
2+
, As
3+
, Uu
2+
(PAUPAU).
If on|y a sma|| amount of precptate forms, make the so|uton a|ka|ne and then add Na25 so|uton. If
there s more precptate, then one of the fo||owng meta| ons are present: Mn
2+
, A|
3+
, N
2+
, Ie
3+
, Uo
2+
,
2n
2+
(MANIU2)

1hese are qua|tatve tests and on|y dentfy ther presence. 1o determne the concentraton of meta| ons
qua|tatve|y, AA5 s used.

Eutrophication of waterways:
Lutrophcaton s the ncrease n the nutrent content of a body of water, resu|tng n excess growth of
p|ant, whch when they de cause ma[or oxygen dep|eton n waterways due to ther decay. 1he oxygen
dep|eton threatens the survva| of marne |fe.
1he man factor that causes a|ga| b|oom n waterways s an ncrease n phosphate concentraton.
Phosphates, beng nutrents, can cause excessve growth of a|gae.

1ests to determne the extent of eutrophcaton of waterways nvo|ve measurements of dsso|ved oxygen
and nutrents such as ntrates and phosphates.
Most of the measurement s made wth a co|ormeter, whch measures the vsb|e |ght absorpton. Water
samp|es often consst of co|ours, whch depend upon the concentraton of ons present n so|uton. 1he
greater the amount of ons present, the deeper the co|our.
In co|ormetry, |ght of a specfc wave|ength s shone through a samp|e of so|uton and the absorpton of
|ght s measured. 1he measured absorbance can be compared wth absorbance va|ues obtaned for
so|utons of known concentraton.

0ather, process and present lnformatlon on the features of the local town water supply ln terms of -catchment area; -posslble sources of
contamlnatlon ln thls catchment; -chemlcal tests avallable to determlne levels and types of contamlnants; -physlcal and chemlcal
processes used to purlfy water; -chemlcal addltlves ln the water and the reasons for the presence of these addltlves
Catchment area:
5ydney's water supp|y catchments are made up of fve catchment systems:
Warragamba
Upper Nepean
Woronora
5hoa|haven
|ue Mantans
0reated by lsaac Seunglee Suh. Page l6 of l6
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1o acheve the mpossb|e, one must thnk the absurd, to |ook where everyone e|se has |ooked, but to see what no one e|se
has seen.

Warragamba s |ocated 60km west of 5ydney n a narrow gorge n Warragamba Pver. It s one of the
wor|d's |argest domestc supp|y dams. 1he catchment area s 9,000 square kms and de|vers water to the
Prospect water f|traton p|ant, where t purfed.

Possible sources of contamination:
5ources of contamnaton nc|ude:
actera and mcrobes from sewage p|ants, such as Uryptospordum and Uarda
Iaeca| wastes from agrcu|tura| |vestock and w|d anma|s
Iert|ser and pestcde run off
|ue green a|gae

Chemical tests used to determine contaminants:
1o test for heavy meta|s, a smp|e heavy meta| test s used, by addng a sma|| amount of Na25 so|uton to
an acdfed samp|e of water. (see dot ponts above) AA5 s used to determne quanttatve|y.

acterum such as Uryptospordum and Uarda whch sgna| the presence of sewage and faeca| matter,
are detected by a smp|e test. A samp|e of so|uton s p|aced on a nutrent bed and ncubated for 12-24
hours n whch tme, bactera grow nto co|ones vsb|e to the eye.

Physical and chemical processes used to purify water:
5ee dot pont on page 13

Chemical additives in the water:
Uh|orne s added for dsnfecton purposes: 1-2ppm to k|| bactera and vruses
I|uorne s then added (1 ppm) to strengthen tooth ename| n growng ch|dren to he|p prevent tooth decay.