1.

In 1909 Geiger and Marsden carried out an important experiment to investigate alpha particle scattering. Alpha particles were directed towards a thin gold sheet and detectors were used to observe the distribution of scattered alpha particles. State what was observed in this experiment.
Some particles pass Some flashes are seen } } straight through (or equivalent) (1) (1) (1) (3 marks)

Some are deflected slightly Some rebound (or equivalent)

Ravhe
2. 3.

Explain why these observations led to the conclusion that an atom was composed mainly of space, with very small positive nucleus.
(Repulsion) links positive particles and positive nucleus Link large proportion straight through and (1) (1) (3 marks) (1)

small proportion strongly deviated with mainly space and small nucleus

State an approximate value for (i) (ii) the diameter of a gold atom
109/1010/1011 m (1)

the diameter of a gold nucleus

1013/1014/1015 m (1) Unit penalty once (2 marks) [Total 8 marks]

Incoming particle: -particle (1) Target atoms: gold atoms (1) Conclusion about atomic structure: Most of the volume of the atom is space (1) The atom contains a small dense (relatively massive) centre Diameters: 1015 m is diameter of nucleus (1) 1011 m is diameter of atom (1) In this experiment alpha particles were scattered by thin films of metals such as gold. The experiment led to the conclusion that the atom had a positively charged nucleus of diameter approximately 1015 m and containing most of the mass of the atom
[5]

(1)

[Total 6 marks]

Ravhee

5.

Completion of table: Alpha particle scattering Alpha particles Gold foil/ gold atoms/gold nuclei Deep inelastic scattering Electrons/ neutrinos/leptons Nucleons

Incident particles Target

Gold foil /gold atoms/gold nuclei (1) Electrons/neutrinos/leptons [NOT ] (1) Description of conclusion from each experiment: Alpha particle scattering Atom is mainly space/contains small nucleus Contains a dense/massive nucleus [NOT small] [Ignore +charge] Deep inelastic scattering: Nucleons/protons/neutrons have a substructure/are not fundamental particles/can be split up (1) of quarks [only if previous mark awarded] (1) [e.g. the nucleus is made of quarks gets 2] 6. Most particles pass } Some flashes are seen } straight through (or equivalent) Some are deflected slightly Some rebound (or equivalent) (Deflection) links positive -particles and positive nucleus Link large proportion straight through and small proportion strongly deviated with mainly space and small nucleus Diameter of gold atom:109m Diameter of a gold nucleus:1015m 4
[6] [5]

3 2
[8]

7. Outline of evidence from Geigers and Marsdens scattering experiment Most alpha particles went (almost) straight through (1) Some or a few deflected at larger angles/>90/rebounded (1) A tiny minority [e.g. 1 in 8000] were deflected at angles > 90 OR rebounded (1) Suggestion No large deflections/all go (almost) straight through (1) Explanation No concentrated charge/mass OR no massive object (to hit) no dense object to hit [consequent] (1) 2
[5]

8. Table Alpha scattering Target Gold atoms/gold foil/ gold leaf/gold film/very thin sheets of gold/metal foil etc. [NOT thin gold sheet] Deep inelastic scattering Protons/neutrons/nucleons /liquid hydrogen/nuclei

2 Conclusions (i) (ii) Atom mainly empty space/nucleus is very small Nucleus dense/massive Nucleons have a substructure Made of quarks 1 1 1 1
[6]

9. Alpha particle scattering experiment Quality of written communication (1) Most alpha went straight through/deflected very little (1) A tiny minority were deflected through large angles / > 90 (1) Atom had a dense/massive nucleus (1) Most of the atom was empty space/small nucleus (1)
[5]

10. Rutherford scattering experiment Most went (nearly) straight through (1) A small proportion deflected through large angles (1) Arrows to diagram Two arrows directed away from N (1) Sketch graph Speeds equal at A and B (1) A non-zero minimum at P (1) 2 1 2

Shape of graph A to P: Force (component) against velocity so decelerates (1) P to B: Force (component) in direction of velocity so accelerates (1) Add to diagram Same initial path but deflected through larger angle (1) Observations More alpha particles deflected/ alphas deflected through larger angles/fewer pass straight through (1) 1
[9]

2 1

11. (a) (b)

Inelastic scattering Kinetic energy is not conserved / (some) kinetic energy is lost (1) Structure There are point charges/quarks/smaller particles within the (1) nucleon OR mass not uniform 1
(4 marks)

(c) (d)

Quantity conserved Momentum / energy / charge / mass (1) No information Electron was repelled (by the (outer) electron shell(s)) OR (1) captured to make an ion. 1
[4]

12

(a)

Nucleus: Nucleon: Nuclear Matter:

centre (part), of an atom proton or neutron (1) matter made of nucleons or matter found in nucleus

(1)

(1)

Solid, liquid, gas, plasma (any two)

(1)

(b)

Most stable nucleus is at top of curve so A = 55 to 70 (Must be integral)

(1) (Allow Fe most stable) (1) (1)

Proton number is about half/just less than half of A so Z = 22 to 35 Mass difference = (1) (8.00 to 8.10 MeV) 180 (1) (1)

1.6 10-13 J MeV-1 (3 108 m s-1)2 (1) (1) = 2.56 to 2.59 1027 kg (Marks are for method) (Max 7 marks)

(c)

63 = 216 (1) This is approximately 250 so volumes are in this ratio Or volume of sphere = 4r 3/3 Multiply by 250 (1)

(1) (1)

(1)

Equals volume of sphere of radius 6r approximately Approximate as there are spaces between the spheres/ spheres do not pack perfectly (1)

(1) (4 marks)

(d)
or

Nuclear matter Exists as spheres Attractive forces hold nucleons together Has density Density (almost) constant Volume nucleon number Excess energy is shared Has specific heat Exhibit thermal agitation

Water drops Exists as spheres Attractive forces hold molecules together Has density Density constant Volume mass

(1)

or or or or

(1)

Excess energy is shared Has specific heat Exhibit thermal agitation

(1)

Nucleons can be emitted Emitted particle carries only small part of energy

Molecules can evaporate

(1)

Emitted molecule carries only small part of energy (1) (Max 3 marks)

(e)

F= F=

Q1Q2 r
2

or

1 Q1Q2 F = 4 r2 o

(1) (1) 521 N (Allow 520 N)

[(55 1.6 10-19 C) (37 1.6 10-9 C)] for both Q [(9.0 109 m F1) (3.0 10-14 m)2] (1) (Maximum 2/4 for adding Q1 and Q2) (1) F =

The e.p.e. is very high

(1) (5 marks)

(f)

more than one path straight

(1) (1)

one path bent correctly (or bent > 90 if no nuclei shown)

Nuclei shown and good drawing, e.g. lines straight before and after deflection or a degree of symmetry (1) (3 marks) Electrons are attracted to nucleus not repelled by it Electrons deflected only a bit/can go through nucleus 6.6 10 2.0 10
34

(1) (1) (2 marks)

(g)

= h/p =

Js Ns (1)

(1)

18

= 3.3 10-16 m (Unit)

(2 marks)

Circles Fuzzy Circles (1)

(1)

Radial intensity curve (1) Intensity labelled (1) (Max 2 marks) [Total 32 marks]

13.

(a)

(i)

Ion pair: Charged particles Positive and negative Space charge: Region/area containing positively charged massive/slow-moving particles/ions Dead time: Period/time when GM tube is insensitive to arrival of further particles Avalanche: Electrons accelerate/gain energy causing ionisation idea of a cascade, e.g. chain reaction

(1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (5 marks) (1) (1) (1) (3 marks) (1) (1) (1) (1) (4 marks)

(ii)

(iii)

(b)

p = (101 11) 103 Pa Use of F = Ap OR Ap = (12 103 m)2 (90 103 Pa) = 41 N Difficulty: -particles easily stopped/have short range/are least penetrating so thin end windows needed but forces/pressures are high

(1) (1) (1) (Max 2 marks)

(c)

(i)

Thickness of mica = (2 102 kg m2) (2800 kg m3) = 7.14 106 m Therefore number of molecules = 7.14 106 m 8.4 109 m = 850 ionises more densely than as it has twice the charge/is slower than Therefore penetrates more/gets through thicker windows than

(1) (1) (1) (1) (Max 3 marks) (1) (1) (1) (3 marks) (1) (1) (1)

(ii)

(d)

Radial lins/parallel lines with arrows outwards marked/anode-cathode marked consistent with arrows Calculation: F = qE = 1.92 1014 N ma = F a = 2.1 1016 m s2

(3 marks)

(1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1) (1)

(4 marks)

(e)

(i)

ln(ra/rc) no units/ra rc no units/ln is number 0 l has unit F m1 m = F which is unit of capacitance

(3 marks)

(ii)

Time constant = RC = (1 105 ) (10 1012 F) = 1 106 s

(1) (1) [Total 32 marks]

(2 marks)

14.

(a)

(i)

(The particles are accelerated through a circular accelerating tube) The particles are accelerated by passing repeatedly through accelerating voltages. (1) Alternating voltages are used, so the electric field is always attractive (1) The particles travel in a circle therefore a centripetal force is needed (1) This is provided by (large) magnets, because charged particles experience a force when moving in a magnetic field (1) Because it is a circle the particles can go round many times, gaining more energy each time (1) Quality of written communication (1)

(ii)

= Bq r m r= Bq m Since is constant, r increases as increases Bq

m (i) The particles ionise hydrogen atoms Bubbles form on these ionised atoms Light shining on/reflecting from the bubbles (makes them visible) Particle 2 is charged negatively Particle 3 does not ionise/is neutral

(b)

3 3

(ii)

(iii) Mass-energy is conserved/mention of E = cm In this case the mass lost has become kinetic energy 15. (a) 2

= (u) + at

Evidence of 183/182.5 24 3600 s (1)

(1)

= (9.8/10 m s2) (value of t from above)

150 160 Mm s1 = 1.5 1.6 108 m s1

(b)

(i)

150 16- 106 m s1 [e.c.f. value of t] (1) 100 V 100 V V = 0.004 m / (1) E= d 4 mm = 2.5 104 / 25 000 V m1/N C1 OR 25 V mm1 F = QE = (1.6 1019 C) (value of E from above) [Beware Bq 0/2 e.o.p.] (1) (1)

(1)

(ii)

= 4.04 1015 N F (iii) a= (1) m Use of me = 9.1/9.11 1031 kg = 4.4 1015 m s2 (1) Max 6

(c)

(Electron gun at) high voltage/potential/p.d. (1) Relative to earth/below earth [Accept anode for earth] (1) Exerts force on/repels electrons (1) (because of large) charge/electrons on hemisphere/dome/belt (1) Drawing: Two peaks [up or down or one of each] (1) Narrow [dependent on 2 peaks] (1) About 3 div/cm apart [Award a 3 cm wide rectangle] About 1/3 div/cm wide [Apply to single peak] (1) Time base scale shown (1) (i) (ii) m is mass of disk/B/aluminium c is s.h.c. (1) (1) (1)

Max 3

(d)

(1) 4

(e)

1 volt is a joule per coulomb [owtte]/watt per ampere [Not a definition of p.d.] (1) J [hence J] NeV units are (none) C C T/MeV t/108 s /108 m/s 2/1016 m2/s2 0.25 3.85 2.18 4.76 0.50 3.28 2.56 6.56 1.00 3.03 2.77 7.68/9 [attempted]

(f)

(i)

1.50 2.92 2.88 [all correct] 8.27/8

[17]

[may be on graph] m = eV route: e.o.p. 0/2

2

[2 s.f. ok] [Table ignore units]

(ii)

Graph:

[Can be all from their data sketch OK] Sensible axes labelled plus units [axes either way] Points correctly plotted e.c.f. [ignore 0,0] (1) Graph smooth curve/best fit line if no zero (1) (iii) Comment: [No/yes] [From here only credit 2 v T graphs] 2 v T is not straight line / through zero 2 v T is straight line through zero 3 108 m s1 (g) (i) (1)

(1)

(iv) At very high T: line flattens out [owtte] / has max at Reference to c/speed of light/9 1016 m2 s2/ (1)

(1) 5

Concept of delay (1) For each must be (made) the same [Beware signals arriving at same time]

(1) Max 3
[31]

(ii) To check/confirm that T = eV/ to measure T independently [T or energy or k.e.] (1)

16.

(a)

(i) (ii)

H/p + Li 2/2He (1)

1 1p

Tracks (of alphas) are the same length/alphas travel same or equal distance (1)

and 4 He correctly labelled (1) 2 (1) 4

7 3 Li

(iii)

Mass defect = 0.01865u (1) Either Use of 1.66 1027 Use of 9.0 1016 2.79 1012 J Or Use of 930 (1) Use of 1.6 1013 (1) 2.78 1012 J (1)

Assume: proton has zero/very little k.e. (1) (b) Quality of written communication (1) p/ ionise ,gas/liquid (particle) (1) producing (a line of visible) drops/bubbles (1) Detail e.g sudden drop of temperature/pressure/condensation/boiling, or liquid H/alcohol (1) (c) Use of Fe, = kQ1Q2/r2 and Fg = Gm1m2/r2 [k = 1 / 4 0 OK] (1) Evidence of r cancelling in ratio (1) Qs as e and 3e (1) ms as m and 7m (1)

Max 4

4
[16]

17.

(a)

(i)

Protons are positively charged / like current refer to Fleming or motor rule / Rev / Bqv / perpendicular F and

1 1

[not right hand rule ] (ii)

2 r

= Be

mr2 = Be

[accept q for e ]

2r r / T t

2 / T t

1 1 1 1 1

(iii)

Quality of written communication Each time it crosses gap/between dees it accelerated / is attracted / is given E Idea that p.d. between the dees reverses while the proton completes half a revolution / c.e.p. As energy becomes large the mass/inertia of the proton increases [not protons hit edge ] E = (1.6 1019 C) (12000 V) [allow 12] r2 = 2m k.e. B2e2r = same = 1.9/1.92 x 1015 (J) [no e.c.f.] so it cannot exceed the speed of light [i.e. ref to c ]/synchronous property breaks down/formula no longer gives constant f

1 1 1

(iv)

(v)

Substitute 1.66 / 1.7 1027 kg /1860 me /2000 me and 1.6 1019 C Use of k.e. = (1.9 1015J) 850 [e.c.f. for 1.9 1015 J e.g. 2 1015J 1.7 1012J] r = 0.575 m /57.5 cm [2 10
15

1 1 1

J 0.59 m]

[9.1 10 (b) (i)

31

2 r

= T sin

kg 0.0137 m e.o.p. max 1/3]

is second law / F= ma / a : F

mg = Tcos is first law [third law ] Assumption is that is small or tan = r/l or r/l is small or tan = sin or tan = or sin = Give the pendulum bob a push which is tangential/along the direction of motion for any r or the time period is unchanged Higher speed/energy bigger radius

1 1 1 1 1 1

(ii) (iii)

[18]

18.

(a)

(i)

QOWC (1) Link track to bubbles (1) Which reflects light / are illuminated (1) (produced as) the electron / it ionises liquid / particles / (1) H2 / air Mention of Bfield/F = Bq/ F = Be/ FLHR (1) B is perpendicular to / direction of motion / in or out (1) of page Electron loses energy/slows down (1) Colliding with / interacting with / ionising liquid particles / H2 (1)

(ii)

(b)

(i) & (ii) r/m P Q R 62 67 103 43 48 103 28 33 103 r/mm 62 67 43 48 28 33 p/kg m s1 1.2 1.3 1020 0.83 0.92 1020 0.54 0.63 1020 m/kg 4.0 4.3 1029 2.8 3.1 1029 1.8 2.1 1029

Values for r in range above [ignore 10n and units] (1) p = Ber any one correct p [ignore 10n but must have (1) unit] [ecf] (1) All ps correct numerically [no ue] (1) p = m m = p/ (1) Any one correct m [ignore 10n but must have unit] EITHER Comment [e.c.f.]: any reference to 9 1031 kg/rest (1) mass (of electron) / electron mass Because electron is moving close to / at the speed of light OR (effective) mass (of electrons) is decreasing (1) reference to E = mc2 / E = c2m / massenergy (1) conservation

4
[15]

19.

(a)

Quality of written communication (1) Protons drift/move uniformly inside tubes (1) Accelerate between the tubes/in the gaps (1) Alternating p.d. reverses while p is in tube (1) The tubes must get longer as p speeds up (1) For time inside tube to be constant or to synchronise movement with the pd (1) (i) Multiply by 419 or 420 (1) Multiply by 1.6 1019 (1) m = energy (9.0 1016 m2 s2) (1) [ecf their energy or 5 1011] (1) m Correct answer to at least 2 sf (1) [5.36/5.38/5.4 1011 (J)] [no ue]

Max 5

(b)

1.01 1.66 1027kg [ecf their m] (1) 6

Correct answer (1) [0.36 or 36%] [Use of 5 1011 gives 33%] (1) [Accept routes via m in u and mp in J]

(ii)

Use of 1/f (1) time down linac = 420 3.9 108 s1 or 210 3.9 108 s1 (1) [t = 1.07/1.08/1.1 106(s) or 0.54 106 (s)]

(c)

(i)

Fixed target: Large(r) number of /more collisions or more likely to get collisions [not easier to get collisions] (1) Other particle beams produced (1) Colliding beams: More energy available for new particles (1) p = 0 so all energy available (1)

(ii)

Max 2
[15]

20.

(a)

Density = mass symbol volume OR d = m (1) Volume ratio = (10 10 ) 3 (10 15 ) 3 [Beware 10 42 10 27 ] (1)

Density of gold nucleus: 1.9 1019 kg m3 (1) Assumption: Mass nucleus = mass atom OR electrons negligible/zero mass (1) (b) Graphs: No. of particles No. of particles 3

K.E.

K.E.

[Accept narrow peak shape (1) shape [Linear

] [Accept several lines/peaks] (1)

intercept k.e. axis (1) Equation: n p + e + e (1)

only eligible for 2nd mark] 3

(1)
Composition: n (udd) p (uud) [Both] (1) Explanation: (1) Quality of written communication Decay involves down quark u quark (1) General statement about change of flavour OR type of quark means only weak/neither strong nor e/m interaction can do this (1) [No mark other than quality of language for discussion in terms of ] (c) NZ grid Sr at 38, 52 (1) Y at 39, 51 [e.c.f. Sr incorrect 1 diagonal move] (1) Rb at 37, 45 (1) Decays by + emission/positron/ (1)

Max 3

(d)

Charge on strange quark = 1/3 (1) Conservation law: Charge (1) + (+1) (0) + X/by charge conservation (1) X is neutral (1) Baryon number conservation (0) + (+1) (+1) + (0) (1) Particle X is a meson (1) OR discussion in terms of total number of q + q Composition of X is s d [0/3 if not q q ](1) Justify S quark:

2 2

= 5 OR q q = 3

This is not a weak interaction/only a weak interaction can change quark type/ this is a strong interaction/strangeness is conserved/ quark flavour cannot change (1) Justify d quark: X neutral; s 1/3; d + 1/3. [e.c.f. if s = 1/3 in first line.] For the third mark accept any q q pair that creates a meson of the charge deduced for X above. (1) 3

[The justification for both q and q can be done also by tracking individual quarks] (e) Antiparticles: e+ (positron) c (Charmed antiquark) (1)(1) [Also accept either + OR as long as it is stated that one is the antiparticle 2

of the other, i.e. NOT just + OR ] Zero charm, since quarks have equal and opposite charm OR (+1) (1) charm + (1) charm = 0 [Not equal and opposite charge]

1 1

Heavier version by c and c moving round each other/orbiting with (1) higher energy level Diagram: A B C (1) + OR OR + (1)

2 1 1 [e/m (0) but ecf Z

[32]

Interaction: strong (1) Exchange particle: gluon (1) (1)] 21. (a) Gluon Weak Electromagnetic Gravitational Gravitational circled

(b)

Marks for words in italics as shown below. Alpha scattering Target Incoming particles Provided evidence for the existence of Gold atoms Alpha particles Nuclei Deep inelastic scattering Hydrogen atoms Electrons Quarks

(c)

is a baryon [no mark] p is a baryon/need to conserve baryon number Strangeness 3 needs three quarks p is uud is sss All Ks quark-antiquark pairs K is us K+ is us K0 is ds [all right] + 2

(d)

19 8O

19 9X

+v

1 e / 1

No of electrons/ beta particles

Energy Labels (1) Hump (1) Good shape (1) Decay process has fixed/definite/one energy (1) Spread of energies (1) Means some energy has gone elsewhere (1) for energy to be conserved (1) Quality of written communication (1) (e) (i) (ii) Lots of energy needed to produce the extra mass Conservation laws: charge lepton number baryon number

Max 2

Max 4 2

(iii)

They annihilate one another giving rise to ray/ photon Energy of ray

= 2(0.00055) (930 MeV) = 1.0/1.02/1.023 MeV 22. (a) Similarity any ONE from: both nuclear decay products both have momentum by B fields

[32]

both charged/ionise/damage tissue both deflected by E fields (1) 1

[Not both particles] Differences any TWO from: fundamental, not positive, either mass >> mass [NB much greater]

a lepton, composed of hadrons is He++, is e+ or (2)

[A difference must mention BOTH particles] [If discussing spectrum shape needs given source idea] (b) Show that: Radius proportional to A1/3 [Accept (47/7)1/3] (Ratio) = (108/14)1/3 (1) Evidence of valid working leading to 2 [e.g. not r0 = 1, not 4/3r3 = 108] (1) Explanation: Quality of written communication (1) Energy per decay is constant (1) has a range of energies (1) Must be another particle to take missing energy (1)

(1)

Sketch graph: No. of

k.e. [Be generous re shape in this instance but beware inverted axes] (c) Atom is neutral (1) (1) Quark composition is uud Antiproton is (2/3) + (2/3) + (+1/3) (= 1) Explanation: As soon as it touches the container/matter (Matter and antimatter) annihilate (1) [Not cancel; not react] Completion of table: Quarks up down charm strange TOP BOTTOM Charge +2/3 1/3 (1) 2 (1) Max 4

(1)

1 [OR TRUTH & BEAUTY] [Both needed for 1 mark] (i) (ii) (iii) (d) Neutral strange meson: sd OR d s Positive charmed meson: c d OR c s (1) (1) 3

Neutral strange baryon: uss/css/uds/cds OR any of their antiparticles, e.g. u s s (1)

Conservation laws: (i) Charge: (1) + (+1) = (0) + (1) + (+1) + (0) (1) Baryon number: (0) + (+1) = (+1) + (0) + (0) + (0) (1) [So possible, no mark] (1) (ii) Charge: (+1) + (+1) = (+1) + (+1) + (+1) + (1) Baryon number: (+1) + (+1) = (+1) + (+1) + (+1) + (1) [So possible, no mark] Photon: Is a tiny packet of energy/of electromagnetic radiation Is exchange particle of e.m. interaction How virtual photons differ: Does not conserve energy (1)

(1)

(e)

Completion of table: Interaction Exchange particle(s) Photon Mass of exchange particle(s) Range of interaction INFINITE < diameter nucleus (2) (1) 3 Calculation of time: 1.1 1034 J s = 1.4 108 J t t = 8 1027 s[7.86] Estimation of range: Distance = speed time = 2.4 1018 m [2.36; 2.37] [Correct substitution] [ue] (1) (1) 2

Electromagnetic

Weak

W+

Z0

90

mproton

= 3 108 m s1 their time

(1) [e.c.f][u.e.] (1) 2

[32]

23.

(a)

Both charged

Similarity any ONE from: Both nuclear decay products

Both deflected by E fields By B fields Both ionise

Both have momentum

Both particles

Damage tissue (1)

Differences any TWO from: fundamental not

positive, either /two types , 1 type

Mass >> mass [much greater than]

(2)

is He++ is e+ or e shorter range/ greater ionising power 3

[A difference must usually mention BOTH particles] [If discussing spectrum, shape needs given source idea]

(b)

Completion of table: X-ray use Typical accelerating voltage KILOVOLT RANGE [Penalise eV once] MEGAVOLT RANGE Dependence of X-ray absorption on proton number

Diagnosis Therapy

STRONGLY / Z2 / /H O/ INDEPENDENT

(2) (2)

4 Explanation: Use rotating beam/multiple beams/filters/vary profile/rotate patient (1) so dose concentrated at particular place OR [for filter] removes low energy rays (1) But spread out over so less to surrounding tissue OR [for filter] careful comment about absorption of high E in tumour (1) [Any or all could be on a diagram] (1) [Cover healthy tissue with lead max 1/3 if fully described] (c) Show that: kg m3 (1) 1 m s = kg m2 s1

(1)

Explanation: Quality of written communication (1) 2 2 (Z2 Z1) / (Z2 + Z1) mentioned OR difference in Zs very large = 0.999 [0.9995 or 1] (1) so all/most u-sound is reflected (1) at boundary between (air in) lungs and tissue (1) none penetrates to organs behind lungs (1) Reason: Less damaging of cells/tissue OR non-ionising OR can image moving parts OR can distinguish different types of soft tissue (1) (d) Label: A = scintillator/NaI/sodium iodide/etc (1)

(1)

Max 5

1 1

Purpose of collimator: To give a sharper image/only lets through rays travelling perpendicular/on a diagram/to get rid of scattered or reflected rays (1) Is made of lead (1) Description of physical process in photomultiplier: Light releases electrons OR light converted to electrical signals [2 or 0] OR electrons accelerated/speeded up (1) by electric field/high p.d./high voltages/positive voltages (1) OR electrons collide with metal (1) releasing more electrons (1) (2)

(e)

Elution: Salt solution passing through the generator removes the tracer/Tc [Idea of a liquid washing through] (1) Equation: o 99 99m 42 Mo 43 Tc + / 1 / e / Symbols and sign (1) 99, 42, 99m, 43 added correctly Reason: Because it has a short half-life
o 1e

(1) (1)

2 1

Show that: Activity down to in 134 hours (5.6 days) (1) [Evidence of understanding of two half lives] 1 week = 168 hours > 134 hours so less than (1) [or equivalent, e.g. in days] Indication on graph: Mark by graph; 48 hours indicated somehow (1) (1)

2 1 1

Explanation of smaller peaks: Because molybdenum is decaying/activity decreasing

Why advisable to leave 1 day between elutions: To give time for the Tc to reach its next peak / enough Tc to be produced / enough daughter isotope produced (1) 24. Topic C Nuclear and Particle Physics (a) Calculation of kinetic energy m = 1.008665 u (1.007276 + 0.000549) u E = Any m value 930 (1) = 0.78 (MeV) [No e.c.f.] (1) (1)

1
[32]

Explanation Momentum proton + momentum electron = 0 OR Momentum proton is equal (and opposite) to momentum electron Mass proton >> mass electron/protons are held in nucleus (1) Graph Shape [not bell-shaped] (1) Cuts k.e. axis/nearly cuts axis [Not asymptotic] (1) (1) 2

(1) (1) 3

Scale (0) 0.78 MeV [OR 0.8/e.c.f value above] [u.e. on k.e. axis] No k.e. 0.8 MeV

Explanation Quality of written communication Energy per decay is constant (1)

(1)

Protons take no energy/all energy to electrons/ All particles should have same kinetic energy particles have a range of energies (1)

(1) (1)

so some other particle must take missing energy [Beware missing mass mass of neutrino]

(1)

Max 3

(b)

Similarly Same mass Difference Charge OR baryon number OR uud quarks uud Any two lepton pairs from the following: - + e e+ ( + ( NOT e.g. muon and antimuon/

(1)

v v Collision Particle and antiparticle annihilate/produce a burst of energy/of photons /of gamma rays (1)

ve v e v v

0R just v v

(2)

(c)

Conservation laws ++: Charge: : Baryon number: Charge:

(+2) (+1) + (+1) (1) (0) + (1)

(+1) (+1) + (0) (so possible)

(2)

1 1 Q or B conservation may be done in terms of + and per quark. 3 3 Do not give marks for just tracking quarks.] Exchange particle responsible for decay is the gluon + is uud 0 is udd

Baryon number: (+1) (+1) + (0) (so possible) (2) [If attempt is in words rather than a balanced equation then it is vital that the charge or baryon number of each particle is mentioned even if it is zero.

1 2

(d)

Hadron A hadron is a heavy particle/a baryon or a meson (both)/a particle made from quarks/a particle which feels the strong force (1) Leptons e e+, (+ (1) [Accept muons, electrons, antielectrons. Any extra particles cancels the mark] Why pions unable to decay They are the lightest hadrons Completion of sentence Longer (1) Quark composition of pion uu OR dd (1) Feynman diagram n (or udd) p (or uud)
u d u u d

1 1 1 1 1 1

(1)

or e ve ve Shows n to p with something leaving junction (1) Shows e and v e emerging from exchange particle (1) Why weak Because a d quark changes to a u quark/flavour change/v involved Label exchange particle [Regardless of validity of diagram] (1) W OR W (1) 2 1 1 e

[32]

25.

(a)

m = 8 (1.007276 + 1.008665) u 15.990527 u (1)

E = m 930 [Their m OR 0.137001 u) (1) = 127.4 MeV [130] [Answer in joule, max 2 out of 3] Binding energy per nucleon = answer above/16 [ecf joule also] = 7.9 8.1 MeV [ecf] (1) Graph Steep rise and less steep fall; starts close to 0,0 and falls no more than way to axis (1) peaking in region 25 75 (1) Positions on Graph [for full marks. must be placed on or close to drawn line] (i) (ii) (iii) O labelled at approximately 16 ( way to 50) (1) Fe labelled at peak, wherever it is (1) U labelled at just short of 250 (1) 2 1 3

Calculation of binding energy

(b)

Feynman diagram: equation for interaction

e + p e+ + n (1)

Charge conservation

(0) + (+1) (+1) + (0) [ecf their equation] (1) Type of interaction responsible for inverse beta decay Weak (1)

Justification

Change of quark type/flavour/u d OR neutrino involved [OR justify BOTH not strong AND not electromagnetic] (1) Exchange particle W OR W+ [Z or W OR all three gets 1 mark] (1) (1) Why interaction is known as inverse beta decay In (minus) decay n p + e + v e OR n p OR d quark u quark (1) 1 2

In this interaction p n OR u quark d quark (1)

[Other explanations acceptable depending on interpretation of diagram: see equation given immediately below] (c) Fundamental particle A particle which cannot be further divided/which has no parts inside it/one of the 12 particles of which all matter is made (1) [Not one which cannot decay to another particle] Circled fundamental particles in list (2) Positron and muon [If more than two circled, 1 for each extra one] Explanation Any three from: Quality of written communication (1) Mesons are composed of a q and an q (1) These have charges 2/3 and 1/3 (1) Shows all possibilities (+1, 0, 1) OR other convincing arithmetic to show max +1 (1) (d) Example of lepton Any one lepton from e , e, ,, , OR e+, v e etc [Words or symbols, or just neutrino] (1) Leptons carry no colour charge Leptons do not feel the strong force OR if they carried colour charge e would join with nuclei (1) Coloured quark combination uRuBdG / uRuGdB / uBuGdR uud (1) RBG (1) 2 1 Max 3 3

Coloured quark combinations u antigreen d green Charge: 2/3 + 1/3 = 1 possible Colour: antigreen + green = white/colourless/ colours cancel/possible d blue d u
antired antiblue

d blue Colour: antired + blue white not possible (1)

Charge: 1/3 + + 1/3 = 0 not possible (1)

Particle type A gluon is an exchange particle/boson (1) 26. Topic C Particles (a) Diagram Nano and 109 Micro Kilo Mega and 106 [Note: Spellings must be correct, i.e. NOT nono, micra, kila, killa, megga etc Upper or lower case accepted n k M ) 9 6 10 10 ) is max 2/4] (b) Binding energy Quality of written communication Energy required/ put IN to separate/break up a nucleus Into protons + neutrons OR nucleons OR in terms of energy given OUT when making a nucleus OR mass defect between nucleus and separate nucleons Graph Shape [not bell-shaped; steeper rise than fall; start near origin; fall less than half max height] Peak at around 50 [40 70] Isotopes BE/nucleon [any reference] See working out, e.g. 7.72: 7.44 [no u.e.] Hence O-16 ..I 1 [O-16 because O-17 is radioactive gets 1/3] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
[32]

(c)

Table (i) particle proton (ii) quark content uud (iii) antiparticle (iv) quark content uu ud sd (2)

du

(1)

K0

ds

K0

(2)

Shaded boxes show answers: circled terms count as one. Proton is uud antiproton or p is uud [allow p
+
0

1 or p-bar ] 1 1 1 1 1

0 Anti K0 is K [ allow K -bar] Quark composition is ud and sd

(d)

Strange quark Show that +2/3 + -1/3 + -1/3 = 0 (= charge on lambda) [allow fractional charges for products if correct] Select words Hadron meson [One correct, one incorrect gets 1/2 ; if > 2 circled, apply -1 per error] Type of particle W is exchange particle [ Accept gauge boson] Equation for decay of lambda particle p + NOT capital P OR uds uud + ud
W p +

1, 1

OR p +

Conservation laws B: +1 = +1 + 0 Q: 0 = (+1) + (-1) Explanation (Not strong because) strangeness is not conserved OR because s quark d quark/change of quark (flavour) [NOT because W/no gluon] 1 1 1

(e)

Equation
14 7

+ 1 n 146 C +1 X 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1[
[32]

14/7 and 1/0 1/1 [no e.c.f.] Hence X is H atom/H nucleus/proton/H/hydrogen Estimation of age Down to 1.9 cpm needs 3 half-lives 3 5730 17 000/17244 years/5.4 1011s Suggested problem in measuring Background count mentioned/randomness significant OR need larger mass than one gram]

27. (a)

Homogeneity

(b)

p = mass velocity (1) p units N s or kg m s1 [This alone implies above mark] (1) E unit (J) N m or kg m 2 s2 (1) c unit m s1 (1) Diagram close to line [mark by diagram] [+5 mm max] (1) Explanation of region choice Any three from: quality of written communication in decay neutron proton

4 1

so moves downwards and to right OR closer to dotted line OR more stable (1) (1) (1) Max 3

[Discussion in terms of N = Z line, max 1/3 + I QOWC] (c) Classification of particles is a baryon (1) is a baryon (1) [Allow bbm]

Charge of strange quark Show that 1 = 1/3(d) + 1/3(s) + 1/3 (s) (1) particle is neutral (1) +2/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 0 and uds OR charge conservation (1) = 0 + (1) (1) Why decay is a weak interaction An s quark changes to a u quark / change of quark flavour / type (1) Exchange particle is W (1) (1) [W+, Z, W or Z gets (1) (0)] 3 1

(d)

Label diagram e+ Z eElectron and positron IN (1) Quark and antiquark OUT (1) [Type given, must be a pair, e.g. u] Calculation of mass Any 3 from: Total energy Z = 91.2 GeV / 2 98 u 1000 930 [or 0.93] 2
o

q q

u = 1.66 1027 kg [seen] 1.6 1925 (kg) (1) (1) (1) Max 3

How mass compares with that of a proton This is approximately 100 mass proton [ecf] (1) (e) fundamental interactions Three correct (1) Fourth correct (1) (Strong, weak, electromagnetic, gravitational] Strong does not act between electrons (1) Acts upon quarks and electrons Weak, gravitational, electromagnetic (1) (1) (1) (1) ; only 2 correct (1)] (f) Identification of diagrams Left hand charged current interaction AND right hand neutral current interaction (1) Left hand W+ OR W OR W (1) Right hand Z (1) Equation n + v. + p (1) 1 Four

5 [All 3 correct

3 1
[32]

28.

(a) Experi ments (i) Deep inelastic scattering/SLAC 1969/Friedman, Taylor,Kendal (1) (ii) Rutherford (or alpha) scattering/Geiger and Marsden or Manchester 1909/1910/1911 (1) Radius Use of r = r0 r = (1.2 10
3

40 (1) m
3

15

40 =) 4.11015 (m) (1)

Density of calcium nucleus Mass = 40 1.66 1027 kg (1) Volume = 4/3 (4.1 1015 m)3 [OR 4 1.66 10 27

(1.2 10 ) 3

15 3

for first two marks] 3

Use of d = m/V to give answer (2.3 or 2.5) 1017 kg m3(1) (b) Emission - written above arrows All five correct [Allow e, 4He 2+] (1) (1) [For each error 1] [ gets 1/2] Number of alpha particles emitted Five (1) Graph Correct shape (y-axis fall) [NOT bell shaped] (1) Meets KE axis (1) Explanation of how energy spectrum led to prediction of existence of the antineutrino Quality of written communication (1) Energy per decay is constant / conservation of energy (1) have a range of energies (1)

(c)

(anti)neutrino / other particle takes missing energy (1)

(d)

Comparison between antiparticle and its particle pair Similarity: same mass as its particle pair (magnitude of charge) (1) Difference: opposite charge/baryon number/(Iepton number / spin) (1) Quark composition

d [OR anti-down etc] (1) Baryon number 1 (1) Why difficult to store antiprotons As soon as they contact protons/matter (1) they annihilate (1) Maximum possible mass 2 (1) 0.93 or equivalent [OR by using E = mc2 to 1.6 1025 kg] (1) 96 (u) OR 97 (u) (1) [48u x (1) (1)] Two reasons why interaction cannot take place Q/charge not conserved (1) B/baryon number not conserved (1) (e) Completion of table Fundamental interaction Decay (i) Decay (ii) Decay (iii) Strong Weak Electromagnetic Exchange particle Gluon W Photon / / gamma (1) (1) (1) (1)

1 1

[Ignore nuclear or ray or virtual anywhere] Fundamental interaction Gravitational [ecf] [NOT gravity] (1) 29. (a) Graph Use of

4 1
[32]

A for A 50 / use of (r/ro)3 for A 50 (1)

Repeat of this comparison, also A 50 (1)

Comparison with corresponding value [ 1 mm of r/r0 or A] (1) 3

(b)

Calculation of density of this nucleus of tin = m/ (1) Mass = 119 1.66 1027 kg (1) Volume = 4/3 (6 1015 m)3 (1) 4

= 2.2 1017 kg m3 (1) (c)

Explanation of binding energy Energy required to separate a nucleus (1) into nucleons (1) What this tells about an iron nucleus Iron is the most stable nucleus (1) Nuclear equation for decay
6 C 7 N + 1 / 1 e + Symbols [C N + ] (1) Numbers [14, 6, 14, 7, 0, 1] (1) 14 14 0 0

(d)

Antineutrino / / e (1) Estimate of age of a fossil 3 halflives (1) giving 17 000 years to 18 000 years (1) (e) Diagram Weak interaction (1) because neutrino involved OR must be charged particle (1) W on diagram on or near dotted line (1) (f) Particle X Positive (1) Is a baryon (1) Quark compositions Proton uud; neutron udd BOTH (1) Explanation and deduction of identity of X Quality of written communication (1) Strong / not weak interaction (1) One strange quark on each side / no flavour change (1) X is a proton (1)

2 1 1 1 1

(g)

Name particles Hadron: neutron or (1) Lepton: muon or neutrino or (1) Whether hadrons are fundamental particles No because more than one quark/made of quarks (1) Quark + antiquark combinations: 3 or 2 (1) [OR a discussion of fractional nature of quark charge 1/3 means 3 or 2 to make +1, 0, +2 etc] Calculation of minimum value of E Use of 1u = 930 MeV (1) Multiply by 98 (1) 45 600 (MeV) / 46 000 (MeV) (1) [OR by E = mc2 to 45 800 MeV]
[32]

30. (a)

Base units of eV (i) Reference to joule (1) Useful energy equation / units shown [e.g. mv2, mgh, mc2, Fd, not (1) QV or Pt] Algebra to J = kg m2 s2 shown (e.g. kg (m s1)2 or kg m s2 m) (1) (ii) Energy released 146 shown or used (1) m calculation [1.9415, ecf] (1) Multiply by 930 [allow E = mc2 with mass in kg] (1) 1800 MeV [no ue] (1) 3

(b)

Nuclear forces Strong (nuclear) (1) Electromagnetic (not electrostatic) (1) Nucleons or neutrons and protons for strong AND protons for (1) elcetromagnetic Within nucleus, infinite/beyond nucleus [allow inverse square law] (1) 4

(c)

(i)

NZ plot top right [above and to right of N=100 intersect with plot] (1) above plots AND + below plots (1) Both regions near [< 5 mm] stability line [ecf if swapped] (1) 3

(ii)

Central region Quality of written communication (1) Region of stability / nuclei do not decay in stable region (1) Nuclei decay to / move to this region (1) 3

(d)

(i)

Decay numbers
1 1p 0 + 1

and and

1 0n

0 0

(1) (1) 2

(ii)

Tick the boxes Proton: baryon and hadron only (1) neutron: baryon and hadron only (1) +: lepton and antimatter only (1) : lepton only (1) [only penalise once for including meson] [if both baryon correct but no hadrons 1 mark out of 2 and vice versa] 4

(e)

(i)

Conservation laws B: 1 = 1 + 0 (1) Q: 1 = 1 + 0 (1) Diagram First u and W (1) d and (1) proton / H+ / hydrogen nucleus / + [mark is dependent on seeing (1) uud on X in diagram] W particle Exchange particle (1) Change in quark flavour / strangeness not conserved (1) Charge conservation requires negative particle (1) + decay 3. due to charge conservation (1) 1
[32]

(ii) (iii)

2 1

(iv) (v) (vi)

1 2

31. (a)

Neutron Capture Equation 238 U+ 1 n 239 U (1) (1) Beta minus decay 0 + v 239 U 239 Np +
92 0 92 92 93 1

U Np + (1)

Hence all six numbers correct (1) antineutrino (1) (b) (i) Binding energy per nucleon graph Nucleon number / mass number (1) (1) Nuclei on graph H at start of curve (< 3 MeV), Fe at peak of curve (at 56), U at end of curve (at 235) [to 1mm] any two (1) all three (1) (iii) Fe (ecf) (1) 3 3

(ii)

(iv)

Binding energy of U 7.5/7.6(ecf) (1) 235 (1) 1.8 (GeV) [allow 1.76 1.80, no e.c.f] (1) 3

(c)

Positronium charge and mass neutral / zero (1) charges of + 1 AND 1 cancel (1) Electron and positron are antimatter versions of each other (1) Antimatter interaction Annihilation (1) / energy /photon (1) Possible interactions Quality of written communication (1) Electromagnetic force affects charged particles hence yes (1) Weak force affects all particles C hence yes (1) Gravitational force negligible / affects masses hence yes OR strong (1) force affects quarks / hadrons only hence no Similarities and differences Any two from: Made of matter and antimatter / short lifetime / unstable / neutral charge [not made of fundamental particles] Lepton vs. quarks / different mass / meson affected by strong force (1) 2 3 4 2 2 1

(d)

Conservation laws Baryon (1) 1 (1) Q: (1) + (+1) = (0) + (+1) + (X) (1) B: (0) + (+1) = (0) + (0) + (X) (1) Quark content uud (1)
us (1)

Particle X Quark equation ( su + uud d s + us + X) [allow ecf] (1) Correct cancelling of quark flavours (1) sss [sss alone scores 3/3] (1) 3
[32]

32. (a)

Energy spectrum graph (i) Number of / particles (1) Kinetic energy [accept k.e.] (1) MeV (1) Antineutrino evidence (ii) Quality of written communication (1) 0.78 = maximum energy / E of reaction (1) Expect single energy for / energy conservation (1) (Anti)neutrino / other particle takes away missing energy (1) n = udd and p = uud (1)

decay equations (i) and v have no quarks / are leptons / are fundamental (1) p n (1) + and [on RHS, allow e+] (1) (b) Weak interaction (iii) Change of quark flavour / type (1) d u (in ) AND u d (in +) [accept vice versa] (1) (anti) neutrino only affected by weak interaction (1) = W (1) + = W+ (1) [just Ws, or W W+ swapped gets (1) (0)] (c) Nuclear density (i) use of = m V (1) 4 (5.34 10 15 m) 3 / 6.38 10 43 (m 3 ) (1) 3 1.46 1025 kg (1) 1.46 1025 kg 1.66 1027 kg [ecf] [or 88 1.66 1027 kg] (1) hence 87.99 / 88 [accept integer 88] [or hence 1.46 1025 kg] (1) r = r0 A [sen or implied by substitution, or 4 r3 route ] (1) 3 1 5.34 1015 m 88 3 [must be shown] (1) 1.2 1015m (1)
1 3

(ii)

3 2

(iv)

Nucleon number and radius

(ii)

(iii)

(d)

Hydrogen baryon and hadron (1) lepton (1) Antihydrogen (i) (ii) Antiproton [or antiup quark, antidown quark] and positron (1) p = 1 and e+ = +1 [accept correct u , d charges for p ] (1)
u u d (e+ fundamental / no quarks) [ecf from (b), credit if in (i)] (1)

2 1

(e)

2 (iii) 1

zero /

neutral (1) Antimatter storage

(iv)

Annihilates (1) (On contact) with matter / container / protons / H OR Not charged: not affected by magnetic fields (1)

2
[32]