Types of bone tissue Bone cells are called osteocytes, and the matrix of the bone is made of calcium

salts and collagen. The calcium salts give bones the strength for its supportive and protective functions. The function of osteocytes is to regulate the amount of calcium that is deposited in or removed from the bone matrix. Bone is an organ, it has its own blood supply and is made up of two types of tissue; compact and spongy bone. There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two types of differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue. Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon consists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone. Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress changes.

Types of the bones The 3-month-old fetus has an early skeleton-like framework composed of cartilage and connective tissue membrane. As the fetus matures, the cartilage and connective tissue change into bone. the formation of bones is called ossification. Ossification occurs in different ways in flat and long bones. Ossification of flat bones Bones come in many shapes and sizes, from the pea sized bones in the wrist to the 24 inch long femur in the thigh. The size and shape of the bone reflects its function. Long bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide. They are found in the arms and legs. Short bones. Short bones are shaped like cubes and are found primarily in the wrist and ankles. Flat bones. Flat bones are thin, flat, and curved. They form the ribs, breastbone, and skull. Irregular bones. Irregular bones are different shaped and are not classified as long, short, or flat. They include the hip bones, vertebrae, and various bones in the skull. Sesamoid bones. Sesamoid bones are small round bony masses embedded in certain tendons that may be subjected to compression and tension. The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, which is embedded in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris at the knee. Short, flat, and irregular bones are all made of spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Red bone marrow is found within the spongy bone.

The joint surfaces of bones are covered with articular cartilage, which provides a smooth surface. Covering the rest of the bone is the periosteum. Anatomy of a long bone The 3-month-old fetus has an early skeleton-like framework composed of cartilage and connective tissue membrane. As the fetus matures, the cartilage and connective tissue change into bone. the formation of bones is called ossification. Ossification occurs in different ways in flat and long bones. Ossification of flat bones In the fetus, the flat bones consist of a thin connective tissue membrane. Ossification begins when osteoblasts or bone forming cells, migrate to the region of the flat bones. The osteoblasts secrete calcium and other minerals into the spaces between the thin connective tissue membranes thereby forming bone. This type of ossification involves replacement of thin membrane with bone. Ossification of long bones Ossification of long bones occurs as bone tissue replaces cartilage. The fetal skeleton is comprised largely of cartilage, and the layout of the cartilage in the fetus provides a model for bone formation. As the baby matures, osteoblasts invade the cartilage and gradually replace the cartilage with bone. This process continues in each long bone until all but the articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plate have been replaced by bone. By the time the fetus has fully matured, most cartilage of the body has been replaced by bone. Only isolated pieces of cartilage such as the bridge of the nose and the parts of the ribs, remain. Intramembranous ossification Is one of two types of bone formation and is process responsible for the development of flat bones, especially those found in the skull. Unlike endochondral ossification, cartilage is not involved or present in this process The first step in the process is the formation of bone spicules which eventually fuse with each other and become trabeculae. The periosteum is formed and bone growth continues at the surface of trabeculae. Much like spicules, the increasing growth of trabeculae result in interconnection and this network is called woven bone. Eventually, woven bone is replaced by lamellar bone. Formation of bone spicules Embryologic mesenchymal cells (MSC) condense into layers of vascularized primitive connective tissue. Certain mesenchymal cells group together, usually near or around blood vessels, and differentiate into osteogenic cells which deposit bone matrix constitutively. These aggregates of bony matrix are called bone spicules. Separate mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which line up along the surface of the spicule and secrete more osteoid, which increases the size of the spicule.

Formation of woven bone As the spicules continue to grow, they fuse with adjacent spicules and this results in the formation of trabeculae. When osteoblasts become trapped in the matrix they secrete, they differentiate into osteocytes. Osteoblasts continue to line up on the surface which increases the size. As growth continues, trabeculae become interconnected and woven bone is formed. The term primary spongiosa is also used to refer to the initial trabecular network. Primary centre of ossification The periosteum is formed around the trabeculae by differentiating mesenchymal cells. The primary centre of ossification is the area where bone growth occurs between the periosteum and the bone. Osteogenic cells that originate from the periosteum increase appositional growth and a bone collar is formed. The bone collar is eventually mineralized and lamellar bone is formed. Formation of osteon Osteons are units or principal structures of compact bone. Durinng the formation of bone spicules, cytoplasmic processes from osteoblasts interconnect. This becomes the canaliculi of osteons. Since bone spicules tend to form around blood vessels, the perivascular space is greatly reduced as the bone continues to grow. When replacement to compact bone occurs, this blood vessel becomes the central canal of the osteon. Endochondral ossification is one of two types of bone formation and is the process responsible for much of the bone growth in vertebrate skeletons, especially in long bones. As the name might suggest (endo - within, chondro - root for cartilage), endochondral ossification occurs by replacement of hyaline cartilage. Primary centre of ossification The first site of ossification occurs in the primary centre of ossification, which is in the middle of diaphysis (shaft). The following steps then occur: Formation of periosteum: Once vascularized, the perichondrium becomes the periosteum. The periosteum contains a layer of undifferentiated cells which later become osteoblasts. Formation of bone collar: The osteoblast secretes osteoid against the shaft of the cartilage model. This serves as support for the new bone. Calcification of matrix: Chondrocytes in the primary centre of ossification begin to grow (hypertrophy). They stop secreting collagen and other proteoglycans and begin secreting alkaline phosphatase, an enzyme essential for mineral deposition. Nutrients can no longer diffuse if the matrix becomes sufficiently calcified and the chondrocytes subsequently die. This creates cavities within the bone. Invasion of periosteal bud: A periosteal bud, which consist of blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves, invades the cavity left by the chondrocytes. The vascularization

utlimately carries hemopoietic cells, osteoblasts and osteoclasts inside the cavity. The hemopoietic cells will later form the bone marrow. Formation of trabeculae: Osteoblasts use the calcified matrix as a scaffold and begin to secrete osteoid, which forms the bone trabecula. Osteoclasts break down spongy bone to form the medullary (bone marrow) cavity. Secondary centre of ossification Cartilage is retained in the epiphyseal plate, located between the diaphysis (shaft) and the epiphysis (end) of the bone. These areas of cartilage are known as secondary centres of ossification. Cartilage cells undergo the same transformation as above. As growth progresses, the proliferation of cartilage cells in the epiphyseal plate slows and eventually stops. The continuous replacement of cartilage by bone results in the obliteration of the epiphyseal plate, termed the closure of the epiphysis. Only articular cartilage remains. Appositional bone growth The growth in diameter of bones around the diaphysis occurs by deposition of bone beneath the periosteum. Osteoclasts in the interior cavity continue to degrade bone until its ultimate thickness is achieved, at which point the rate of formation on the outside and degradation from the inside is constant. Histology Part of a longitudinal section of the developing femur of a rabbit. a. Flattened cartilage cells. b. Enlarged cartilage cells. c, d. Newly formed bone. e. Osteoblasts. f. Giant cells or osteoclasts. g, h. Shrunken cartilage cells. (From "Atlas of Histology," Klein and Noble Smith.)During endochondrol ossification, four distinct zones can be seen at the lightmicroscope level. Zone of resting cartilage. This zone contains normal, resting hyaline cartilage. Zone of proliferation. In this zone, chondrocytes undergo rapid mitosis, forming dinstinctive looking stacks. Zone of maturation / hypertrophy. It is during this zone that the chondrocytes undergo hypertrophy (become enlarged). Chondrocytes contain large amounts of glycogen and begin to secrete alkaline phosphatase. Zone of calcification. In this zone, chondrocytes are either dying or dead, leaving cavities that will later become invaded by bone-forming cells. Maturation from infancy to adulthood is characterized by two types of bone growth. Bones grow longitudinally and determine the height of an individual. Bones also grow thicker and become wider so as to support the weight of the adult body. Growing taller

Longitudinal bone growth occurs at the epiphyseal plate or growth plate. Longitudinal bone growth ceases when the growth plate becomes ossified or hardened. This plate or disc is sensitive to the effects of certain hormones, especially growth hormone and sex hormones. GH stimulates growth at the plate, making the child taller. The sex hormones estrogen and testosterone, however, cause the plate to seal or fuse, thereby inhibiting further longitudinal growth. The growth plates or epiphyseal plates are generally more sensitive to the effects of estrogen than to those of testosterone. During puberty in the female, the rising levels of estrogen seal the epiphyseal plate earlier than testosterone does in males. The effects of the male hormone, testosterone, are felt at a later stage. Thus, females stop growing earlier than males do. Because the epiphyseal disc or plate plays such a crucial role in longitudinal bone growth, injury to the plate can severely retard bone growth. A child who injures the plate in a tibia, for instance, may end up with that leg considerably shorter than the non-injured leg. The surface of bone appears irregular and bumpy. This appearance is due to numerous ridges, projections, depressions, and grooves called bone markings. The projecting bone marking serves as points of attachment for muscles, tendon, and ligaments. The grooves and depressions form the routes traveled by blood vessels and nerves as they pass over and through the bones and joints. The projections and depressions also help to form joints. The head of the upper arm bone, for instance, fits into a depression in a shoulder bone, forming the shoulder joint. Please refer to handout.