4. DESCRIBE ANGULAR MEASUREMENT OF A SINE WAVE.

4.1 The Sine Wave Many a time, alternating voltages and currents are representing by a sinusoidal wave, or simply a sinusoid. It is a very common type of alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage. The sinusoidal wave is generally referred to as a sine wave. Basically an alternating voltage (current) waveform is defined as the voltage (current) that fluctuates with time periodically, with change in polarity and direction. In general, the sine wave is more useful the other waveforms, like pulse, saw tooth, square, etc. There are a number of reasons for this. One of the reasons is that if we take any second order system, the responds of this system is a sinusoid. Secondly, any periodic waveform can be written in terms of sinusoidal function according to Fourier theorem. Another reason is that its derivatives and integrals are also sinusoids. A sinusoidal function is easy to analyse. Lastly, the sinusoidal function is easy to generate, and it is more useful in the power industry. The shape of a sinusoidal waveform is shown in Fig 4.1.

The waveform may be either a current waveform, or a voltage waveform. As seen from the Fig 4.1, the wave changes its magnitude and direction with time. If we start at time that is three cycles per second. The relation between time period and frequency is given by.

f= A sine wave with a longer period consist of fewer cycles than one with a shorter

EXAMPLE 4.1 What is the period of sine wave shown in Fig . 4.5?

Solution:- From Fig 4.5, it can be seen the sine wave takes two seconds to complete one period in each cycle. T=2 s

EXAMPLE 4.2 The period of a sine wave is 20 milliseconds. What is the frequency.

Solution = = 50 Hz

EXAMPLE 4.3 The frequency of a sine wave is 30 Hz. What is its period.

Solution

T= = = 0.03333 s

= 33.33 ms

4.2 Angular Relation Of A Sine Wave

A sine wave can be measured along the X-axis on a time base which is frequency dependent. A sine wave can also be expressed in terms of an angular measurement. This angular measurement is expressed in degrees or radians. A radian is defined as the angular distance measured along the circumference of a circle which is equal to the radius of the circle. One radian is equal to 57.3. In a 60 revolution, there are 2 the angular measurement of a sine wave is based on 360 or 2 radians for a complete cycle as shown in Figs. 4.6 (a) and (b).

A sine wave completes a half cycles in 180 or radians; a quarter cycle in 90 or /2 radians, and so on.

4.3 Phase Of A Sine Wave

The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that specifies the position of the sine wave relative to a reference. The wave shown in Fig. 4.7 taken as the reference wave. When the sine wave is shifted left or right with reference to the wave shown in Fig,. 4.7, there occurs a phase shift. Figure 4.8 shows the phase shifts of a sine wave. In figure 4.8(a), the sine wave is shifted to the right by 80(/2 radians) shown by the dotted lines. There is phase angle of 90 between A and B. Here the waveform B is lagging behind A by 90. In other word the sine wave A is bleeding the wave form by 90. In figure 4.8 (b) the sine wave A is lagging behind the wave form B by 90. In both cases phase different is 90.

EXAMPLE 4.4 What the phase angle between the 2 sine waves has shown in Figure 4.9 (a) and (b)? Solution:- in figure 4.9 (a) sine wave A is in phase with the references; sine wave B is out of phase, lags behind the references 45. So we say that sine wave B lags behind sine wave A by 45.

In Figure 4.9(b), sine wave A leads the references wave 90; sine wave B lags behind the references wave by 30. So phase different between A and B is 120. Which means that sine wave B lags behind sine wave A by 120? In other word, sine wave A leads sine wave B 120

4.3 The Sine Wave Equation

A sine wave is graphically represents shown in Figure 4.10(a). The amplitude of a sine wave is represented on vertical axis. The angular measurement (in degree or radians) is represented on horizontal axis. Amplitude A is the maximum value of voltage or current on the Y-axis.

In general, the sine wave is represented by a equation

( )

The above equation states that any point on the sine wave represented by an instantaneous value ( ) is equal to the maximum value times the sine of the angular frequency at that point. For example, if a certain sine wave voltage has peak value of 20 V, the instantaneous voltage at a point /4 radians along the horizontal axis can be calculated as

( ) =20 sin ( )

When a sine wave is shifted to the left of the reference wave by a certain angle , as shown in Fig, 4.10(b), the general expression can be written as

( )

When a sine wave is shifted to the right of the reference wave by a certain angle , as shown in Fig.4.10(c), the general expression is

( )

EXAMPLE 4.5 Determine the instantaneous value at the 90 point on the X-axis for each sine wave shown in Fig 4.11.

Solution - From Fig 4.11, the equation for the sine wave A ( )

The value at /2 in this wave is ( ) The equation for the sine wave B = 10 V

( ) t = /2 ( )

= 8 sin 45 = 8 (0.707) = 5.66 V

4.4 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF A SINE WAVE

As the magnitude of the waveform is not constant, the waveform can be measured in different ways. These are instantaneous, peak, peak to peak, root mean square (rms) and average values. t = 0, the wave goes to a maximum value and returns to zero, and then decrease to a negative maximum value before returning to zero. The sine wave changes with time in an orderly manner. During the positive portion of voltage, the current flows in one direction; and during the negative portion of voltage, the current flows in the opposite direction. The complete positive and negative portion of the wave is one cycle of the sine wave. Time is designated by t. The time taken for any wave to complete one full cycle called the period (T). In general, any periodic wave constitutes a number of such cycles. For example, one cycle of a sine wave repeats a number of times as shown in Fig 4.2. ( ) for any t. Mathematically it can be represented as ( )

The period can be measured in the following different ways (See Fig 4.3). 1) 2) 3) From zero crossing of one cycle to zero crossing of the next cycle. From positive peak of one cycle to positive peak of the next cycle, and From negative peak of one cycle to negative peak of the next cycle.

The frequency of a wave is defined as the number of cycles that a wave completes in one second.

In Fig.4.4 the sine wave completes three cycles to one second. Frequency is measured in hertz. One hertz is equivalent to one cycle per second; 60 hertz is 60 cycles per second and so on. In Fig 4.4, the frequency denoted by f is 3 Hz.

REFFERENCES:a)