Module 1 : Introduction : Review of Basic Concepts in Mechanics Lecture 1 : Introduction

1.1Introduction Structural Mechanics can be briefly described as the study of the behaviour of structures using the knowledge of mechanics. Such a description needs some understanding of the terms structure and mechanics. Structures include a wide variety of systems, such as buildings, bridges, dams, aircrafts, etc., that are built to serve some specific human needs (for example, habitation, transportation, storage, etc.). Students of Structural Mechanics should already have some basic knowledge of mechanics through the prerequisite courses of Engineering Mechanics (or Rigid-body Mechanics or Vector Mechanics) and Solid Mechanics (Mechanics of Deformable Solids or Mechanics of Materials). In Structural Mechanics, we apply our knowledge of the mechanics of rigid bodies and of deformable solids to the understanding of the behaviour of engineered structures. In Structural Mechanics, we mostly deal with mechanics of solids (i.e. deformable bodies). However, here we move on from studying the behaviour of structural members/materials (as in a course of Solid Mechanics) to studying the behaviour of real structures, or parts thereof. For example, instead of dealing with a beam or a column, we study how a building frame (Figure 1.1), composed of several beams and columns, behaves. In a similar way, we first learn about the loads that are applied to the whole structure, and not to individual members. Our knowledge of Structural Mechanics enables us to find the forces that act on individual members based on the loads that are acting on the whole structure. Stresses, strains, internal forces and deformations in members, then, can be obtained by using what we have already learned about the behaviour of deformable solids.

Fig. 1.1 Frame in a building Contents of this course of Structural Mechanics will focus on Civil Engineering structures only. Such structures are classified into various categories depending on the system/mode of classification: (a) On the basis of its intended function/usage: Buildings, bridges, dams, industrial sheds, cable ways, chimneys, etc. (Figure 1.2) (b) On the basis of its form/load transfer mechanism: Beams, columns, floor slabs, arches, shells, trusses, frames,footings, etc. (Figure 1.3) (c) Considering the analysis perspective: 2-dimensional, 3-dimensional, determinate, indeterminate, etc. (Figure 1.4)

Module 1 : Introduction : Review of Basic Concepts in Mechanics Lecture 1 : Introduction

Objectives In this course you will learn the following Introduction to structural mechanics, with respect to previous courses of engineering. Solid mechnics; scope of structural mechanics, example of different structure types and load types.

(a) Building

(b) Bridge

(c) Dams

(d) Industrial sheds

(e) Cable ways Figure 1.2 Various types of structures

(f) Chimneys

(a) Building frame

(b) Arched Bridge

(c) Trussed Bridge

Figure 1.3 Various structural forms

(a) 2-dimensional structure

(b) 3-dimensional structure

Figure 1.4 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional model of structures

Similarly loads are also put into different categories, based on various criteria: a(a) Based on the source/origin: Wind load, earthquake load, self weight, live load, blast load, temperature stress, etc. a(b) Based on the direction of action: Gravity loads, lateral loads, etc. (Figure 1.5) a(c) Based on time-variation: Static, dynamic, impulse, pseudo-static, etc. a(d) Based on the mode of action/analysis point-of-view: Concentrated or point load, distributed load, moment, pressure,aaaaetc. (Figure 1.6).

aaaa(a) Lateral loads

aaaa(b) Gravity loads

Figure 1.5 Load types based on direction of action

(a) Concentrated or point loads on a simply supported beam

(b) Distributed loads on a simply supported beam

(c) Pressure acting on inner surface of a cylinder Figure 1.6 Load types based on analysis point of view

Recap In this course you have learnt the following Introduction to structural mechanics, with respect to previous courses of engineering.

Solid mechnics; scope of structural mechanics, example of different structure types and load types.

Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 1. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side menu of the page

Lecture 2 : Equilibrium

Objectives In this course you will learn the following Review of the concepts of equilibrium. Static equilibrium equations in 3-D and 2-D. Concept of free body diagrams.

1.2 Equilibrium The concept of equilibrium is the most central one in the subject of Statics. When the net effect or the resultant of all the forces (and couples) acting on a system is zero, the system is said to be in equilibrium. Thus, based on the resultant of all the forces R , and the resultant of all the moments (couples) M , the vector equations of equilibrium are (1.1) The two vector equations of equilibrium can be expressed alternatively as scalar equations of equilibrium for a system of forces in 3 dimensions ( x , y & z ), as (1.2)

(1.3) Here, represents the algebraic summation of components of all the forces in x-direction. This summation is same as the resultant (net effect) of all the forces in x-direction. This set of six equilibrium equations can be narrowed down to three scalar equations in case of a planer force system (forces acting in two dimensions only) (1.4) Figures 1.7 & 1.8 illustrate how resultants are obtained for a two-dimensional (planer) force system.

Figure. 1.7 Obtaining resultants for a truss

Figure 1.8 Obtaining resultants for a cantilever system

These equations provide the necessary and sufficient forces to keep a system in equilibrium. The omission of a force that is acting on a system or the inclusion of a force that is not acting on the system produces erroneous results in analyzing the behaviour of the system. Hence, it is of utmost importance to understand exactly what the mechanical system under consideration is and the forces that are acting on the specific system. A system is a body or a combination of connected bodies. The bodies can be either rigid or deformable (even fluids can be treated as body). For Structural Mechanics, we will restrict ourselves to the study of rigid and deformable solids only. For the important task of identifying the forces (and couples) acting on a system, we take the help of Free Body Diagrams. Thus, drawing a free body diagram becomes the first and foremost task in solution of problems in mechanics. The free body diagram of a body (or its part, or a connected system of bodies) is obtained by isolating it from the all othersurrounding bodies. The diagram detaches the system in consideration from all mechanical contacts with other bodies and sets it free . The other bodies are not shown in the diagram, but they are replaced by the forces (and couples) that they apply on the system for which we are drawing a free body diagram. The following examples show how to obtain the free body diagram for a system and also the equilibrium equations for the same system.

Recap In this course you have learnt the following Review of the concepts of equilibrium. Static equilibrium equations in 3-D and 2-D.

Concept of free body diagrams.

Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 2. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side menu of the page

Lecture 3 : Constitutive Relations and Compatibility Conditions

Objectives In this course you will learn the following Review of the concept of constitutive relations. Stress-strain diagrams. Definitionof prameters related to material properties : - Modulus of elasticity, poison's ratio, shear modulus etc. Hooke's law. Stress and strain tensors. Review of the concepts of compatibility conditions; Interpretation as boundary conditions.

1.3 Constitutive Relations Equilibrium equations help us obtain the forces that are acting, both internally and externally, at various parts of a body. However, for deformable solid bodies, understanding their deformation behaviour under the given stress/loading condition (based on the equilibrium) is of primary importance. The deformation behaviour in such a system is studied through various parameters, such as strain, displacement, rotation, etc. These deformation parameters are obtained based on the stress-strain relations of the material which the deformable solid is made of. These are known as Constitutive Relations and are material-specific. The stress-strain diagram for ductile steel (Figure 1.9) based on a tension test is an example of constitutive relations. It gives us a relation between the engineering (tensile) stress ( ) and engineering (tensile) strain ( ) for ductile steel at different stress (or strain) values.

Figure 1.9 Stress-strain diagram for ductile steel

Similar stress-strain diagram can be obtained (through experiments) for different materials (aluminium, wood, tool steel, concrete, etc.) and for different types of deformation (uniaxial tensile and compressive, shear, transverse, dilatational, etc.). For the ease of use, these relations are idealized into simple mathematical rules. In Structural Mechanics, we will limit ourselves to linear elastic isotropic homogeneous materials only. A material is called linear elastic if its stress-strain relation is linear and if when the material is unloaded it traces back the same stress-strain (loading) path. In other words, stress is a single-valued linear function of strain. The behaviour of ductile steel from point O to A (Figure 1.9) is a linear elastic one. A material will be isotropic if its constitutive relations are non-directional (same for any direction in space, x , y or z ) and it will be homogeneous if it displays the same properties (e.g. a constitutive relation) at any point of the system (same properties at [ ] and [ ]). Some basic constitutive relations for a linear elastic isotropic homogeneous material are briefly discussed in the following sections.

1.3.1 Modulus of Elasticity Hooke's Law provides us the relation for uniaxial stress (1.5) The constant of proportionality is called the elastic modulus , modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus . Since dimensionless the unit of E is same as that of uniaxial stress (e.g. 1.3.2 Poison's Ratio Uniaxial forces case strains not only in its direction, but also in the transverse/lateral directions. For a tensile strain in the axial direction, there will always be compressive strains in the lateral directions, and vice versa. Poisson's Ratio ( ) relates the lateral strains to the axial strain (1.6) Note that this ratio is always a dimensionless positive number. 1.3.3 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion Linear thermal strain ( ) due to change in temperature ( ) is obtained by using this coefficient ( ) (1.7) has units of per degrees Centigrade (or Fahrenheit) 1.3.4 Shear Modulus For shear stress ( strain. ) and shear strain ( ), we have a constitutive relation similar to the Hooke's Law for linear stress and ). is

(1.8) The constant of proportionality ( G ) is known as the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity . It has same units as modulus of elasticity ( E ). It can be proved that: (1.9)

1.3.5 Dilatation and Bulk Modulus Dilatation ( e ) is defined as the change of volume per unit volume (1.10) If a three-dimensional body is subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure p , then the ratio of this (compressive) pressure to the dilatation is known as the bulk modulus ( k ) (1.11) k is also called the modulus of compression .

1.3.6Generalized Hooke's Law This is an extension of the Hooke's Law to three dimensions considering both linear and shears deformations. It is based on the generalized definitions of strain. As for the Hooke's Law for linear strain/deformation, the equations for Generalized Hooke's Law are applicable for linear elastic isotropic homogeneous materials only. The 6 equations for linear and shear strains are: (1.12a) (1.12b)

(1.12c)

(1.12d)

(1.12e)

(1.12f) which can also be expressed alternatively as expressions for stress: (1.13a) (1.13b)

(1.13c)

(1.13d) (1.13e) (1.13f)

where

and

are the Lame parameters which are related to the Young's modulus E and Poisson's ratio

: (1.14)

These equations can also be expressed as relation between the stress and strain tensors

Stress tensor

Strain tensor

Note that, in a strain tensor, the shear strain (e.g. 1.4Compatibility Conditions

) is replaced by the pure or irrotational shear strain (

).

Compatibility conditions represent restriction on deformations at specific locations in a system. The location can be both inside the system and at its boundary. The deformations in a system have to be compatible with the geometry of the surrounding (both external and internal), and this compatibility is assured through these conditions. In other words, compatibility conditions specify that deformations in a member/part of a system have to be compatible with the support conditions (external), as well as with other members/parts of the system (internal). For example, in the case of bar ABC in (Figure 1.10), various compatibility conditions on horizontal displacements are:

Figure. 1.10 Axially loaded bar ABC

(1.15) (1.16) (1.17)

Where

is the deflection of bar AB at point B.

The deformation behaviour of a structural element is usually expressed through differential equations and the associated compatibility conditions are represented as boundary conditions for those equations.

Recap In this course you have learnt the following Review of the concept of constitutive relations. Stress-strain diagrams. Definitionof prameters related to material properties : - Modulus of elasticity, poison's ratio, shear modulus etc. Hooke's law. Stress and strain tensors. Review of the concepts of compativility conditions; Interpretation as boundary conditions.

Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 3. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side menu of the page

Lecture 4 : Static Indeterminacy of Structures

Objectives In this course you will learn the following Review of the concepts of determinate and indeterminate structures. Unstable systems. Degree of static indeterminacy : - External and internal.

1.5 Static Indeterminacy of Structures If the number of independent static equilibrium equations (refer to Section 1.2) is not sufficient for solving for all the external and internal forces (support reactions and member forces, respectively) in a system, then the system is said to be statically indeterminate . A statically determinate system, as against an indeterminate one, is that for which one can obtain all the support reactions and internal member forces using only the static equilibrium equations. For example, for the system in Figure 1.10, idealized as one-dimensional, the number of independent static equilibrium equations is just 1 ( ),

while the total number of unknown support reactions are 2 ( ), that is more than the number of equilibrium equations available. Therefore, the system is considered statically indeterminate. The following figures illustrate some example of statically determinate (Figures 1.11a-c) and indeterminate structures (Figures 1.12a-c).

Figure 1.11 Statically determinate structures

Figure 1.12 Statically indeterminate structures

In Section 1.2, the equilibrium equations are described as the necessary and sufficient conditions to maintain the equilibrium of a body. However, these equations are not always able to provide all the information needed to obtain the unknown support reactions and internal forces. The number of external supports and internal members in a system may be more than the number that is required to maintain its equilibrium configuration. Such systems are known as indeterminate systems and one has to use compatibility conditions and constitutive relations in addition to equations of equilibrium to solve for the unknown forces in that system. For an indeterminate system, some support(s) or internal member(s) can be removed without disturbing its equilibrium. These additional supports and members are known as redundants . A determinate system has the exact number of supports and internal members that it needs to maintain the equilibrium and no redundants. If a system has less than required number of supports and internal members to maintain equilibrium, then it is considered unstable . For example, the two-dimensional propped cantilever system in (Figure 1.13a) is an indeterminate system because it possesses one support more than that are necessary to maintain its equilibrium. If we remove the roller support at end B (Figure 1.13b), it still maintains equilibrium. One should note that here it has the same number of unknown support reactions as the number of independent static equilibrium equations. The unknown

reactions are

and

(Figure 1.13c) and the equilibrium equations are:

(1.18)

(1.19)

(1.20)

An indeterminate system is often described with the number of redundants it posses and this number is known as itsdegree of static indeterminacy . Thus, mathematically:

Degree of static indeterminacy = Total number of unknown (external and internal) forces - Number of independent equations of equilibrium

(1.21)

It is very important to know exactly the number of unknown forces and the number of independent equilibrium equations. Let us investigate the determinacy/indeterminacy of a few two-dimensional pin-jointed truss systems.

Let m be the number of members in the truss system and n be the number of pin (hinge) joints connecting these members. Therefore, there will be m number of unknown internal forces (each is a two-force member) and 2 n numbers of independent joint equilibrium equations ( involve r unknowns, then: and for each joint, based on its free body diagram). If the support reactions

Total number of unknown forces = m + r Total number of independent equilibrium equations = 2 n So, degree of static indeterminacy = ( m + r ) - 2 n For the trusses in Figures 1.14a, b & c, we have:

Figure. 1.14a Determinate truss

1.14a: m = 17, n = 10, and r = 3. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 0, that means it is a statically determinate system.

Figure 1.14b (Internally) indeterminate truss

1.14b: m = 18, n = 10, and r = 3. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 1.

Figure 1.14c (Externally) indeterminate truss

1.14c: m = 17, n = 10, and r = 4. So, degree of static indeterminacy = 1.

It should be noted that in case of 1.14b, we have one member more than what is needed for a determinate system (i.e., 1.14a), where as 1.14c has one unknown reaction component more than what is needed for a determinate system. Sometimes, these two different types of redundancy are treated differently; as internal indeterminacy and external indeterminacy . Note that a structure can be indeterminate either externally or internally or both externally and internally. We can group external and internal forces (and equations) separately, which will help us understand easily the cases of external and internal indeterminacy. There are r numbers of external unknown forces, which are the support reactions components. We can treat 3 system equilibrium equations as external equations. This will lead us to: Degree of external static indeterminacy = r - 3. The number of internal unknown forces is m and we are left with (2 n -3) equilibrium equations. The 3 system equilibrium equations used earlier were not independent of joint equilibrium equations, so we are left with (2 n - 3) equations instead of 2 n numbers of equations. So: Degree of internal static indeterminacy = m - (2 n - 3). Please note that the above equations are valid only for two-dimensional pin-jointed truss systems. For example, for threedimensional ( space ) pin-jointed truss systems, the degree of static indeterminacy is given by ( m + r - 3 n ). Similarly, the expression will be different for systems with rigid (fixed) joints, frame members, etc.

Recap In this course you have learnt the following Review of the concepts of determinate and indeterminate structures. Unstable systems. Degree of static indeterminacy : - External and internal.

Congratulations, you have finished Lecture 4. To view the next lecture select it from the left hand side menu of the page

Lecture 5 : Symmetry and Antisymmetry

Objectives In this course you will learn the following Concept of symmetry, asymmetry and antisymmetry in structures. Symmetry and antisymmetry in equilibrium and compatibility conditions. Use of symmetry and antisymmetry in analyzing a structure.

1.6 Symmetry and Antisymmetry Symmetry or antisymmetry in a structural system can be effectively exploited for the purpose of analyzing structural systems. Symmetry and antisymmetry can be found in many real-life structural systems (or, in the idealized model of a reallife structural system). It is very important to remember that when we say symmetry in a structural system, it implies the existence of symmetry both in the structure itself including the support conditions and also in the loading on that structure. The systems shown in Fig. 1.15 are symmetric because, for each individual case, the structure is symmetric and the loading is symmetric as well. However, the systems shown in Fig. 1.16 are not symmetric because either the structure or the loading is not symmetric.

Figure 1.15 Symmetric structural systems