THERMODYNA MICS.

1.0

CHAPTER ONE

DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS 1. Thermodynamics is an applied science that is involved with study of the relationship between Heat, Work and the properties of system. 2. Thermodynamics is the science, which deals with changes in STATE as measured by changes in certain observable characteristics, or PROPERTIES experienced by substances as a result of energy transfers primarily in the form of WORK and HEAT. Thermodynamics is the study of energy, its transformation from one form to another and its relation to the various states of matter. It is concerned with the scientific principles and means of converting heat energy from available sources into mechanical work.

3.

1.1

BASIC DEFINITIONS IN THERMODYNAMICS: 1.1.1 SYSTEM:- A quantity of matter (or mass) in equilibrium whose behaviour is under investigation. A system may also be defined as a collection of matter or substance surrounded by a boundary through wish Energy may pass only in the form of heat or work. System is classified into CLOSED SYSTEM and OPEN SYSTEM. CLOSED SYSTEM:- Is a system in which there is no mass transfer of matter across the boundary. Example is a mass of air and petrol vapour, intimately mixed, which is being compressed in an internal combustion engine. OPEN SYSTEM:- Is a system in which there is a mass transfer across the boundary. Examples are steam turbines and gas turbines. 1.1.2 1.1.3 FLUID:- A substance or mixture of substance in the liquid or gaseous state. PROPERTY:- An observable or calculable characteristics of the system e.g. Pressure P, temperature T, velocity V, internal energy U. Intensive properties are properties that are independent of the mass of the system e.g. Pressure, temperature, viscosity and height. Extensive properties are related to the mass e.g. volume and energies of all kinds. Furthermore, velocity and datum height are mechanical properties and viscosity and thermal conductivity are transport properties.

1.1.4

STATE:- State is a condition of the system as described or measured by the properties. Thus the Thermodynamics State of a system is defined completely by the knowledge of two independent and intensive properties, e.g. Pressure and specific volume or temperature and specific internal energy. PROCESS:- A process is a change in the state of a system. Process can be (a) Non-flow process:- A fixed identifiable mass of third undergoes a change of state with no mass transfer across the control surface. (b) Steady-flow process:A uniform mass flow rate from one state to another. Whenever the control surface is drawn for examination mass must cross at inlet and outlet. A process in which the initial and end states are identical is CYCLE. CONTROL SURFACE (VOLUME):- An enclosed region in space (a) inside the space there is a fixed mass of fluid whose behavior is under investigation (apply to non-flow process). (b) Across the space there may be a mass transfer at inlet and outlet whose thermodynamics state is changing and is under investigation as for a flow process (steady or unsteady). SURROUNDING:- The rest of the universe outside the control volume. EQUILIBRIUM:- A fluid is in equilibrium when no energy transfers occur between different parts of the mass, if the latter is isolated from its surroundings i.e. the thermodynamic properties must be constant. 3 kinds of equilibrium need identification as follows: (a) Thermal equilibrium:- requires a uniform temperature otherwise there will be a heat transfer from the higher temperature part to the lower-temperature part. (b) Mechanical equilibrium:- requires a uniform pressure otherwise there will be a mass transfer from the high pressure part to the lower pressure part. (c) Chemical equilibrium:- requires a uniform chemical composition otherwise there will be a chemical reaction or a change in the chemical composition in the system. Thermodynamics equilibrium exists when all three above hold well. REVERSIBLE:- A process is thermodynamically reversible when it can be made to take the reverse path through the same series of measurable equilibrium state as it took on its outward path.

1.1.5

1.1.6

1.1.7 1.1.8

1.1.9

1.1.9.1 1.1.9.2 1.1.9.3 1.1.9.4 1.1.9.5 1.2 1.2.1

ADIABATIC: Implies no heat transfer takes place between the system and it surroundings. ISOTHERMAL:- The system temperature is constant. ISOBARIC:- The system pressure is constant. ISOCHORIC:- The system specific volume is constant. ISENTROPIC:- The system specific entropy is constant. MASS: Quantity of matter in a body.

FORCES AND PRESSURE: FORCE: Re-calling Newtons second Law of motion THE RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM OF A BODY IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE APPLIED FORCE ACTING ON THE BODY, IN THE DIRECTION OF FORCE. It has been found that force acting on a body is equal to the mass of the body multiply by its acceleration. i.e. Force = Mass X Acceleration (1.0) Unit of force is Kgm/sec2 i.e. Newton (N) or Kilo Newton (KN). PRESSURE:- Pressure is defined as force per unit area i.e. Pressure = FORCE = NEWTON. (1.1) AREA (METER) 2

1.2.2

Example 1.0 A fluid exerts a constant pressure of 1300 kPa on the piston of a cylinder and forces the piston to move through a distance of 15 cm. The bore of the cylinder is 6.45 cm. Calculate (a) the force exerted on the piston, and (b) the work done by the piston over the distance. Solution P = 1300 kPa; distance x = 15 cm = 15 x 10 -2 m The bore D = 6.45 cm = 6.45 x 10 2 m Since, Force = pressure x area = 1300 x D2 4 = 1300 x 3.142 x (6.45 x 10 2) 2 4 Workdone = force x distance = 4.2476885 kN x 15 x 10 2 m = 0.637153275 kNm (kj)

CHAPTER TWO TEMPERATURE, HEAT AND WORK 2.0 TEMPERATURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS: The common definition of Temperature is; The degree hotness or coldness of a body but it is actually the manifestation of the intensity of molecular activity within a body or system. THERMOMETRY is the name given to the branch of the study of Thermodynamics, which deals with the measurement of temperature. The S. I. Unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K) but Celsius (0C) scale is widely used. They are related by T(K) = t (0C) + 273.15 (2.1) TEMPERATURE SCALES The common temperature scales that are existence are; (a) The Celsius Scale (0C), (b) The Kelvin scale (K), (c) The Fahrenheit Scale (0F) and the Rankine scale. The Celcius Scale: have two fixed points at 00C and 1000C. The Kelvin Scale:- has division on equal in size to those of the Celcius Scale so that 00C is equivalent to 273k and 1000C to 373K. The Kelvin Scale is based on a single fixed pint which is the equilibrium temperature at which water exist simultaneously in three forms as a solid (ice), a liquid, and a gas (water vapour): this is a state known as the TRIPLE POINT of water. PThe Fahrenheit Scale:- The ice and steam points correspond to 320F and 2120F respectively and the Fundamental internal is divided into 180 equal parts. The relationships between the Celcius, the Kelvin and the Fahrenheit Scale are as follows: T(0C) = (t (0F) = t (oF) = T (oK) = T (oK) = (t (0F) - 32) x 5/9 ..(2.2) T(0C) x 9/5 + 32) ..(2.3) (T(oK) 273) x 9/5 + 32 .(2.4) T(oC) + 273 ..(2.5) (t(oF) 32) x 5/9 + 273 ..(2.6)

2.1

The Rankine Scales:- It has a fixed point at absolute zero but has the same degrees of the same size as those on Fahrenheit Scale so that 00F is equivalent to 459.6R; the freeing point of pure water is equivalent to 491.6R and boiling point of pure water to 671.6R. 2.2 THERMOMETER:Thermometer is simply defined as Temperature Measurement Devices. The basic characteristics of a good thermometer are. (i) Sensitivity and Responsivity to changes in temperature. (ii) Accuracy; such that readings obtained must correspond unequally with those obtained on standard thermometer. (iii) Reproductivity i.e. it must give constant repetition of readings for the same temperature.

2.2.1 THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCES:- Thermometric substances are those substances that vary with temperature and are generally good for use in the construction of thermometers. Examples are Mercury, Alcohol, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Platinum and Nickel Wires. 2.2.2 TYPES OF THERMOMETERS (i) Expansion thermometers (a) Bimetal thermometer (solid) (b) Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer (Mercury & Alcohol) (c) Gas thermometer (gas) (ii) Resistance thermometers (a) Platinum resistance thermometer (iii) Thermocouples (a) Copper constantan (b) Chromal alumel (c) Iron constantan (d) Platinum platinum rhodium Pyrometers (a) Optical pyrometer (b) Radiation pyrometer

(iv)

2.2.3 PROCEDURE FOR CALIBRATION OF TEMPERATURE SCALE The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) gives the procedures for the calibration of temperature scale which are as follows: (i) Establishment of two standard fixed points, upper (boiling point) and lower (freezing point) fixed points and (ii) Identification of the particular thermometer substance and its property to be used in the thermometer. (iii) Derivation of an interpolation formula to give the relationship between the thermometric property and temperature of the surrounds. 2.2.4 (i) LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER: The thermometer property is the length of the thermometric liquid (mercury) in the stem of the thermometer. The thermometer has a stem of uniform crosssectional area, which communicates, with the bulb of the thermometer. Changes in volume of the mercury in the bulb will register as change in length of the mercury column in the stem. The sensing region of the thermometer is limited to the bulb, which has a thin wall thereby ensuring good thermal contact with the system whose temperature is to be measured. (ii) CONSTANE VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER:- The thermometer comprises of a fixed volume of gas (Hydrogen or Helium) contained in a bulb. The bulb connects to a mercurymanometer. (iii) BIMETAL THERMOMETER:- Consist of a bimetallic coil inside a glass tube. One end of the coil is fixed to the tube while

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

the other and is attached to a pointer, which indicates the deflection caused on a temperature scale as a result of changes in temperature of the surrounding. RESISTANCE THERMOMETER:- Based on the principle that Electric Resistance of most metals increases with temperature. The resistance of wire can be measured using wheat stone bridge and can be related to the temperature involved. PYROMETERS: Basically used for measurement of temperatures that are very high and cannot be measured by all other thermometers because of the limitation of their thermometric substance in relation to their melting points and boiling point. Pyrometer measures temperature by absorbing a very small amount of the heat or high radiation emitted from a lot temperature body. It makes no contact with the body whose temperature is to be measured. Two types are in existence namely optical pyrometer and total radiation pyrometer. THERMOCOUPLES: Based on the principle that when two dissimilar conducting materials are joined and their two junctions maintained at different temperature, an e.m.f. is generated which depends on the temperature difference of the junctions. One of the junctions is a reference or cold junction. It is maintained at a known temperature e.g. the temperature of melting ice (0C). The other junction is the Measuring of hot junction and is normally placed against the body whose temperature is to be measured.

2.3

DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE:- When the thermometric property values are given at certain fixed points; (i) For Liquid-In-Glass thermometer, the relationship between the unknown temperature t and length L of the mercury is t(0C) = (L Li) x 100 ..(2.7) (Ls Li) Li = Length at 00C Ls = Length at 1000C (ii) For constant volume gas thermometer, there exist a linear relationship between the temperature and pressure of the gas in the bulb t = (h hi) x 100 ..(2.8) (hs hi) or t = (p pi) x 100 ..(2.9) (ps pi) pI Ps Li hs = = = = Pressure at 00C; Pressure at 1000C Height of manometer at 00C, Height of manometer at 1000C

(iii)

In the case of resistance thermometer, the interpolation formula is based on the relationship between the resistance R and corresponding temperature t. Rt = Ro (1 + at) (2.10)

2.4

THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS It states, If two bodies are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then the three bodies are all in thermal equilibrium with each other. The Law is a useful concept in determining if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium without the need of bringing them in contact with each other. HEAT:- Is a form of energy which is transferred from one body at higher Temperature to another body at lower temperature by the virtue of their Temperature difference. It must be noted that heat cannot exist as a stored energy. Suppose heat flows from a body, body A to another body B, the Internal Energy in A reduced and the correspondingly, the Internal Energy in B is increased. The heat content of a body or the heat transferred into the body can be calculated from. Q = mcdT. (2.11) Where Q = heat content or heat absorbed in Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ) M = mass of the body in kilogramme dT = Temperature change in 0c c = Specific heat capacity of the body in KJ/kgk Heat Energy cannot be stored in a system but can be converted to some other form of energy after crossing the boundary of the system. It must be noted that heat is not a property of a system but can be supplied to a system or removed from a system. Note:- The Internal energy of a body that is a function of temperature must be confused with Heat. The difference between them is that Heat cannot be contained or possessed by a body, but a body can store Internal Energy. HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:- The heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat required to raise its temperature by 1 degree. It is expressed in joule per Kelvin (JK-1) and represented by C. The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of it through (by) 1 degree, it is heat capacity per kg of the substance. Specific heat capacity is expressed in joule per kilogram per Kelvin (Jkg-1 K-1) and the symbol is c. From the two definitions above, it follows that for a particular object, heat capacity, C = mass x specific heat capacity, c i.e. C = mc ...(2.8). The specific heat capacity can be at constant pressure i.e. specific heat capacity at constant pressure cp, which may be defined as the rate of change of enthalpy with absolute

2.5

2.5.1

temperature at constant pressure or at constant volume i.e. specific heat capacity at constant volume cv, which is defined as the rate of change of internal energy with absolute temperature at constant volume. 2.5.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN cp AND cv Let us consider an adiabatic reversible process that follows the Law PV = C where is the Isentropic index and has some special value. Non-flow energy equation is given as Q - W = dU -------- (1) where dU = change in internal energy i.e U2 U1 For adiabatic process, Q = 0 ----(2) and for a perfect gas du = mCv (T2 T1) ----- (3) W = P1V1 P2V2 = mR(T1 T2) ------- (2.12) 1 -1 Subst. Equations 2,3 and 4 into 1 i.e Q W = du becomes 0 mR(T2 -T1) = mcv (T2 - T1) 1- -R = cv -----------------------------(2.9.6) 1- * R = cp cv

cv cp = cv 1-

cv - cp = 1- cv

1 cp = 1 - cv

i.e

cp cv

The ratio cp cv = is always greater than 1

2.5.3

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN cp, cv AND R Q - W = dU mcp (T2 T1) p(V2-V1) = mcv (T2-T1) mCp (T2-T1) mR(T2-T1) = mcv(T2-T1) mcp mR = mcv cp R = cv

2.5.4

2.5.5

SENSIBLE AND LATENT HEAT:- The heat content of a body may either cause a change in temperature or the temperature may remain constant but cause a change in state. When heat transfer causes a change of temperature, the heat is described as SENSIBLE HEAT. In cases where the temperature remains constant, the heat is referred to as LATENT (OR HIDDEN) HEAT. Generally for all substances two types of Latent heat exist, namely the latent heat of vapourization and the latent heat of fusion. The Latent heat of evaporation (which has the same value as the latent heat of condensation) is the quantity of heat required to change a unit mass of a liquid into the gaseous state without a change in temperature. The Latent heat of Fusion is the quantity of heat required to change a unit mass of a solid into the liquid state without a change in temperature. The latent heat is designated by the symbol QL and has the unit of energy. QL = mL . (2.13 Where m = mass of the substance and L = latent heat. WORK TRANSFER:- Work transfer W, generally abbreviated to Work, is energy in transfer, without transfer of matter, across the boundary when a system changes its state due to a difference in an Intensive property other than temperature between the system and its environment. Work results from the movement of part of the boundary under the action of a force i.e. work are done when a force moves through a distance. Thus, work is the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the force. Thus in non-flow system. dw = Fdx . (2.14 = (PA)dx = Pdv : dv = Adx And reversible work in non-flow system is given by 2 2 = Pdv ..(2.15 1W2 1 W = 1 Work is considered positive when the system boundary moves outward in the same direction as exerted by the system pressure or when the system performs work on the environment and work is considered negative when the environment works on the system. i.e. positive work = W by the system = pdv .. (2.9.3) negative work = W on the system = - pdv (2.9.4)

2.6

2.7

BOYLES LAW: -Based on experimental evidence -Relates the volume and presssure of fixed mass of air at constant temperature -State that at constant temperature, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

i.e P1V1 = P2V2 = C -------- (1) CHARLES LAW -Based on experimental evidence -Relates the volume to absolute temperature at constant pressure. -states that at constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. i.e V1 = V2 = C --------(2) T1 T2 2.8 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE, VOLUME AND ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE From Boyles Law P1V1 = P2V i.e V = P1V1 --------- (1) at constant temperature P2 Now heating the gas from T1 to T2 at constant pressure i.e V = V2 ------- (2) T1 T2 Substituting for v in Equation (2) P1V1/P2 = V2 T1 T2 P1V1 = V2 P2T1 T2 Re-arrange: P1V1 = P2V2 i.e PV = constant (for a perfect gas). T1 T2 T 2.9 THE CHARACTERISTIC GAS EQUATION Recalling Pv = C T C = constant Where v is specific volume i.e v = V m Subst. For the value v in equation Gives PV = C Tm i.e PV = mTC i.e PV = mRT ------- (1) Equation 1 is the characteristic GAS EQUATION Where P = Pressure of the gas in N/M2 V = Volume of the gas in M3
10

m = Mass of the gas in kg R = Gas constant in J/kgok T = Temperature in deg. Kelvin. However the following must be noted. (1) Ro = MR; Ro = Universal Gas constant M = Molecular mass of Gas R = Gas constant (2) m = nM; M = Mass of any gas N = Number of moles M = Molecular mass of a gas (3) Pv = nRoT, to real gasses (4) for a Polytropic process PVn = C (i) i.e P1V1n = P2V2n (ii) P1 = V2 P2 V1 (iv) T1 (v) T1
n

----- True for vapour and gases

(n-1)/n

T2 = P1 P1 T2 = V1 V2

n- 1

Example 2.0 (a) Convert the following temperatures in degree Fahrenheit to degree Celsius (i ) 430 oF , (ii ) 30 o F (b) Convert the following temperatures in degree Celsius to degree Fahrenheit (i ) 57 0 C, (ii ) 0 0 C (c) Convert the following temperatures in degree Celsius to Kelvin (i ) 25 o C, ( ii ) 100 o C Solution (ai ) T oC = 5 x (T oF 32) = 5 x (430 32) 9 9 (aii ) (bi) (bii) (ci) similarly T oC = 5 x (-30 32) 9 = 221.11 oC = -34.44 oC = 134.6 o F

T o F = 32 + (T oC x 9/5) similarly,

= 32 + (57 x 9/5) = 32 oF

T o F = 32 + (0 x 9/5)

ToK = T o C + 273 = -25 + 273

= 248 o K

(cii) similarly,

T o K = 100 + 273 = 373 o K

CHAPTER THREE 3.0 STORED ENERGY

11

The total stored energy E, is defined as the sum of various forms of all the energies that can be stored or possessed by a system at a particular state; these are potential energy, internal energy and kinetic energy. It must be noted that stored energy is also a property of a system. Thus, E = P.E + U + K.E --------------------- (3.0) i.e E = mgz + mu + mc2 ---------------(3.1) e = E/m = gz + u + c2 --------------(3.1.1) 3.1 TRANSITIONAL ENERGY This refers to any energy form that can be transferred between a system and the surrounding. Heat and work are forms of transitional energy because they are both interactions between a system and its surrounding THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMIICS State that when a system is taken through a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of the heat transferred into the system from its surrounding is equal to the algebraic sum of the work transferred from the system to its surrounding. i.e. dQ = dW -------------------------- (3.1.2) The first law of thermodynamics originates from the concept of conservation of energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be transformed. The equation (3.1.2) shows no restriction on the direction of the conversion process and indicates that work and heat are equivalent i.e work can be converted into heat and vice visa. But it must be noted that all work can completely be converted to heat while only some of the heat can be converted into work. 3.2.1 COROLLARIES TO THE FIRST LAW COROLLARY 1: Internal energy is the property of a system such that, a change in its value is equal to the difference between the heat supplied and work done during any change of state i.e dU = Q W. This is known as NON FLOW ENERGY EQUATION (NFEE). COROLLARY 2: The internal energy of a closed system remains constant if the system is isolated from its surroundings. For an isolated system there is neither heat nor work transfer, so Q and W are both zero, and hence U must be zero. This is the law of CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. COROLLARY 3: It is impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of the first kind.

3.2

3.3

ENERGY EQUATION

12

Property X

B C Let a system changes its state first along A, then along path B, from 1 to 2 and in each case let the system return from 2 to 1 in 1 Property Y path C. CASE 1:Applying the first law to cyclic process 1A2C1 we have (Q - W )AC = 0 2 1 i.e 1 (Q - W)A + 2 (Q - W)C = 0 CASE 2 Applying the first law to the cyclic process 1B2C1 we have (Q - W)BC = 0 2 1 i.e 1 (Q - W)B + 2 (Q - W)C = 0 It follows that the argument could be applied to any other path from which it will be concluded that the quantity 12(Q - W) is independent of the path. 3.4 NON FLOW ENERGY EQUATION (NFEE) Now considering the same system undergoing half of this cyclic i.e from state 1to state 2 it is obvious that the condition at these case for half cycle, with heat Q and work W transfers being involved and since the system is not in the same state at the beginning (state 1) and end (State 2) of the process. QW=0 i.e Q - W= 0 And thus the different in magnitude of Q- W is said to be the change in the total energy E of the system. But for a closed system, the change in total energy is reduced to change in internal energy U, the change in potential and kinetic energies are negligible. i.e Q - W = E (P.E and K.E being negligible). Q - W = U Q1,2 - W1,2 = U1,2 (3.1.3)

The above equation (3.1.3) is the Non Flow Energy Equation (N.F.E.E). The internal energy U is a property that resides in the system and can be increased or decreased by change of a state.

3.4.1 APPLICATION OF N.F.E.E. TO NON FLOW PROCESSES 1. Constant Volume Process - Working fluid is heated from initial temperature T1 to final Temperature T2 in a rigid vessel.

13

No boundary movement No work is done since work is done when a body moves. P2 2

P1

1 V1 = V2
2

Displacement work = 1 Pdv = P(V)v1 i.e. 1W2 = P(V2-V1); V1 = V2 = V2 V1 = 0 = P(o) = 0 ____________________ (3.1.4) 1W2 The heat transferred in a constant volume process 1Q2 - 1W2 = U2 - U1 1Q2 0 = U2 U1 i.e. 1q2 = u2 - u1 ___________________ (3.1.5) for a mass m Lg of working fluid Q = m(u2 - u1) _________________ (3.1.6) i.e. Q = U2 - U1 All the heat supplied in a constant volume process is used to increase the internal Energy of the system. For A perfect gas ONLY. Q = mcv (T2 - T1) _______________ (3.1.7) 2. Constant Pressure Process P 1 2

v2

P = P1 = P2

v1

dv

v2

Displacement Work with P1 = P2 is given by 1W2 = = P(v)v1 v2 = P(v2-v1)

2 1

Pdv

i.e. 1W2 = P(v2 v1) ________________(3.1.8) Heat transfer:= U2 - U1 ________________(3.1.9) 1Q2 - 1W2 Subst. 1W2 into we have

14

Q2 - P(v1- v2) = U2 - U1 and 1Q2 = U2 - U1 + P(v1- v2) = (U2+PV2) - (U1 + PV1) _____________ (3.2) by definition h = u + Pv or H = U + PV This implies that 1Q2 = H2 - H1 ___________ (3.2.1) For mass of m kg of working substance. Q = m(h2 h1) ___________ (3.2.2) Or Q = H2 H1 _____________ (3.2.3) For a perfect Gas only Q = H2 H1 = mcP(T2 T1) ___________(3.2.4)
1

Constant Temperature Process - Also known as Isothermal Process. - The quantities of heat and work are so proportioned during expansion or compression that the temperature of the fluid remains constant; Expansion When a working fluid expands behind a piston the piston moves, the pressure will drop and the temperature also drops. To maintain a constant temperature during the expansion process heat must be added continuously. In Compression Process: - Pressure raises, which is accompanied by a rise in temperature. For Isothermal Compression process to take place, heat must be removed from the fluid continuously during the process.

FOR A PERFECT GAS

P P1

PV = C

P2 Recall that V1 V2 V

15

(1) PV = RT ______________(3.2.5) (2) P1V1 = P2V2 ____________ (3.2.6) From 3.1.15 T = constant in Isothermal and R is already a constant. This implies that PV = C and P = C V Recall that Displacement Work W = 12Pdv i.e. W = C 12dv v = C (Lnv2 - Lnv2) = P (Lnv2 - Lnv2) i.e. W = PV Ln v2 _____________ (3.2.7) v1 from 3.2.5 P1V1 = P2V2; P1 = V2 P2 V1 This implies that W = PV Ln P2 P1 _____________ (3.2.8)

i.e. W = P1V1 Ln V2 = P2V2 Ln V2 = P1V1 Ln P1 V1 V1 P2 = P2V2 Ln P1 P2 Recall that PV = RT for Perfect Gas This implies that W = RT Ln V2 = RT Ln P1 per unit mass of gas V1 P2 For mass m kg of a Perfect Gas W = mRT Ln V2 V1 OR W = mRT Ln P1 P2 Heat transfer in Isothermal Process. From Q W = U2 - U1 We have Q W = mcV(T2 T1) In Isothermal Process, T2 = T1 and T2 T1 = 0 i.e. Q W = 0 and Q = W heat transfer is equivalent to the work done in an Isothermal process for a perfect gas only. For a perfect gas, Isothermal Process can also be called hyperbolic process. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMOYNAMICS AS APPLIED TO FLOW PROCESS Flow process can be defined as a process in which there is a flow of a mass of fluid through an open system.

16

In an open system, there is transfer of mass as well as energy across its boundaries. To analyze flow process in order to obtain an equivalent equation Q W = E, it is essential to take into account for any given process. The change of energy associated with matter contained within the boundary of the system, The change of energy associated with matter crossing the bounding of the system, Heat and work transfer across the system boundary.

Two Kinds of Flow Processes Occur:(1) Stead Flow Processes in which the mass inflow into the system, during any one period, equals the mass outflow, min = mout and in which there is no change of energy stored within the system, so that energy changes under (a) above vanish. (2) Unsteady Flow Processes in which mass inflow and outflow are not balanced min mout and in which there is a change of energy stored within the system. 3.4.3 ANALYSIS OF STEADY FLOW PROCESS In analyzing steady flow processes it necessary to remind our selves that according to the first law of thermodynamics, energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to another. Consider the diagram below. Inlet P1,v1, T1, c1 Q u1 z1

Outlet P2, v2 T2, c2 z2 u2 The working fluid is assumed to be passing through the region defined by the boundaries at a steady rate so that mass m1 entering the system is equal to the mass m2 leaving the system at the same time i.e. m1 = m2 = m. The working fluid with internal energy u is moving with velocity c at height z above the datum level. The conditions at inlet are designated by suffix (1) while those at outlet are designated by suffix (2). Some quantity of heat Q is added to the working fluid during which work out put W is produced.

17

According to the first law of thermodynamics, the sum of the energy entering the system is equal to the sum of energy leaving the system per unit time. Energy entering the system (i) Heat added (or supplied) = Q (ii) Internal energy = mu1 (iii) Flow energy (Displacement work needed to push the fluid into the system) = m.P.v. (iv) Kinetic energy = mc2 (v) Potential energy = mgz1 Thus, the sum of energy entering the system at inlet = Q + mu1 + mP1v1 + mc21 + mgz1 Energy leaving the system (i) Work done by the system on surrounding = W (ii) Internal energy = mu2 (iv) Flow energy (Displacement work needed to the push the fluid out the system) = mP2v2 (v) Kinetic energy = mc22 (vi) Potential energy = mgz2 Sum of energy leaving the system at outlet = W + mu2 + mP2v2 + mc22 + mgz2 From first law: Sum of energy entering the system = sum of energy leaving the system i.e. Q + mu1 + mP1v1 + mc12 + mg z1 = W + mu2 + mP2v2 + mc22 + mgz2 Q W = m (u2 + P2v2 + c22 + gz2) m(u1 + P1v1 + c12 + gz1) (*) But PV + U = H or Pv + u = h H = Enthalpy or h = Specific enthalpy having note kj and kj/kg respectively. Thus, the equation (* ) becomes Q W = m(h2 + c22 + gz2) m(h1 + c12 + gz1) Q W = m{(h2 h1) + (c22 c12) + g(z2 z1)} (3.30) i.e. Q W = m( h + k.E + P.E). the above equation is referred to as STEADY FLOW ENERGY QUATION S.F.E.E.

18

Example 3.0 A system contains a gas at 1.013 bar and 200o C and the gas occupies a volume of 2.8 m3. The system undergoes a constant pressure heating process until the volume is double. Determine the change in internal energy of the system and the enthalpy of the system. Take cv as 0.718kJ/kg K and cp as 1.005 kJ/kg K. Solution Given that; Recall that P1 = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x10 kN/m2 V1 = 2.8 m3 T1 = 200o C = 473o K V2 = 2V1 = 2 x 2.8 = 5.6m3 R = cp - cv = 1.005 0.718 = 0.287 kJ/kg

But change in internal energy U = mcv(T2 T1) m = P1V1 RT1 From Thus = 1.013 x 102 x 2.8 0.287 x 473 = 2.089 kg = 946oK

V1 = V2 T1 = T2

T2 = V2T1 = 5.6 x 473 V1 2.8

U = 2.0894 kg x 0.718 kJ/kg x (946 473) oK = 709.6 kJ

Change in enthalpy H = U + P(V2 V1) = 709.6 kJ + 1.013 x 102 kN/m2 x (5.6 2.8) m3 = 993.24 kJ

Example 3.2 A fluid expands slowly within a frictionless piston cylinder arrangement from initial pressure and volume of 5bar and 0.03m3 respectively to a final volume of 0.12m3. if the mass of the fluid is 0.69kg. Calculate the work done for the following processes: (i) P = C (ii) V = C (iii) PV = C and (iv) PV1.4 = C Solution Given that: P1 = 5 bar = 500 kN/m2, V1 = 0.03 m3, V2 = 0.12 m3, m = 0.69 kg (i) When pressure is constant (isobaric process); 1W2 = P 12dv = P(V2 V1) = 500 kN/m2 x (0.12 0.03) m3 = 45 kNm (kJ) (ii) When volume is constant (isochoric process) i.e V1 = V2, 1W2 = 0 (iii) When PV = constant (isothermal process), 1W2 = P1V1 ln V2

19

V1 1W2 = 500kN/m x 0.03 m x ln 0.12 0.03

2 3

= 20.794415 kJ (iv) When PV1.4 = constant (Polytropic process), 1W2 = P1V1 P2V2 -1 Where = 1.4 From P1V1 = P2V2 ,

P2 = P1(V1/V2) = 500 x (0.03/0.12)1.4 = 71.793647kM/m2

Hence, 1W2 = 500 (kN/m2) x 0.03 (m3)- 71.793647(kN/m2) x 0.12 (m3) 1.4 - 1 = 15.9619059 kJ

Example 3.3 During a steady state flow process, 5000 kg/h of fluid passes through an apparatus in which the exit pipe is 2m below the inlet pipe. Properties at inlet and outlet are as follows: Pressure (P) Velocity (c) Specific internal energy (u) Specific volume (v) Inlet 650 kN/m2 60m/s 100kj/kg 0.1m3/kg Outlet 150kN/m2 400m/s 50kj/kg 0.5m3/kg

If the heat transfer rate by radiation from the apparatus is 105kj/h, what is the power developed? (Take g = 9.81m/s) Solution For a steady flow process recall that: 2 2 1Q2 1W2 = m (u2 + P2v2 + c2 + gz2) m (u1 + P1v1 + c1 + gz1) 1W2 = 1Q2 m [(P2v2 P1v1) + (c22 c12) + g(z2 z1) + (u2 +u1)] note that W is work per unit time thus, it is the power developed thus, 5 2 2 1W2 = -10 5000 (150 x 0.5 650 x 0.1) + 1(400 60 ) + 9.81(2.0) + (50 100) 3600 3600 2000 1000 = -27.7778 - 1.3888 [(10) + (78.2) + (0.0196) + (-50) -80.8572 kJs-1 (kW)

20

*The kinetic energy term and the potential energy term were divided by 1000 each, to convert them to kiloCHAPTER FOUR HEAT ENGINES AND STANDARD CYCLE 4.1 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ENTROPY The second Law of thermodynamics states that It is impossible to construct an Engine which, operating in a cycle, will produce no other Effect than the Extraction of Heat from a single Heat Reservoir and the performance of an Equivalent amount of work. The second law provides an expression for heat transfer thus that there exists a property of any closed system such that a change in its value is equal to Qrev = Ts -------------------- (4.0) Where s is the entropy of the fluid COROLLARIES OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Corollary 1: It is impossible to construct a system operating in a cycle such that heat is transferred from a colder region to a hotter region without an external work being done on the system by the surroundings. (CLAUSIUS STATEMENT) Corollary 2: It is impossible for any engine operating between two given heat reservoirs to have a higher efficiency than a reversible engine operating between the same reservoirs. Corollary 3: All reversible engines, which operate between the same two heat reservoirs at given temperatures, have equal efficiencies. Corollary 4: A thermodynamic scale of temperature is that which has a thermometric substance whose property depends soly on temperature and can provide an absolute zero of temperature. Corollary 5: The efficiency of any reversible engine operating between two heat reservoirs is more than that of a reversible cycle operating between more than two reservoirs having the same highest and lowest temperature levels of the working fluid with the former engine. Corollary 6: There exists a property of any closed system such that a change in its value is equal to 12 dQ/T for any REVERSIBLE PROCESS undergone by the system between state 1 and 2. This property is called ENTROPY. Corollary 7: For any thermodynamic cycle 12 dQ/T is zero if it is reversible, and negative if it is irreversible 12 dQ/T = 0 (Clausius Inequality).

4.11

21

Corollary 8: The entropy of any closed system that is THERMALLY ISOLATED from its surroundings increases and for a REVERSIBLE PROCESS remains constant. In general, for any process S2 S1 = 12 dQ/T 0 (Principle of increase of Entropy). 4.2 HEAT ENGINE: Heat Engine is a device that receives heat from a high temperature source and rejects heat to a low temperature sink while producing mechanical work. Heat source Heat engine mechanical work Heat sink 4.3 CARNOT CYCLE: This is an ideal cycle suggested by Sadi Carnot (1796 -1837). It provides the maximum theoretical efficiency of a heat engine that cannot achieve by actual heat engines a result of losses due to irreversibilities. Carnot recognized that the condition for converting heat into work with maximum efficiency were as follows: (a) The cycle must consist of a series of processes each of, which is fully reversible with regard to both internal and external actions. (b) All heat absorption occurs at the maximum cycle temperature and all heat rejection occurs at the minimum cycle temperature. Carnot Cycle consist of four reversible processes (i) Isothermal expansion of the working fluid at the temperature of the hot source, Tmax accompanied by heat absorption from the same (1-2) (Heat supply): Q12 = h2 h1 (ii) Adiabatic expansion with temperature drop of working fluid from Tmax to Tmin, the temperature of the cold sink (2-3) (Isentropic expansion) W23 = -(h3 h2) (iii) Isothermal Compression at the temperature of the cold sink, Tmin, accompanied by heat rejection to the sink (3-4) (Heat rejection): Q = h4 h3. (iv) Adiabatic Compression with temperature rise of working fluid from Tmin to Tmax (4-1). (Isentropic compression) W41 = (h1 h4). T 1 2 4 3 S
22

Let Heat supplied Q3 = cTmax where c = specific heat -------- (4.1) Heat rejected = QR = cTmin ---------------------------------(4.1.1) From the first Law of thermo. Q = W i.e Net workdone = Net Heat supply Net work = Qs QR ------------------------------------- (4.1.2) Net work = shaded area in the pv-diagram above. 4.3.1 CARNOT EFFICIENCY (Thermal Efficiency): Carnot Efficiency is given by Carnot = Net work Heat supplied = Qs - QR = 1 - QR = 1 - CTR Qs Qs CTs i.e carnot = 1 - Tmin ------------------- (4.1.3) Tmax Work ratio = Net work The turbine work 4.4 ------ (4.1.4)

RANKINE CYCLE: - The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle on which practical vapor power plants are based. The cycle consists of the following steady flow processes. 5-1:constant pressure heating of the water at maximum cycle pressure pmax in the boiler. 1-2: evaporation of water at maximum cycle pressure pmax also in the boiler. * Note that states 5-1 and 1-2 are heat addition in the boiler thus, Q5-2 = h2 h5 2-3: adiabatic irreversible expansion of initially dry saturated steam in turbine to minimum cycle pressure pmin. W2-3 = h3 h2 T 5 1 4 2 3

3-4: condensation of exhaust steam at minimum cycle pressure pmin. (Heat rejection in the condenser (no work done)). Q3-4 = h4 h3

23

4-5: adiabatic irreversible pumping of condensate from minimum pressure pmin to maximum pressure pmax into the boiler W4-5 = h4 h5 = -(h5-h4) 4.4.1 Ranking Cycle efficiency R = Network output = Heat supplied Q5,2 But Wnet = W23 + W45 R = W23 + W45 = (h2 h3)+(h5 h4) Q23 h2 h5 4.5 THE OTTO CYCLE It forms the basis of spark ignition and high-speed compression ignition engines. Consist of four non-flow processes comprising a complete cycle shown in fig. 4.4.1 The processes are as follows: 1-2 Air is compressed isentropically through a volume ratio v1/v2 known as the compression ratio rv 2-3 - A quantity of heat Q23 is added at constant volume unit the air is in state 3. 3-4 The air is expanded isentropically to the original volume. 4-1 Heat Q41 is rejected at constant volume until the cycle is completed.
P 3 4 2 1 V

Wnet

4.5.1 THE EFFICIENCY OF THE OTTO CYCLE Is = W = Q23 + Q41 (4.4.3) Q23 Q23 If constant specific heats for the air is assumed and a units mass fluid is considered, the heat transferred are Q23 = Cv (T3 T2), Q41 = Cv (T1 T4) This implies that = 1 T4 - T1 T3 T2 (4.4.4)

24

For the Isentropic adiabatic process (1-2) P1V1 = P2V2 P2 = V1 (4.4.5) P1 V2 Remember that for 1kg of air contained in a cylinder and being taken through a series of processes, with P1V1 and T1 refer for the air and suffixes 1,2,3 and 4 refer to the state points then P1V1 T1 = P2V2 T2 T2 T1 T2 = T1 = P3V3 T3 = P4V4 T4

. (4.4.6)

Therefore Therefore

= P2V2 = P1V1 V2 V1 V2
-1

V1

V1

V2 = V2

V1 V2

V1

-1

. (4.4.7)

Similarly, since the process (3) to (4) is a reversible adiabatic P3V3 = P4V4 Therefore, T3 = V4 -1 . (4.4.8) T4 V3 * The ratio V1 = V4 is called the volume compression ratio, rv V2 V3 Thus, T2 = T3 = rv -1 . (4.4.9) T1 T4 T3 = T4 rv -1 and T2 = T1 rv -1; substituting for T3 in equation (4.4.4), we have =1T4 T1 =1T4 T1 T4 rv -1 - T1 rv -1 rv -1(T4 T1) =11 . (4.5.0) -1 rv

4.5.2 DIESEL CYCLE In diesel cycle, heat addition occurs at constant pressure instead of constant volume. Note that the diesel cycle under discussion does not apply to the modern injector diesel engine but to the old compression ignition diesel engine. Processes of diesel cycle consist of the following: 1-2: Air is compressed isentropically through the compression ratio rv = v1/v2. 2-3: Heat Q23 is added while the air expands at constant pressure volume v3. At state 3 the heat supply is cut off and the volume ratio v3/v2 may conveniently be called the cut-off ratio rc. 3-4: the air is expanded isentropically to the original volume.

25

4-1: Heat Q41 is rejected at constant volume until the cycle is complete

4.5.3 THE EFFICIENCY OF DIESEL CYCLE The heat transfers in this cycle are 4 Q23 = cp(T3 T2) and Q41 = cv(T1 T4) The efficiency is = Q23 + Q41 --------------- (4.5.1) 1 V Q23 = 1 (T4 T1) ------------- (4.5.2) (T3-T2) The efficiency may be expressed in term of rv and re as follows: T2 = rv -1 then T1 = T2 1 -1 T1 rv For the constant Pressure Process T3 = rc, and hence T3 = T2rc T2 Also, T3 = v3 -1 = v3 v2 -1 = rc -1 T4 v4 v2 v4 rv

hence T4 = T2rc rc rv

-1

Substituting for T1,T3 and T4 in the expression for the efficiency gives =11 rc 1 rv -1 (rc1) --------------- (4.5.3)

4.5.4 DUAL OR MIXED CYCLE -Part of the heat addition occurs during a constant volume process and the remainder during a constant Pressure Process.

23 2

5 1
26

1-2 isentropic compression 2-3 heat addition at constant volume 3-4 heat addition at constant Pressure 4-5 isentropic expansion to original volume 5-1 isochoric cooling to the initial state. 4.5.8 GENERATION OF STEAM SolidLiquid Chance:- Consider an ice block being heated in a can fitted with a thermometer. At a time, the can will contain mixture of ice and water at 0oC; this is referred to as SOLID-LIQUID PHASE. As heating progress, all the water will melt into water at 0oC known as the MELTING POINT. Liquid-Vapor Chance:- If heating continues, it will be seen that temperature will rise from 0oC to 100oC (assuming standard atmospheric pressure) at which water will boil. This is the boiling point (or saturated liquid Temperature). Liquid and vapor at this temperature known as Saturated Liquids and Wet saturated vapors. If heating still progresses, the temperature (i.e. 100oC) will be seen to be constant and water will continue to boil forming water vapor of steam until all the water is evaporated. At this stage the can will contain mixture of steam and some water droplet. On continuous heating at the saturated temperature, all the water including the droplets held in suspension will evaporate and at this instant the steam is known as Dry Saturated Steam. On further heating, the temperature begins to rise again and the steam at this point is known as Superheated Steam and behaves as gas. 4.5.9 TEMPERATURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM FOR STEAM T Wet vapor Liquid phase phase 2 1 Gaseous phase

3 Dry saturated steam h

Saturated liquid liquid

Region A- Sub cooled liquid

27

B- Wet Vapor C- Superheated Vapor D- Gas. (1) (2) (3) -dT/dh is zero in the wet-vapor region or the inverse dh/dT is infinite and thus Cp is also infinite. Properties below the critical temperature for which tabulated values are needed. Properties above the critical temperature for which an equation, namely Pv = mRt, exist and direct calculation is possible.

4.5.9.1 SENSIBLE HEAT The heat transfer that causes a change of temperature is known as Sensible Heat. Lentent Heat: The heat transfer involves when temperature remains constant. This is also known as Hidden heat. Degree of Superheating: Is the amount by which the temperature of superheated steam exceeds the saturation temperature at the same Pressure. 4.5.9.2 DRY SATURATED STEAM: All water including the droplets held in suspension is turned into steam at saturation Temperature; no traces of water no matter how small. Wet Saturated Steam: This is steam at saturation temperature and liquid droplets existing together. Dryness Fraction (x): Is defined as the ratio of the mass of the dry vapor to the total mass of dry vapor and liquid in the mixture . Dryness Fraction (x) = Mass of Vapor Mass of Vapor + Liquid in the mixture Consider 1kg of wet mixture, in which there is xkg of dry Vapor and (1-x)kg of liquid. Specific Enthalpy h, of 1kg of wet mixture is given by h = xhg +(1-x)hf = hf + x (hg-hf) = hf + xhfg (1) Similarly, specific Internal Energy: u = xug+ (1-x)uf = uf + xufg (2) Specific, volume of 1kg of wet mixture: v = xvg+ (1-x)vf v = xvg+ 0 v = xvg Vf is so small compare to Vg hence Vf is negligible. Example 4.0

28

Find the efficiency of a simple Carnot cycle Engine operating between 22 and 100 o C for a working fluid of water. T (oC)

100 22

s T S diagram for Carnot Cycle

From tables: At 22 o C: P = 0.02642 bar, hf = 92.2 kJ/kg hfg = 2449.0 kJ/kg hg = 2541.2 kJ/kg, sf = 0.325 kJ/kg sfg = 8.297 kJ/kg, sg = 8.622 kJ/kg vg = 51.49 m3/kg, vf = 0.1x 10 2m3/kg

At 100 o C: P = 1.01325 bar, hf = 419.1 kJ/kg hfg = 2256.7 kJ/kg hg = 2675.8 kJ/kg, sf = 1.307 kJ/kg sfg = 6.048 kJ/kg, sg =7.355 kJ/kg vg = 1.673 m3/kg

The Carnot cycle State 1 2 q12 w12 = h2 h1, with no work done in the boiler, the equation reduces to q12 = h2 h1 = 2675.8 419.1 = 2256.7kJ/kg State 3 is adiabatic expansion of the working fluid in the turbine the equation become w23 = h3 h2. At state 3, the working fluid becomes wet. And s2 = s3 thus, s3 = s2 = sf3 + x3 sfg3 so that x3 = s2 sf3 = 7.355 0.325 = 0.85 sfg3 8.297 h3 can be calculated from h3 = hf3 + x3 hfg3 = 92.2 + 0.85 (2449.0) = 2173.85 kJ/kg w23 = h2 h3 = 2675.8 2173.85 = 501.95 kJ/kg State 3-4 is condensation of the working fluid thus reducing the equation to q34 = h4 h3, and s1 = s2 Thus s4 = s1 = sf4 + x4sfg4
29

 x4 = s1 sf4 = 1.307 0.325 = 0.12 sfg4 8.297 so that h4 = hf4 + x4hfg4 = 92.2 + 0.12 (2449.0) = 386.08 kJ/kg q34 = h4 h3 = 386.08 2173.85 = - 1787.77 kJ/kg State 4 1 is pump work -w41 = h1 h4 w41 = h4 h1 w41 = 386.08 419.1 = - 33.02 kJ/kg c = wnet = w23 + w41 q12 q12 = 501.95 + (- 33.02) = 0.2078 = 20.78% 2256.7 rw = wnet w23 = w23 + w41 w23

=501.95 + (- 33.02) = 0.93 501.95 The specific fluid consumption s.f.c is the mass flow rate fluid (kg/sec) required to produced 1kw power. s.f.c = 3600 kg wnet kwh = 3600 kg 458.93 kwh

=7.677kg/kwh Example 4.2 In an air standard otto cycle, the fluid is at 1 bar and 288K at the start of compression. The volume compression ratio is 8 and the maximum cycle temperature is 2500K. Calculate the thermal efficiency; mean effective pressure and the work ratio. Take cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK, = 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ/kgK. Solution P 3 4 2 1 288 1 1 bar The efficiency of otto cycle = wnet = 1 1 1 8 v
30

T 250 0 2

4 =1 1 = 0.565 s

q23 Recall that T2 = T3 = rv( - 1) T2 = T1 rv( T1 T4 Also recall that T4 = T3 = 2500 ( - 1) rv 8(1.4 - 1)

rv( -1)
- 1)

8(1.4 - 1)

= 288 x 8(1.4 1) = 661.65K = 1088.19K

Thus, q23 = cv (T3 T2) = 0.718(2500 661.65) = 1319.9 kJ/kg Hence net work wnet = x q23 = 0.565 x 1319.9 kJ/kg = 745.7 kJ/kg Swept volume vs = v1 v2; rv = v1/v2; v1 = v2rv = 8v2

This implies that vs = 8v2 v2 = 7v2 = 7 v1 = 7 RT1 = 7 x 0.287(kJ/kgK)x 288K 8 8 P1 8 100 (kN/m2)

= 0.723 m3/kg The mean effective pressure (m.e.p) = wswept = 745.7 = 1031.4 kN/m2 vs 0.723
w34 = positive work = R (T3 T4) = 0.287 x (2500 - 1088.19) = 1012.97 kJ/kg -1 (1.4 1)

Work ratio rw =

wnet = 745.7 = 0.736 Positive work 1012.97

CHAPTER FIVE

31

5.1.0 Internal Combustion Engines are engines in which the combustion process takes place within the engine itself examples are spark ignition engines, compression ignition engines, gas turbines. External Combustion Engines are engines in which the combustion process is external to the engine proper example steam turbines and reciprocating steam engines. 5.1.1 FOUR STROKE ENGINE Four stroke engines are Internal combustion engines operating on a definite sequence of events known as Mechanical cycle, which is repeated over and over again. The sequence of events is as outline below: (1) Induction of charge into the cylinder (2) Compression of the charge (3) Ignition of the change (4) The burning gases expand, and do work on the piston, and hence on the load coupled to the engine (5) The burning gases are exhausted from the cylinder and the cycle recommences. Four Stroke engines could be sparks (Otto) ignition or compression (diesel) ignition engine. 5.1.2 THE FOUR STROKE (OR OTTO) SPARK IGNITION ENGINE Make use of petrol as fuel. The four strokes are induction, compression, expansion (or power) and exhaust strokes. (1) Induction Stroke (1-2): Mixture of petrol vapor air is draw into the cylinder during this stroke while the inlet valve opens. (2) Compression Stroke (2-3): With both the inlet and exhaust valve closed, the charge is now compressed. Towards the end of the stroke, the compressed charge is ignited. Combustion of the charge ensued. (3) Expansion Stroke (3-4): The pressure of the burning gases drives the piston outwards thus generating power. (A flywheel) is normally coupled to the engine so that some of the energy released during the expansion (or power) stroke is stored for effecting the piston. Just before the end of the expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens to let out the spent gases in the cylinder. (4) Exhaust Stroke (4-1): The Exhaust valve is kept open as the piston displaces the products of combustion. At the end of this stroke there will be some residual gases in the clearance volume, which will dilute or contaminate the next round of charge drawn into the cylinder.

32

Heat Engines 5.1.3 Inter. Combust.. Reciprocating type Type Rotary type External Combustion Reciprocating Rotary

type (steam turbine) (Recipt. Steam Eng.) Compression Ignition (oil engines) Gas

Spark Ignition Petrol Eng. 5.1.4

PART OF AN EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE: - Steam Power Plant - Boiler and super heater Steam generating unit - Turbine - Condenser - Hot water well - Feed pump

5.1.5 PART OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES: - Carburetor - Crankshafts and flywheel - Distribution Box -Camshaft, cams and the timing cain - Spark Plugs -Ignition coil - Piston, connected - Intake and exhaust manifold - Cylinder and valves - Air Cleaner - Condenser

5.1.6 FUNCTION OF CARBURATOR, DISTRIBUTOR AND SPARK PLUGS Carburetor: Controls the quantity and proportion of fuel and air entering the cylinder, to atomize the petrol into very small droplets and vaporize this fuel spray into a homogenous combustible mixture.

33

Distributor: Controls the firing order of engine; it distributes current to the segments, which are connected to the plugs in the sequence tenured by the firing order. Spark Plugs: Supplies the spark that ignites the combustible charge in the cylinder. 5.1.7 DIESEL (COMPRESSION IGNITION) FOUR STROKE: Induction Stroke (1-2): Air alone is admitted to the cylinder Compression Stroke (2-3): The air is compressed and towards the end of the stroke, liquid fuel is sprayed into the cylinder. The temperature of the air at the end of compression is sufficiently high for the droplets of fuel to vaporize and ignite as they enter the cylinder. Expansion (Power) or Working Stroke (3-4): Since the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder at a controlled rate, the pressure may remain fairly constant during combustion. In modern high-speed engines, however, there is often a rise in pressure during the initial stages of combustion. At some point in the expansion stroke the combustion is normally complete and the pressure then falls steadily until the exhaust valve is opened and blow-down occurs. Exhaust Stroke (4-1): Similar to the S.I engine (petrol engine)

Pv diagram for Compression Ignition Engines. 5.1.8 TWO STROKE ENGINES Two Stroke Engines are so called because there are only two strokes to each cycle induction and exhaust strokes are eliminated. The piston stroke must be longer, because part of the compression and expansion strokes are used for the processes of exhaust and Induction. The two strokes are: (i) The Compression Stroke: This is the stroke in which the compression of the charge occurs. For part of the stroke, an induction part is open which admits fresh charge into the crankcase

34

(ii)

The Expansion Stroke: In this stroke, the charge expands and pushes the piston back to the outer dead center (b.d.c). For part of the stroke, the exhaust part nearly simultaneously with the transfer part so that fresh charge is admitted into the cylinder from the crankcase. The incoming fresh charge helps in pushing out of the spent or exhausts charge from the cylinder a process known as Scavenging.

5.1.9 COMPARISON OF A FOUR-STROKE AND TWO STROKE ENGINES (1) The Two- Stroke Engine does not require any mechanically operated valves. Apart from the substantial saving in parts, this feature of the two-stroke engine makes it possible to run the engine in either direction without a reversing gear. This is a main attraction particularly, in marine application. (2) For the same rotational speed, the two-stroke engine has twice the number of working strokes; so, more power is obtainable from two-stroke engine than from a four-stroke engine of the same bulk and weight. The greater frequency of power or working strokes in the 2stroke engine results in a more uniform torque output and, in consequence, a smaller flywheel for achieving a smooth drive. The two-stroke engine tends, however to have higher fuel consumption than the four- stroke engine. This is because of the simultaneous occurrence of the exhaust and induction processes and the shorter time available. This tends to result in loss of fuel or combustion of fuel in air that is not fresh enough. Furthermore, less time is now available for the fresh charge to cool the cylinder in the two-stroke engine compared with the four-stroke engine. Hence, overheating problems are more likely to occur with the stroke engine than the four-stroke engine

(3)

(4)

35

CHAPTER SIX FUEL AND COMPOSITION 6.0 FUEL SOLID-FUELS Coal (bituminous) Wood (dried) Wood (charcoal) LIQUID-FUELS Motor petrol Diesel oil Heavy fuel oil Kerosene Aviation turbine kero. Methyl alcohol GASIOUS-FUELS Methane Natural gas Liquid petroleum gases Butane (domestic) Commercial propane Hydrogen

6.2 6.3

COMPOSITION OF FUELS Most common fuels consist mainly of hydrogen and carbon and may (and may not) contain other elements in small proportion. Complete Combustion: - Is when all the combustible element of a fuel are burn totally in the presence of just enough or excess oxygen. Stoichometric combustion: - Is when there is just enough oxygen necessary for the total burning of all the combustible elements of a fuel. Incomplete combustion:- Is when there is no enough oxygen to completely burn the combustible elements of a fuel Air fuel ratio:- Is the ratio of the mass of air needed for combustion to the mass of fuel combusted. Rich mixture:- Is the one in which the fuel proportion is more than that of the air in the mixture. Lean mixture:- Is one in which the fuel proportion in the mixture is lesser than that of the air. Calorific value:- The energy released per unit mass of fuel when it is burn completely in a calorimeter under specified conditions. THEORETICAL QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED IN COMBUSTION (STOICHOMETRIC COMBUSTION) Example:- Benzene has the chemical formula C6H6. Calculate the Stoichometric air/fuel ratio by mass and the corresponding wet volumetric analysis of the product. C6H6 + x(O2 + (79/21) N2) = aCO2 + bH2O + dN2 Carbon balance: 6 = a Hydrogen balance: 6 = 2b b = 3 Oxygen balance: 2x = 2a + b x = 7.5 Nitrogen balance: (79/21)x = d = 28.2

6.4

36

The relative molecular mass of O2 = 32 mass of O2= 7.5 32 = 240 The mass of one mole of C6H6 = 6 12 + 6 1 = 78 Stoichometry air/fuel ratio = 240 100 =13.21 78 23.3 The mole fraction of a constituent equals the volume fraction. The wet volumetric analysis if all the water vapor is present is therefore: 6CO2 + 3H2O + 28.2N2 = 37.2kmol Hence, CO2 = 6 100 = 16.13% 37.2 H2O = N2 = 28.2 37.2 3 100 = 8.06% 37.2 100 = 75.8%

Example 2: Determine the Stoichometric air/fuel ratio for petrol approximating to hexane C6 H14. Hence deduce the chemical equation if the petrol is burnt in 20 % excess air, and the wet volumetric analysis of the products if all the water vapor is present. C6 H14 + x(O2 + 79/21 N2)= aCO2 + bH2O + dN2. Carbon balance, 6= a Hydrogen bal. 14 = 2b b=7 Oxygen balance, 2x = 2a + b x = 9.5 Nitrogen balance, 3.76x = d = 35.74 C6H14 + 9.5(O2 + 79/21 N2 ) = 6CO2 + 7H2O + 35.74N2 86kg 304kg O2 100.7kg 264kg 126kg 1000.7kg The Stoichometry air/fuel ratio = 304 100 =15.17 86 23.3 If there is 20% excess air, the equation becomes C6H14 + 1.2(9.5(O2 + 79/21 N2) = 6CO2 + 7H2O + 0.2(9.5) O2 + (1.2)35.74N2 The amount of the substance of the product is 6CO2 + 7H2O + 1.9O2 + 42.89N2 = 57.79 kmol The mole fraction of the constituent equals the volume fraction, thus, the wet volumetric analysis if all the water vapor is present is; CO2 = 6 100 =10.38% 57.79 O2 = 1.9 100 = 3.29% 57.79 H2O = 7 100 = 12.11% 57.79 N2 = 42.89 100 = 74.22% 57.79

37

CHAPTER SEVEN REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 7.0 REVERSE CARNOT CYCLE This is also known as the Carnot refrigeration cycle. It is used as a standard of comparison for all refrigeration cycles because the Carnot refrigeration cycle gives the maximum value of coefficient of performance (c.o.p.) for given temperature limits TL and TH the temperature of the working fluid in the evaporator and condenser respectively. T 2

TH = T3 = T2 TL = T4 = T1

s 1-2: Isentropic compression: wet vapor at a low temperature and pressure (state 1) is compressed isentropically to saturated vapor at state 2 W1,2 = work input(-ve) to compress the vapor 2-3: Condensation: The compressed dry vapor enters the condenser at state 2 where condensation takes place at constant temperature to state 3 where it is completely converted to saturated liquid. Q2,3 = heat rejected (or delivered) to the surrounding at an elevated temperature TH (=T3=T2) 3-4: Isentropic expansion: The saturated liquid at state 3 is admitted into an expander where it is expanded isentropically (s3=s4; q3,4=0) to its original low pressure and temperature (state 4) W3.4 = work done by the expanding liquid 4-1: Evaporation: At state 4, the fluid enters the evaporator where it finally evaporates (boils), causing cooling at constant temperature to state 1. Q4,1 =heat absorbed from the evaporator(cold space)at low temperature TL (T1=T4) 7.1 Types of Refrigeration System - Vapor Compressor type operates on the principle of evaporative - Absorption system cooling - Thermoelectric refrigerator

38

7.1.1 The Vapor Compressor Refrigerator System q -ve Condenser

Throttling valve

q +ve Evaporator

Compressor

The Evaporator (1-2): Cooling is produced in the evaporator: - Cooling effect results when liquid is caused to evaporator (evaporative cooling). A refrigerant at a low pressure evaporates by extracting thermal energy from the medium to be cooled in contact with the evaporation. - The rest of the vapor compression system is designed simply to restore the vapor produced in the evaporator back to a liquid state at the original low pressure. The Compressor (2-3): Raises the pressure of the vapor from low value at state 2 to a high pressure (& temperature) following which the vapor is cooled and condensed as it passes through the condenser. The compressor is also responsible for the movement of the fluid through the refrigeration circuit. The Condenser (3-4): Condensation occurs at attempt close to ambient condenser is a design heat exchanger that reduces the heat of the third leaving the condenser to a temperature at which condensation can take place. The Throttle Value (4-1): Restore the refrigerant to a low pressure and very wet vapor condition as the fluid enters into the evaporator coils.
3

Compression Condensing 4 2 Vapor Evaporation (Cooling)

T-S:- Diagram for a Practical Vapor Compressor System

39

7.1.2 Absorption Refrigerator Main Principle of Absorption Refrigerators: The Vapor is dissolved in a suitable liquid before compression. After compression the vapor can be drawn off, and then throttled and evaporated in the usual way. - Process of condensation (2-3) - Throttling (3-4) - And evaporation (4-1) After evaporation to state 1, the vapor is first passed into an absorber and dissolved in water. Temperature of water is only a little above atmospheric, and at such temperature the solubility to ammonia vapor is very high and the process of solution is accompanied by a rejection of heat Qs to the surroundings. (Just as the process of driving off the vapor, from solution requires heat absorption). The liquid solution is then compressed to the required pressure and heated, first in a heat exchange, and then in the generator, which is maintained at a Tempt. Tg. At the higher temperature the solubility of ammonia in water is appreciably smaller and the heat received Qg results in the removal of vapor from solution. Steam coils, gas, or electricity may heat the generator. The ammonia vapor is passed to the condenser to complete the main cycle, while the remaining weak solution is returned to the absorber via a throttle value. The heat exchanger is merely used to reduce the quantities of heat Qg and Qs. QH Condenser Throttling valve Evaporator Heat (Qg) from external Generator source

Heat exchanger

Ql
These parts replaced the compressor of the conventional vapor compressor refrigerator

Qs Absorber

W 0

40

The Advantages of Absorption System 1. It is compact 2. It is noiseless since there are no moving parts 3. It has hold over capacity 4. Can be operated with kerosene, gas or electricity. The Disadvantages of Absorption System 1. It is heavier than a vapor compression refrigeration plant and hence more expensive to procure. 2. The coefficient of performance of a vapor absorption system is lower than that of vapor compression equipment operating under the same pressure. 7.1.3 Thermoelectric Refrigerating System Thermoelectric: When two unlike materials such as copper and iron, are joined in an electrical circuit they form a thermocouple. If a direct current is passed through the thermocouple, as shown in fig. 7.4 junction A will be heated and junction B will be cooled. If the direction of current is reversed, junction A will be cooled and junction B will be heated. Since the heat absorbed at the cool junction is given off at the hot junction, the thermocouple acts as a heat pump. The refrigeration effect or heating effect can be multiplied by connecting thermocouples in series, forming a thermopile. Junction A When an electric current flows through a (Hot) thermocouple consisting of two different conductors, such as copper and iron, heat is Iro Copper Battery absorbed at one junction and given off at the n other + Junction B (cool) Thermoelectric refrigerator has no moving parts. They are highly reliable, compact, light in weight, and silent in operation. Moreover, they can be converted to heaters simply by reversing the direction of current flow. These advantages make them desirable for many low cooling-power applications in spite of their poor c.o.p (about 0.65). Thermoelectric cooling stages are used, for example, in the guidance system of many missiles, in some complex scientific instruments and in portable refrigerators. Hot junctions Semi conductor B Cold Junctions Refrigerating Space Semi conductor A Direct Current Source

41

A thermopile refrigerator is cooled by a set of thermocouples called a thermopile that pump heat out of the refrigerated space and into the outside air. 7.2 COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF A REFRIGERATOR The coefficient of performance (briefly written as C.O.P) is the ratio of heat extracted in the refrigerator to the work done on the refrigerant. It is also known as theoretical coefficient of performance. Mathematically, Theoretical C.O.P. = Q/W Where Q = Amount of heat extracted in the refrigerator (or the amount of refrigeration produced, or capacity of a refrigerator), and W = Amount of work done.

Notes: 1. The coefficient of performance is the reciprocal of the efficient (i.e 1/) of a heat engine. It is thus obvious, that the value of C.O.P. is always greater than unity. 2.The ratio of the actual C.O.P to the theoretical C.O.P is known as relative coefficient of performance. Mathematically, Relative C.O.P = Actual C.O.P Theoretical C.O.P Also, the C.O.P can be defined in terms of refrigerating effect and net work done i.e C.O.P = Refrigerating effect ------------ (7.1) Network done Where Refrigerating effect is the quality of heat per unit mass absorbed (or removed) by the fluid from the cold space at temperature TL to provide the necessary cooling effect. i.e Refrigerating effect = q41 In terms of temperatures TL and TH, the C.O.P can be expressed as C.O.PcR = TL TH - TL
-----------------------------

(7.2)

For a Carnot heat pump, the C.O.PCH is given by C.O.PcH = Heating effect ---------- (7.3) Network done Where heating effect = quantity of heat per unit mass rejected (or delivered) to the hot space at an elevated temperature TH to achieve the desired heating effect i.e. Heating effect = q23. Also in terms of temperatures TL and TH, C.O.PCH = TH -------------------- (7.4) TH - TL

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Combination of equation (7.1) and (7.3) or equation (7.2) and (7.4) gives C.O.PCH = C.O.PCR + 1. Refrigerating Capacity: Is defined as the rate of heat removed from refrigerated space. It is expressed in KW or KJ/sec. Mass flow rate (kg/s), M = Refrigeration Capacity (Kw or KJ/s) Refrigerating Effect (KJ/Kg) 7.3 REFRIGERANTS A refrigerant is a working fluid used in a refrigerating machine. It absorbs heat from the evaporator as it changes its phase from liquid to gas and releases this heat in the condenser as the fluid returns from gaseous phase to the liquid phase.

7.3.1 Properties of a Refrigerant For a working fluid to be used as refrigerant, it must posses certain required characteristics. These are as follows: 1. Low positive evaporative pressure (low boiling point). The evaporating pressure should be low and positive and as close as possible to the atmospheric pressure. This prevents the possibility of the entry of air and moisture into the system during operation. 2. Non -toxic, non-poisonous and odourless 3. Non-explosive and non-corrosive 4. Ease of leak detection 5. Low cost 6. Chemically stable i.e no reaction with lubricating oils 7. High latent heat of vaporization at evaporator temperature for good cooling effect 8. Low freezing point. The freezing point should be lower than any temperature in the cycle, so that solidification of the refrigerant will not take place during normal operation 9. Low specific volume of refrigerant vapor. A low specific volume of refrigerant vapor will require less size and consequently inexpensive compressor and vice-versa 10. High dielectric strength i.e the refrigerant must posses a high resistance to flow of electricity 11. From heat transfer consideration, it is desirable that the saturation temperature at the condenser pressure is higher than the atmospheric temperature 12. Low condensing pressure. This characteristic permits the use of lighter and consequently lower cost materials for the liquid refrigerant lines 7.3.2 Commonly Used Refrigerants The commonly used refrigerants are: 1. Dichlorodifluoromethane, CCl2F2 (R12) 2. Monochlorodifluoromethane, CHClF2 (R22)

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 7.4

Ammonia, NH3 (R717) Tetrafluroethane, CH2FCF3 (R134) Dichlorotrifluoroethane, CHCl2CF3 (R123) Trichlorofluoromethane, CCl3F (R11) Trichlorotrifluoroethane, CCl2FCClF2 (R113) Water, H2o

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM The terms; Air Conditioning implies a great deal more than mere temperature control. There are four atmosphere conditions which effect human effort. These are: 1. The Temperature:- of the surrounding (ambient) air. Measured in degree Celsius (0C) or in degree Fahrenheit (of). 2. The Humidity:- of the air. i.e. the moisture content of the air. 3. Air Purity:- people are not comfortable when breathing contaminated air even if it is within acceptable temperature and humidity ranges. 4. Air Movement:- Even if temperature, humidity and air purity are satisfactory for small amount of air motion seems to be necessary for human comfort. True air conditioning implies that all form of these atmosphere conditions for human comforts are being met. CLASSIFICATYION OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 1. Classification as to Major Function a. Comfort Air Conditioning system b. Industrial Air Conditioning system 2. Classification as to Season of the Year a. Winter Air Conditioning system b. Summer Air Conditioning system c. Year Round Air Conditioning system

7.4.1

3. Classification as to Equipment Arrangement a. Central Station system c. Combination system b. Unitary or Package system 7.4.2 WINDOW TYPE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM The lowest cost-cooling device. The indoor portion of the unit consists of an air filter, a fan, and a cooling coil. The warm, humid indoor air is drawn through the filter and into the fan. The fan blows the warm, humid air over the cooling coil, which cools and dehumidifies the air before it is blown into the room. The cooling coil contains a refrigerant fluid. The refrigerant fluid changes from liquid state to a gas state because heat from the warm air passing over the coil cause evaporation of the refrigerant fluid (heat transfer between the warm humid room air and the

44

refrigerant in the evaporator (cooling coil)). This process takes heat from the warm humid room air. The outdoor portion of the limit consists of a compressor, a fan, and a condenser. The compressor received low temperature, lowpressure refrigerant gas from the cooling coil. The compressor delivers high-temperature, high-pressure refrigerant gas (after compressing the refrigerant) to the condenser. Inside the condenser, the high temperature high-pressure refrigerant gas is converted to liquid (condensation takes place). The cooler outdoor air passing over the condenser takes heat away from the hotter refrigerant gas. This process causes the refrigerant gas to change to liquid state. The refrigerant liquid is delivered to the cooling coil. The refrigerant fluid constantly circulates in a closed path through the cooling coil, the compressor, and the condenser. The fan for cooling, the condenser sucks in relatively cool outdoor air, passes the air over the condenser, and blows the hotter air back outdoors. In the room air conditioner the compressor and the two fans are driven by electric motors.
Cool air into the room

Hot air out

Condenser

Evaporato r

Fan

X X X X X X X
Filter

Compressor

Capillary Tube: Controlling refrigerant flow into Evaporator

Cool air into condenser

7.4

BASIC TERMS IN AIR CONDITIONING 1. Humidity: It is the mass of water vapor present in 1kg of dry air, and is generally express in term of gm per kg of dry air. It is also called specific humidity or humidity ratio 2. Absolute Humidity: It is the mass of water vapor present in 1m3 of dry air, and is generally express in terms of gm per cubic meter of dry air. It is also expressed in terms of grains per cubic meter of dry air. 3. Relative Humidity: It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapor in a given volume of moist air to the mass of water

45

4.

5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

10.

11.

vapor in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature and pressure Dew Point Temperature: it is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when the moisture (water vapor) present in it begins to condense. In other words, the dew point temperature is the saturation temperature (tsat) corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapor (Rv). it is usually denoted by tdp Dry Bulb Temperature: It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when the moisture present in the air does not affect it. The dry bulb temperature is generally denoted by td or tdb Wet Bulb Temperature: it is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer, when a wet cloth exposed to the air surrounds its bulb. Such a thermometer is called wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is generally by tw or twb Wet Bulb Depression: It is the difference between dry bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature at any point. The wet bulb depression indicates relative humidity of the air. Moist Air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapor. The amount of water vapor present in the air depends upon the absolute pressure and temperature of the mixture. Saturated Air: it is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, when the air has diffused the maximum amount of water vapor into it. The water vapors, usually, occur in the form of superheated steam as an invisible gas. However, when the saturated air is cooled, the water vapor in the air starts condensing, and the same may be visible in form of moist, fog or condensation on cold surfaces Degree of Saturation: It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapor in a unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapor in the same mass and pressure of dry air when it is saturated at the same temperature Dew Point Depression: It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and the dew point temperature of air.

Example 7.1 A Carnot refrigerating cycle operates between evaporator temperature and condenser temperature of 5o C and 30o C respectively. i. Determine the coefficient of performance of the refrigeration cycle ii. Determine work per unit time required in kw for the cycle to absorb 1100 kJ/min at 5o C. iii. Calculate the coefficient of performance for a Carnot heat pump operating in the temperature range iv. Determine the rate at heat in kJ/min will be delivered at 30o C by the heat pump if it absorbs 1100kJ/min at 5o C

46

Solution Given that T1 = 30o C = 30.3K, T2 = -5o C = 268K i. C.O.P. for carport refrigeration is given by equation 7.2 C.O.PCR = T2 = 268 = 7.657 T1 T2 303 268 ii. Heat absorbed at 5o C = Q = 1100 kJ = 18.3333 kJ/sec 60 sec From equation (7.0), WCR = Q C.O.P = 18.3333 (kJ/sec) = 2.3943 kw 7.657

iii. C.O.P for a Carnot heat pump is given by equation (7.4) C.O.PCH = T1 = 303 = 8.6571 T1 T2 303 - 268 iv. Let Qr be heat delivered at 30o C and Qa = heat absorbed at 5o C Qa = 1100 kJ/min and C.O.P.CH = Qr Qr Qa 8.6571 = Qr Qr 1100 8.6571Qr - 9522.81 = Qr 8.6571Qr Qr = 9522.81 Qr = 1243.6575 kJ/min

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CHAPTER EIGHT HEAT TRANSFER 8.0 Basically there are three modes of heat transfer namely Conduction, Convection and Radiation. 8.1 CONDUCTION The mode of heat transfers in a solid material and occurs by virtue of temperature difference between parts of the material. Conduction also occurs in liquid and gases but generally, liquid is associated with convection and gases with convection and possibly with radiation. Conduction within a solid material is a transfer of internal energy in which there is no movement of macroscopic parts. This is accomplished by; the molecules of matter in the hot region of a material substance vibrating very vigorously which results in the nudging of adjacent molecule, and lead to a transfer of energy to the colder region. 8.1.1 Conduction through a Slap: Heat conduction through a slap or generally speaking, through a solid material is governed by Fouriers Law of Conduction and it states that The rate of heat transfer through a homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area A of the solid which is at right angle to the direction of flow, and to the temperature difference across the solid, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the solid through which the heat flows. The constant of proportionality is the thermal conductivity of the solid material. Temp. t2 t1 X Area A t2 Q Q Q Q Temp. x t1
Fig. 8.1: Heat flow through a thin slab of law may The above material

Q At x

X x be express as follows x = KAt = -KA(t2 t1) ---------------- (8.0) x x

Where, Q= rate of heat flow through the material (W or J/s) x = thickness of the material (m) A = area of solid material (slap or block) which is perpendicular to flow direction (m2) K = thermal conductivity of the solid material (W/mk) t = temperature change = t2 t1

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8.1.2 Conduction Through a Composite Wall For a wall that composed of a number of slabs of different materials, the heat from the hot side to the cold side is conducted through each slab in turn, so that the heat transmitted per unit area per unit time through each slab is the same i.e Q = K1(t1 ta) = K2(ta - tb) = K3(ta t2) --------------- (8.1) A x1 x2 x3 Mathematically, t1 t2 = (t1 ta)+(ta tb)+(tb- t2) t1 t2 = Qx1 + Qx2 + Qx3 AK1 AK2 AK3 t1 t2 = Q x1 + x2 + x3 A K1 K2 K3 Therefore Q = A(t1 t2) ----------------- (8.2) x1 + x2 + x3 K1 K2 K3

8.1.3 Conduction Through A Pipe Wall Consider the heat transmitted across a cylindrical element of radius r and of thickness dr for a length of pipe l. let the temperature gradient over the element be t. Area through which heat is being transmitted A = 2r x L. And according to Fouriers law, the heat transmitted per unit time Q is directly proportional to the temperature gradient, and is inversely proportional to the length of path. Q = -KAt ------------------------- (8.3) r A negative sign is given to t/r because is reducing as r is increasing Q = -k(2rL) t/r Q = -2Lk(t2- t1) Ln(r3/r1) Where L =length of the cylinder (m) 8.2 CONVECTION This is the name given to the gross motion of the fluid itself, so that fresh fluid is continually available for heating or cooling. Thus, convection is the mode of heat transfer in which transfer of energy occurs via the actual physical movement of macroscopic part of the material medium. Convection could be Natural Convection or Forced Convection.
49

When the motion of the fluid results from the action of gravity on the fluid portions, which have different densities presumably, a consequence of heat transfer process the convection is said to be free or Natural. But if the motion of the fluid is caused artificially for example by means of a pump, the heat transfer mode is a forced convection. Air that is blown over a heated plate is a problem of forced convection. 8.2.1 The Law Governing Heat Transfer by Convection is Newtons Law of Cooling. This is expressed mathematically as follows: Q = hcA (ts tf) ---------------------- (8.4) Where hc = heat transfer coefficient of the material Ts = temperature at the material surface A = crossectional area of the material tf = the fluid temperature. 8.3 RADIATION The mode of heat transfer that requires no material medium. Thus, radiation is an energy transfer, which is transmitted most freely in a vacuum. It occurs between all material phases. The amount f energy emitted by a body depends on the absolute temperature of the body. When a radiant energy falls on a body, part of it may be absorbed ( ),reflected (l),or transmitted (). The fractions of the radiant energy absorbed, reflected and transmitted are called the absorptivity. Reflectivity (l), Transmissivity () +l + =1 *Opaque body has = 0 + l = 0; Black body has = 1, l = 0, & = 0

8.3.1 The Stefan-Boltzmann law of Radiation State that the rate of total radiant energy emitted from a black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Q = AT4 ------------------- (8.4) Where T = absolute temperature A = surface area of a perfect radiating body = Stefan Boltzmann constant (56.7 x 10-12Kw/m2K4) Example 8.1 The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 75oc and the outer surface is at 38oc. Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area if the thickness of the brick wall is 200mm and the thermal conductivity is 0.51w/moc.

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Solution Given: t1 = 75oc, o 0.51w/m c

t2 = 38oc,

dx = 200mm = 0.2m

k=

From equation (8.0), q= Q A = = = k (t1 t2) dx 0.51 x (75 38) 0.2 94.35W/m2
t1 = 75oc

Q
200mm

t2 = 75oc

Example 8.2 A furnace wall consist of 200mm fie brick, 120mminsulating brick, and 200mm building brick. The inside wall is at a temperature of 550o C and the atmospheric temperature is15o C. The heat transfer coefficient for the outside wall surface is 10w/m2k, and the thermal conductivities of the firebrick, insulating brick, and building brick are 1.4, 0.2, and 0.7w/mK, respectively. Neglecting radiation, calculate: i. The overall heat transfer coefficient ii. The rate of heat lost per unit area iii. The interface temperatures Solution Let the thickness of firebrick, insulating brick, and building brick be dx1, dx2, dx3 respectively so that: dx1 = 200mm = 0.2m k1 = 1.4w/mK dx2 = 120mm = 0.12m k2 = 0.2w/mK dx3 = 200mm = 0.2m k3 = 0.7w/mK o o t1 = 550 C t5 = 15 C ha = 10w/m2K Fbk t1 =550oC dx1 = 0.2 m
t2

Ibk

Ibk

Atmospheric Air

15o C dx2 = dx3 0.12 = 0.2 m m

t3 t4

i. Let the overall heat transfer coefficient be is given by:

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1 = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 + 1 k1 k2 k3 ha = 0.2 + 0.12 + 0.2 + 1 1.4 0.2 0.7 10 = 1.12857

1 = 0.886076 10128557

ii. The rate of heat lost per unit area Le the rate of heat lost per unit area be q. q = Q/A = (t1 t5 ) = the rate of heat lost per unit area = 0.886076 (550 15) = 484.0506w/m2 iii. The interface temperatures From Q = q = k1 (t1 t2) A dx1 t2 = t1 - q dx1 = 550 - 484.0506 x 0.2 k1 1.4

= 482.2785o C Similarly, t3 = t2 197.8481oC q dx2 = 482.2785 - 474.0506 x 0.12 = k2 0.2

At the outer surface of the building brick, the mode of heat transfer is convective heat transfer. Hence, From q = h (t4 t5) where h = ha t4 = t5 + q ha = 15 + 474.0506 10

= 62.40506o C

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