1 Running Head: EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY

Effects of Technology on Social Relationships in Adulthood

Aaron C. Buckley PSYC 339-01 May 4, 2012

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Humans are social creatures, and we employ various methods of communicating with each other and fostering interpersonal relationships. These relationships range from the intimate and familial, with an emphasis on constant communication and supportive behaviors, to circles of friends, acquaintances, and professional networking contacts that we may not keep in daily contact with but are still important and a part of our social circles. Personal computers, smartphones, and the Internet, coupled with an increasingly mobile and interconnected world, have facilitated an environment where we can keep in contact with those we care about even if we are physically distant. Given the diverse reality of our social networks, I want to explore our interactions with each other in the Information Age. Specifically, I want to research the interplay of technology with relationships throughout the several developmental stages of adulthood, with an emphasis on the development of friendships and sociofamilial affiliations. Relationships are defined as dynamic, recurrent patterns of interactions with other individuals (Bjorklund, 2011). Being dynamic, they are fluid and change over time as an individual grows, as the context of the relationship changes, or as circumstances demand. Ones relationship with their mother as a nine-year-old child will not be the same as when they are a seventeen year old, nor as a twenty eight year old. Our fulfillment of social roles, expected behaviors and attitudes that come with ones position in society, help define our relationships with others. Indeed, relationships can be nuanced within numerous contexts, including culture, language, level of intimacy, biological relationship (if any), the circumstances in which people meet, etc. In laymans terms, every interaction we have with another person is in the context of some type of social relationship, and understanding the innumerable ways a relationship can present itself is key to considering them in the context of technology.

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The use of language, a system of communication with its own set of conventions and special words, is common across all human civilizations, and thus all cultures and social interactions. Language as we primarily consider it is verbal and written expression, but it can also encompass art, music, dance, and physical motions. In the context of spoken and written communication, identifying language in terms of English, French, or another label is generally inadequate. A study on slang and the use of alternative words and descriptors in English demonstrated that expressions of language are contextual to the socioeconomic status, background, and social roles of the speaker (Kulik, Sarbin, & Stein, 1971). This study found markedly different responses to vocabulary terms depending on whether the adolescents surveyed were considered delinquent (defined as having one or more negative experiences with the law) or non-delinquent, the latter being recruited high school students with no history of incarceration. Further, it was demonstrated that the utilization of specific dialects, such as a heavy emphasis on slang terminology, was correlated with some anti-social tendencies in social roles. Delinquent individuals were positively correlated with knowledge and use of slang vocabulary, whereas non-delinquent individuals were more positively correlated with utilization of what the study labeled proper middle-class English. More recently, a study of college students under the age of twenty-five who indicated foreign-born, non-English speaking parents demonstrates the challenges and opportunities language presents in family relationships (Weisskirch, et al., 2011). Traditionally, there are social roles expected of children and parents; in particular, adults are authoritative figures as

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well as providers of safety, comfort, and resources to their offspring. The current study investigated the dynamic that occurs when children, due to their dual exposure to both familial and mainstream American cultures and languages, must act as language brokers for their nonEnglish speaking parents. This scenario presents children with the opportunity to meaningfully contribute a useful skill to their family, while the parents overcome the present language barrier by utilizing their childrens skills. The above studies demonstrate some of the complex ways language facilitates a relationship, because we are interdependent social creatures and depend on communication for rich interaction with one another, with our social groups and networks, and with the world at large. More specifically, humankind is an imperfect animal with social needs that are equally as important as food and shelter (White, 2011). Our social needs, such as feeling affiliated, accepted and appreciated, are rooted in part in basic survival techniques and recognition of our individual limitations. Collaboration with others enhances our personal chances at survival and fulfilling our immediate, biological needs as well as forming long-term communities. This interconnectedness is discussed in the context of adulthood in an experiment employing Terror Management Theory. TMT posits that the ever-present fear of death, or awareness of ones acute mortality, motivates and influences human behavior (Cox & Arndt, 2012). This research questioned how TMT may affect how we perceive our relationships with others, and how receiving strong, encouraging and supportive attention from others may be a premier reason why we value close relationships and kinships. They found strong support for the importance of perceived positive regard in social environments, given situations where an

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individual feels threatened and their survival may be in jeopardy. Of particular significance, the data showed a strong correlation between an individuals perception of positive regard from their intimate partner and commitment to that partner in the face of death. Obviously, healthy relationships with mutual displays of positive regard for one another can be sources of strength and encouragement, along with the communal benefits of being a valued part of a social network. Human needs for affiliation and belongingness are as valid and substantial as our biological needs. Personalistic behaviors, those actions we choose to take which are goaloriented and need-driven, include establishing relationships as well as chopping firewood for heat (White, 2011). Research on social connectedness suggests that a sense of belonging with others due to an affiliation, whether it is sharing the same birthday or having gone to the same school, can cause individuals to internalize the motivations and desires of others and become more motivated to assist others in their goals (Walton, Cohen, Cwir, & Spencer, 2011). Intrinsic motivation to assist in a group project, or others with their projects, was positively correlated with anticipation of opportunities for engaging social interaction and also with a perception of sharing traits with other team members. Generalizing these findings to the larger context of adult relationships, the mere practice of engaging in relationships is an incentive for doing so since social interaction is sufficiently rewarding on its own. In addressing romantic or intimate partners, the researchers conclude that intense feelings of social connectedness have a relatively profound effect on the self and influence attitudes, goals, and behaviors.

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While relationships are inherently important to individuals, they require work and energy to maintain; depending on the social roles we are filling at any given time, we could be simultaneously involved in many relationships with relatives, coworkers, friends new and old, etc. (Bjorklund, 2011). As the world has become more economically interconnected, people have become more mobile and willing to travel farther for education, business opportunities, and settling down. Until now, this free movement of people across national borders would have greatly hindered their ability to stay in touch with family and friends. Over the last century, we have seen the advent of telephones, televisions, cameras, video recorders, personal computers, etc. Each of these inventions considerably enhanced humanitys capacity for travel, communication, media consumption, and knowledge of its environment. Since the arrival of the Internet in 1995, we have existed in a world where one third of the Earths population has access to a fully global, trans-national network of information sharing and digital communication. Our ability to establish, maintain, grow, and even sever relationships with others is no longer limited by distance or physical contact with each other in this technological reality (Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter, & Espinoza, 2008). Currently, most research has focused on the roles cell phones and personal computers play in facilitating communication and data sharing. Cell phones provide connectivity (when coverage is available) to cellular satellites and thus to any recognized phone number in the world, and smart phones augment that capability with data sharing. Computers provide access to the Internet, in addition to the rich functions available through applications. In the last decade, the Internet became social with an emphasis on sharing sites such as Youtube.com for

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videos, Facebook.com for general status updates, photos, and interesting material, and MSN.com for pop culture and news content aggregation. With the smart phone market accelerating after the widespread adoption of Apples iPhone device, many smart phone owners have Facebook.com and other services in their pocket, ready to blast an update to their friends and share pictures. How does the Information Age affect interpersonal relationships? While there is no concrete and comprehensive answer to that question, current research shows promising opportunities for enhanced connectedness and reasons for concern. Social technology can help individuals bridge the gap between themselves and their close friends and family if they are away for travel or simply too busy to make house visits. However, if abused social technology can become a commodity that people depend on to check in on friends, forgoing physical contact or a phone call in favor of Liking someones Facebook.com status (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Social technology should be complementary to, not a replacement for, face to face interaction. Adults at different stages of the lifespan typically utilize technology for different overall purposes that correlate with the roles they are performing (Bjorklund, 2011). Emerging and young adults are creating and joining social circles, exploring their interests and identities, and accepting social roles within their friend groups, families, schools and workplaces. These cohorts utilize social networks heavily and rely on sites such as Facebook.com to keep track of their friends (Subrahmanyam, Reich, Waechter, & Espinoza, 2008). Interestingly, participants in this study reported using social networking sites to connect with offline friends as well as

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acquaintances they only know online through instant messaging protocols such as Windows Live Messenger and AOL Instant Messenger. Most participants reported some degree of overlap between these two groups of friends. According to the Pew Internet and American Life Project, three quarters of American adolescents own cell phones, and seventy two percent of them utilize text messaging (Underwood, Rosen, More, Ehrenreich, & Gentsch, 2012). A study of the content of adolescent text messaging using Blackberry smartphones exposed communication patterns that included some profanity and sexual themes but otherwise standard conversational fare shortened to fit into the 160 character limit of the phones used in the experiment. In middle adulthood, technological use emphasizes maintaining current social networks and groups of friends versus generating new ones. Middle-aged adults have time-consuming social roles to fulfill such as being a spouse, a grand/parent, and becoming a parents caregiver (Bjorklund, 2011). Adults who get married or select a life partner and have children may have less time for friends and family, and may need to relocate to pursue job opportunities. Video calling, chat, online social networks and email can help individuals stay in touch with their families and old friends. A study on middle-aged adults and stressful life events explores how not all friends are created equal. Enacted emotional and instrumental support from others for individuals undergoing stressful situations varies according to the intimacy of the relationship and the perceived intensity of the stressor (Birditt, Antonucci, & Tighe, 2012). High quality relationships tend to engender supportive behaviors irrespective of the context of the present stressors.

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Interestingly, low quality relationships, such as acquaintances on online social networking sites respond to intense stressors with comforting and supportive behaviors but typically do not respond to more general stress. This phenomenon can be generalized to the broader population: we respond to extreme stress with supportive behaviors, even if the individual experiencing the crisis is a stranger, but in regards to everyday stressors we naturally put effort into supporting individuals we have a strong relationship with. Late adulthood is a period of role transition, in which adults accustomed to independence and providing for their families may find their roles downsized and even reversed (Ferraro, 2001). Caregivers begin to receive care from their children, spouses and friends; as their bodies age, they may experience diminished cognitive and physical functioning, as well as health complications. They may also need assistance performing their activities of daily living such as shopping. Older adults may feel more detached and isolated from their support networks as close friends and family pass away, and decreased mobility may impede efforts to spend time with grandchildren or perform volunteer work. Perceptions of levels of emotional support are tied to the individuals overall health, with healthier people being more satisfied with their support networks than individuals who report complications (White, Philogene, Fine, & Sinha, 2009). Additionally, a study of life satisfaction in Hong Kong reveals that perceived intergenerational emotional support from younger family members is significantly correlated with scores of life satisfaction; cultural factors are strongly implicated in how an individual perceives such support (Lou, 2010).

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That is not to say that late adulthood is a strictly depressing period of development. Older research assumed that late adulthood was a time of role loss and grief (Ferraro, 2001). More recent findings reveal a more complex and individualistic journey for adults that takes into context their life experiences, their available support networks and opportunities for interaction and fulfillment (Cornwell, Laumann, & Schumm, 2008). Older adults have more time available due to retirement for pursuing hobbies, part-time and volunteer work, and caring for the youngest members of the family (Waite & Das, 2010). Caregiving at this stage takes a simpler form than that of middle adulthood, with an emphasis on emotional support and advice than on providing resources for the family (Bjorklund, 2011). Older adults compensate for the loss of close friends and intimate partners due to death with increased involvement in the community and in family life. These new and adapted social roles provide opportunities for enrichment and selfreflection, and technology has enabled more convenient access to physically distant family and friends. Specifically, Internet-based technologies such as photo-sharing, email, online social networks, and video conferencing enable less mobile older adults to stay current on the activities of close friends and relatives. Interestingly, social network usage is rapidly increasing among older adults; one in five adults ages 50-64 say they log into such sites daily, and 13% say they do so among the 65+ age group (Madden, 2010). Social networks such as Facebook have complemented significant shifts in the psychosocial development of emerging and young adults, and research is presently unclear about the long-term positive and negative consequences of online identities on intimacy.

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Facebook facilitates large and impersonal social networks, with the overwhelming majority of friends being acquaintances and strangers whom users may have had no more than a few opportunities for contact with (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Facebook provides a structured means of organizing growing social networks, assisting users in successfully managing expansive webs of social connections. Additionally, Facebook friends include the users close friends and family. In this context, Facebook facilitates multiple means of communication with important contacts and assists in maintaining those ties (Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Espinoza, 2012). The status update is a tool users utilize to publicly express current emotional states and share information with their entire networks. This public expression of personal information is one of the hallmarks of a changing communication paradigm whereby individuals are using such tools to express their individualism to everbroadening networks of social contacts (Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012). Users appear to be recognizing the utility of online social networking in managing their contacts in an increasingly mobile world. Online social networks are useful for augmenting and organizing contacts, but evidence of abuse and over-reliance demonstrates potential pitfalls for identity-seeking adolescents and emerging adults. Attempts to fulfill social needs such as relatedness and interconnectedness have a paradoxical effect in which active Facebook users report both increased and decreased connectedness to their social circles (Sheldon, Abad, & Hinsch, 2011). In other words, there seems to be two effects occurring where individuals feel both motivated to log onto Facebook in order to fill a need for connectedness, and also feel disconnected from their peers and thus

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frequent Facebook more, anticipating that higher use of the site will result in more opportunities for interaction. Heavy use of online media is negatively correlated with social well-being and perceptions of self-image (Pea, et al., 2012). In contrast, frequent face-to-face communication is positively correlated with high scores of confidence, self-esteem and greater feelings of normalcy. However, recent research suggests that the most important part of communicating, whether face-to-face or through online media, is the context of the interaction. Direct interactions such as chatting and instant messaging maintain and increase perceptions of intimacy, while impersonal activities including chat rooms have the opposite effect (Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Espinoza, 2012). Research suggests that Internet-based interactions detract from users feelings of fulfilling social needs when utilized alone or abused as the sole way individuals interact with their peers (Litt & Stock, 2011). In reality, especially for adolescents and young adults, social media are used primarily for enhancing and enriching interaction with offline friends (Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Espinoza, 2012). The potential for abuse of these evolving technologies exists, particularly for developing and vulnerable adolescents and emerging adults. Researchers are investigating the potential for Internet addiction, and while no concrete definition of this type of addiction has been submitted, studies on the phenomenon are ongoing. Three characteristics have been identified that may provide a profile for at-risk adolescents and young people: relying on the Internet as a primary source of friends, preferring online communication to face-to-face interaction, and a prevailing sense of low self-image and self-esteem (Smahel, Brown, & Blinka, 2012). Healthy

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individuals at all stages of adulthood utilize the Internet for maintaining and broadening social networks, but do not rely on online communication primarily to do so. The Internet provides an exciting opportunity for dramatically expanding our abilities to communicate with those closest to us. It also enables individuals to maintain broad networks of acquaintances, past friends, networking and professional contacts. While longitudinal studies investigating the lifelong effects of living in a world connected by the World Wide Web are absent or presently ongoing, current research suggests that moderate Internet use can be beneficial for individuals across the lifespan as long as users do not rely on the Internet as their primary means of social interaction. While social networks like Facebook serve to enrich our interaction with others by incorporating various media and sharing technologies, they cannot compensate compensate for face-to-face contact and the intimacy that accompanies it. Future research should look at longitudinal effects of the online communication paradigm on the developing person, and potentially identify criteria for Internet addiction as it may manifest.

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