Complex Analysis

A Short Guide
Hameer Abbasi
iOlympiads.com Site Administrator
admin@iolympiads.com
Thursday, 8
th
December, 2011
Contents
1 The Basics 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 What is Complex Analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 What are Complex Numbers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 The Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 The Complex Conjugate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Arithmetic Operations using Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Multiplicative Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Eulers Identity and the Exponential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Eulers Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 The Exponential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Generalizations 9
2.1 Exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Base e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Real Exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Real Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.4 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Base e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.2 Sine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.3 Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.4 Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.1 Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.2 Sine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.3 Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1
CONTENTS 2
2.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5.1 Sine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.2 Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5.3 Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Inverse Hyperbolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Applications 15
3.1 Phasors Analysis in Linear Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Initial Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Sine/Cosine Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.1 Double Angle Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.2 Angle Sum Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.3 Powers of Sine/Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 1
The Basics
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 What is Complex Analysis?
Complex Analysis is dened as the study of relations whose domain(s) or
range are subsets of the complex plane. Simply put, it means that it is the
study of relations which take complex number(s) as arguments and which give
a set of complex numbers as a result.
We use the term relation, and not function, as many common functions (as
we shall see later), when generalized to the complex plane, give a set of complex
numbers as output, whereas the denition of a function is that it returns a single
element.
1.1.2 What are Complex Numbers?
Complex Numbers are dened to be numbers of the form : D . Ci, where
.. , 2 R and i D
p
1. The number . is called the real part of :, and is denoted
by Re f:g. The number , is called the imaginary part of :, and is denoted by
Imf:g. In applied mathematics, the notation is sometimes substituted for i .
A number is called real if , D 0 and it is called wholly imaginary if . D 0.
Thus, we realize that the set of real numbers is a subset of the set of complex
numbers where , D 0. The set of complex numbers is represented by C and the
set of wholly imaginary numbers by I. The set of wholly imaginary numbers is
also a subset of the set of complex numbers where . D 0. Complex numbers
are usually represented by the letters : or n.
1.1.3 The Polar Form of a Complex Number
The form : D . C i, is known as the rectangular form of a complex number.
Complex numbers are also represented in the polar form : D r(cos 0 Ci sin 0),
where r. 0 2 R. The number r is called the modulus or magnitude of :, and
3
CHAPTER 1. THE BASICS 4
is represented by j:j. The number 0 is known as an argument of :, and is
usually measured in radians, and this convention will be followed throughout
this article. It is represented by arg :. Furthermore, if 0 2 (. |, then 0 is
known as the principal argument of :. The conversion between the two forms
is carried out by the formulas:
j:j D
q
Re f:g
2
CImf:g
2
(1.1)
arg : D
8

<

:
2 tan
1
Imf:g
j:j CRe f:g
. Re f:g > 0 _ Imf:g 0
. Re f:g < 0 ^ Imf:g D 0
undened. (Re f:g . Imf:g) D (0. 0)
(1.2)
Re f:g D j:j cos arg : (1.3)
Imf:g D j:j sin arg : (1.4)
Please note that when both the real and imaginary parts of a number are both
zero, it is written as : D 0 in both forms, as the argument is undened. Note
also that if any number 0
0
is an argument of the complex number :, then any
number of the form 0
0
C2n. n 2 Z is also an argument of :. Except if : D 0,
: has exactly one principal argument, calculated using the formulas above, or
(in the case of polar form) taking the remainder with 2, then subtracting 2
if it is still above .
1.1.4 The Complex Conjugate
Let : D .Ci, D r(cos 0 Ci sin 0) with .. ,. r. 0 2 R be a complex number. Then
the number . i, D rcos(0) Ci sin(0)| is known as the complex conjugate
of the number :, and is denoted by : or :

. In the complex conjugate, the real

part of the number stays the same whereas the complex part changes its sign.
It has the following properties:
(:) D : (1.5)
: D : : 2 R (1.6)
: D : : 2 I (1.7)
1.2 Arithmetic Operations using Complex Num-
bers
Throughout this section, :
1
D .
1
Ci,
1
D r
1
e
i0
1
and :
2
D .
2
Ci,
2
D r
2
e
i0
2
with
.
i
. ,
i
. r
i
2 RI 0
i
2 (. | be arbitrary complex numbers. Also, let : D .Ci, D
re
i0
with .. ,. r 2 R 0
i
2 (. | be another arbitrary complex number.
CHAPTER 1. THE BASICS 5
1.2.1 Addition and Subtraction
By simple algebra, :
1
C:
2
D (.
1
C.
2
) Ci(,
1
C,
2
), and :
1
:
2
D (.
1
.
2
) C
i(,
1
,
2
). In other words, the real and imaginary parts of any two complex
numbers are added/subtracted separately. Addition and subtraction is rarely
done in the polar form of complex numbers. If needed, complex numbers are
rst converted into the rectangular form before addition/subtraction is to be
performed.
1.2.2 Multiplication
By simple algebra and the property that i
2
D 1,
:
1
:
2
D (.
1
Ci,
1
)(.
2
Ci,
2
)
D .
1
.
2
Ci.
1
,
2
Ci,
1
.
2
Ci
2
,
1
,
2
D .
1
.
2
Ci.
1
,
2
Ci,
1
.
2
,
1
,
2
:
1
:
2
D (.
1
.
2
,
1
,
2
) Ci(.
1
,
2
C,
1
.
2
). (1.8)
For the polar form, using (1.8),
:
1
:
2
D r
1
r
2
(cos 0
1
Ci sin 0
1
)(cos 0
2
Ci sin 0
2
)
D r
1
r
2
(cos 0
1
cos 0
2
sin 0
1
sin 0
2
) Ci(cos 0
1
sin 0
2
Csin 0
1
cos 0
2
)|
:
1
:
2
D r
1
r
2
cos(0
1
C0
2
) Ci sin(0
1
C0
2
)|. (1.9)
In other words, the magnitudes are multiplied and the arguments are added.
Please note that it may be necessary to add an integer multiple of 2 from the
obtained argument to get the principal argument.
1.2.3 Multiplicative Inverse
The multiplicative inverse of : is found as follows:
:
1
D
1
. Ci,
D
1
. Ci,
. i,
. i,
D
. i,
.
2
C,
2
(1.10)
:
1
D
:
j:j
2
(1.11)
For the polar form, using (1.11),
:
1
D
rcos(0) Ci sin(0)|
r
2
:
1
D r
1
cos(0) Ci sin(0)|. (1.12)
In other words, the magnitude is inverted, and the argument changes sign. We
see that for : D 0, the multiplicative inverse is not dened.
CHAPTER 1. THE BASICS 6
1.2.4 Division
Using (1.11),
:
1
:
2
D
:
1
:
2
j:
2
j
2
(1.13)
For the polar form, using (1.9) and (1.12),
:
1
:
2
D
r
1
r
2
cos(0
1
0
2
) Ci sin(0
1
0
2
)|. (1.14)
In other words, magnitudes are divided and arguments are subtracted. As the
multiplicative inverse of :
2
isnt dened for :
2
D 0, the division is not dened
either. Later on, we shall see an easier way for obtaining the same results for
multiplication, division and the multiplicative inverse for the polar form using
an easier approach.
1.2.5 Properties
The arithmetic operations have the following interesting properties with respect
to the complex conjugate for an arbitrary complex number ::
:
1
C:
2
:
1
C:
2
(1.15)
:
1
:
2
:
1
:
2
(1.16)
:: j:j
2
(1.17)
: C: 2 Re f:g (1.18)
: : 2i Imf:g (1.19)
Try proving these properties yourself.
1.3 Eulers Identity and the Exponential Form
1.3.1 Eulers Identity
In this section, we discuss a cornerstone of complex analysis that has innumer-
able uses both in pure and applied mathematics. It is called Eulers Identity
and it states that
e
i0
cos 0 Ci sin 0. (1.20)
Proof. To prove this identity, we use the Maclaurins Series, which says that for
an innitely dierentiable function ,
(.)
1
X
nD0

(n)
(0)
n
.
n
!
.
CHAPTER 1. THE BASICS 7
Where the notation
(n)
(.) denotes
d
n
((x)
dx
n
. So, for (0) WD cos 0,
cos 0 1
0
2
2
C
0
4
4

0
6
6
C. . .

1
X
nD0
g(n. 0).
where
g(n. 0) WD
8
<
:
(1)
n{2
0
n
n
. n even
0. n odd.
This can also be written as
g(n. 0) WD
8
<
:
(i0)
n
n
. n even
0. n odd.
And for (0) WD i sin 0,
i sin 0 i0
i0
3
3
C
i0
5
5

i0
T
7
C. . .

1
X
nD0
h(n. 0).
where
h(n. 0) WD
8
<
:
0. n even
i(1)
(n1){2
0
n
n
. n odd.
Which can also be written as
h(n. 0) WD
8
<
:
0. n even
(i0)
n
n
. n odd.
Adding, we get
cos 0 Ci sin 0
1
X
nD0
(i0)
n
n
Which we easily recognize to be the Maclaurins series for e
i0
.
Please note that the proof is generic: It says nothing about which number
is real and which isnt.
CHAPTER 1. THE BASICS 8
1.3.2 The Exponential Form of a Complex Number
The exponential form of a complex number comes from the polar form, and is
equivalent to it. Using (1.20),
: D r(cos 0 Ci sin 0) D re
i0
.
Where r D j:j and 0 D arg :
Multiplication, Inversion and Division in the Exponential Form
Let :
1
D r
1
e
i0
1
and :
2
D r
2
e
i0
2
, r
i
. 0
i
2 R be two complex numbers. Then,
:
1
:
2
D r
1
r
2
e
i(0
1
C0
2
)
(1.21)
:
1
1
D r
1
1
e
i0
1
(1.22)
:
1
:
2
D
r
1
r
2
e
i(0
1
0
2
)
. (1.23)
Please note that equations (1.9), (1.12) and (1.14) are identical to equations
(1.21), (1.22) and (1.23), respectively. This easy way of obtaining these equa-
tions is one of the most classic examples of how the exponential form can be
useful.
Chapter 2
Generalization of Some
Common Expressions and
Functions to the Complex
Plane
Throughout this chapter, :
1
D .
1
C i,
1
D r
1
e
i0
1
, :
2
D .
2
C i,
2
D r
2
e
i0
2
and
:
3
D .
3
C i,
3
D r
3
e
i0
3
with .
i
. ,
i
. r
i
2 RI 0
i
2 (. | be arbitrary complex
numbers. Also, let : D . Ci, D re
i0
with .. ,. r 2 RI 0 2 (. | be another
arbitrary complex number. Also, let n and m be arbitrary integers. Note that,
in every case, the principal value is obtained by putting n D m D 0.
2.1 Exponentials
2.1.1 Exponentials of Base e
This case is fairly straightforward.
e
z
D e
xCi,
e
z
D e
x
e
i,
(2.1)
So, je
z
j D e
x
and arg e
z
D ,.
9
CHAPTER 2. GENERALIZATIONS 10
2.1.2 Exponentials with a Real Exponent
This case follows smoothly from the previous one. Let c 2 R be an arbitrary real
number. Here, it is necessary to use the property that : has multiple arguments.
:
c
D

re
i(0C2nt)

c
:
c
D r
c
e
ic(0C2nt)
(2.2)
In this case, j:
c
j D r
c
and arg :
c
D c(0 C2n), n 2 Z. We might ask, wouldnt
the 2n term go away anyway? The answer is, not if c isnt an integer. It may
lead to multiple answers, and even an innite number if c is irrational.
2.1.3 Exponentials with a Real Base
This case also follows smoothly from the rst one.
c
z
D e
z lnc
c
z
D e
x lnc
e
i, lnc
(2.3)
c
z
D c
x
e
i, lnc
(2.4)
So, in this case, jc
z
j D c
x
and arg c
z
D , ln c.
2.1.4 Exponentials with a Complex Base and Complex
Exponent
This case is a bit more complex, as it is one of those cases where we get a set
of numbers as output, owing to the fact that :
1
has multiple arguments.
:
1
z
2
D

r
1
e
i(0
1
C2nt)

x
2
Ci,
2
D r
1
x
2
Ci,
2
e
(0
1
C2nt)(,
2
Cix
2
)
:
1
z
2
D
h
r
1
x
2
e
,
2
(0
1
C2nt)
i
e
i,
2
lnr
1
Cx
2
(0
1
C2nt)j
(2.5)
So, in this case, j:
1
z
2
j D r
1
x
2
e
,
2
(0
1
C2nt)
and arg (:
1
z
2
) D ,
2
ln r
1
C .
2
(0
1
C
2n). So, in this case, we usually get an innite number of answers.
2.2 Logarithms
2.2.1 Logarithms of Base e
Lets take the simplest case: :
2
D ln :
1
. So, e
z
2
D :
1
. Then,
e
x
2
Ci,
2
D r
1
e
i0
1
C2nt
)e
x
2
e
i,
2
D r
1
e
i0
1
C2nt
).
2
D ln r
1
^ ,
2
D 0
1
C2n (2.6)
So, simply put, ln : D ln j:j Ci(arg : C2n).
CHAPTER 2. GENERALIZATIONS 11
2.2.2 Logarithms of a Complex Base
Lets consider the case log
z
2
:
1
. This is easily solved by the formula log
b
a D
lno
lnb
to give
log
z
2
:
1
D
ln r
1
Ci(0
1
C2n)
ln r
2
Ci(0
2
C2m)
. (2.7)
2.3 Trigonometric Functions
First of all, we prove three properties here, stated below.
sin(i0) i sinh 0 (2.8)
cos(i0) cosh 0 (2.9)
tan(i0) i tanh 0 (2.10)
Proof. We start with the Maclaurins series for sin(i0), and the property that
i
2
D 1, from which it follows that i
4
D 1, and so on:
sin(i0) i0 C
i0
3
3
C
i0
5
5
C
i0
T
7
C. . .
i
1
X
nD0
0
2nC1
(2n C1)
We now clearly recognize the right side as the Maclaurins series for i sinh 0.
For the cosine, we start with the Maclaurins series for cos(i0):
cos(i0) 1 C
0
2
2
C
0
4
4
C
0
6
6
C. . .

1
X
nD0
0
2n
(2n)
This is clearly the Maclaurins series for cosh 0.
For tangent, we simply divide:
tan(i0)
sin(i0)
cos(i0)

i sinh 0
cosh 0
i tanh 0

2.3.1 Cosine
For the cosine, using cos(0
1
C0
2
) cos 0
1
cos 0
2
sin 0
1
sin 0
2
, we get
cos(. Ci,) cos . cos i, sin . sin i,
cos(. Ci,) cos . cosh , i sin . sinh ,. (2.11)
CHAPTER 2. GENERALIZATIONS 12
2.3.2 Sine
For the sine, using sin(0
1
C0
2
) sin 0
1
cos 0
2
Ccos 0
1
sin 0
2
, we get
sin(. Ci,) sin . cos i, Ccos . sin i,
sin(. Ci,) sin . cosh , Ci cos . sinh ,. (2.12)
2.3.3 Tangent
For the tangent, using tan(0
1
C0
2
)
tan0
1
Ctan0
2
1tan0
1
tan0
2
, we get
tan(. Ci,)
tan . Ctan i,
1 tan . tan i,
tan(. Ci,)
tan . Ci tanh ,
1 i tan . tanh ,
. (2.13)
2.3.4 Useful Identities
Considering the numbers e
i0
and e
i0
, and using relations (1.18) and (1.19), we
get the following useful identities:
e
i0
Ce
i0
2 cos 0 (2.14)
e
i0
e
i0
2i sin 0 (2.15)
e
i0
e
i0
e
i0
Ce
i0
i tan 0 (2.16)
These identities will be of particular use in the next section.
2.4 Hyperbolic Functions
This section is very similar to the previous one, owing to the fact that trigono-
metric and hyperbolic functions are, in a way, complex duals of each other.
Using (2.14), (2.15) and (2.16), we get:
cosh i. cos . (2.17)
sinh i. i sin . (2.18)
tanh i. i tan . (2.19)
2.4.1 Cosine
Using the identity cosh( CT) cosh cosh T Csinh sinh T, we get
cosh(. Ci,) cosh . cosh i, Csinh . sinh i,
cosh(. Ci,) cosh . cos , Ci sinh . sin ,. (2.20)
CHAPTER 2. GENERALIZATIONS 13
2.4.2 Sine
Using the identity sinh( CT) sinh cosh T Ccosh sinh T, we get
sinh(. Ci,) sinh . cosh i, Ccosh . sinh i,
sinh(. Ci,) sinh . cos , Ci cosh . sin ,. (2.21)
2.4.3 Tangent
Using the identity tanh( CT)
tanhCtanhB
1CtanhtanhB
, we get
tanh(. Ci,)
tanh . Ctanh i,
1 Ctanh . tanh i,
tanh(. Ci,)
tanh . Ci tan ,
1 Ci tanh . tan ,
. (2.22)
2.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Here, we will prove a few identities, stated below.
sin
1
(i:) i sinh
1
: (2.23)
tanh
1
(i:) i tanh
1
: (2.24)
Proof. Lets begin with the sine. Now, using (2.8) and (2.17),
sin
1
(i:) D 0
) i: D sin 0
) : D i sin 0
) : D sinh(i0)
) i0 D sinh
1
:
) 0 D i sinh
1
:.

Now for the tangent. Using (2.10) and (2.19),

tan
1
(i:) D 0
) i: D tan 0
) : D i tan 0
) : D tanh(i0)
) i0 D tanh
1
:
) 0 D i tanh
1
:.

CHAPTER 2. GENERALIZATIONS 14
2.5.1 Sine
For the sine, we simply use the logarithmic form of the inverse sine hyperbolic.
Dividing : by i on both sides, we get:
sin
1
: i sinh
1
(i:) D i ln

i: C
p
1 :
2

(2.25)
2.5.2 Cosine
For the cosine, we simply use cos
1
:
t
2
sin
1
:.
cos
1
: D

2
Ci ln

i: C
p
1 :
2

(2.26)
2.5.3 Tangent
For the tangent, we use a technique similar to that of the sine.
tan
1
: D i tanh
1
(i:) D
1
2
i ln
1 i:
1 Ci:
(2.27)
2.6 Inverse Hyperbolic
For the inverse hyperbolic functions, we simply use their logarithmic form to
compute them for complex arguments:
sinh
1
: D ln

: C
p
:
2
C1

(2.28)
cosh
1
: D ln

: C
p
: C1
p
: 1

(2.29)
tanh
1
: D
1
2
ln
1 C:
1 :
(2.30)
For the cosine, the principal value is obtained by using the positive principal
logarithm.
Chapter 3
Applications of Complex
Analysis
3.1 Phasors Analysis in Linear Circuits
In linear circuits, often we need to analyze a given linear circuit which con-
tains only pure passive or active elements (resistors, capacitors, inductors and
dependent and independent power sources), while ignoring initial conditions
for the reason that they often have no measurable eect after a short du-
ration. In this case, it is convenient to write the known quantities in the
form .(t ) D X

cos(ot C ). For easy analysis using phasor notation, we

add a second (imaginary) quantity, and write the quantity in the form .(t ) D
X

cos(ot C) Ci sin(ot C)|, which we conveniently shorten to .(t ) D X

e
}(otC)
.
Now, for a capacitor with capacitance C, i(t ) D C
d
dt
. So, for an arbitrary
sinusoid voltage across the capacitor
C
(t ) D V

e
}(otC0
v
)
,
i
C
(t ) D oCV

e
}(otC0
v
)
D oC
C
(t )

C
(t )
i
C
(t )
D oC
So, here, we realize that the analogue of resistance is a complex quantity.
We dene this quantity to be the impedance, and we denote it by Z. So, for a
capacitor,
Z D oC. (3.1)
By a similar process, for an inductor with inductance 1,
Z D

o1
. (3.2)
For a simple resistor with resistance 1,
Z D 1. (3.3)
15
CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS 16
In each of the voltage and current, we can further write it as .(t ) D e
}ot

X

e
}0

.
Since this factor is always common in our calculations, we usually neglect it,
and write .(t ) D X

0. Using these conventions, we carry out analysis using

usual DC techniques.
3.2 Initial Value Problems using the Laplace Trans-
form
The Unilateral Laplace Transform of a function is dened by
J(s) D L( ) WD
Z
1
0

e
ox
(t ) Jt
Interestingly, the derivative of a function satises the property
L(
0
) sL( ) (0

)
So that
L

(n)

s
n
L( )
n
X
kD1
s
nk

(k1)
(0

) (3.4)
Where the notation (0

) represents lim
t!0
(t ). Here, we can clearly see
that the dierential equation is being converted into an algebraic equation. We
then solve the algebraic equation and use the inverse Laplace transform dened
by
L
1
(J) WD
Z
c
1
C1i
c
1
C0

i
e
xt
J(s) Js
To convert the equation back into a function of the required variable. The
number o
1
is the limit of convergence, i.e. the lowest o above which
Z
1
0

e
c
j(t )j Jt
is nite (converges).
3.3 Derivation of Numerous Identities Involving
the Sine and Cosine
Eulers Identity (Eq. 1.20) is used for deriving a number of useful trigonometric
identities, sometimes by using (2.14) and (2.15) as intermediaries. The rest of
this section will be lled with examples.
CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS 17
3.3.1 Double Angle Formulae
For the Cosine,
cos 20 Re
n
e
2i0
o
Re

(cos 0 Ci sin 0)
2

Re

cos
2
0 C2i cos 0 sin 0 sin
2
0

cos
2
0 sin
2
0. (3.5)
Similarly, for the Sine,
sin 20 Im
n
e
2i0
o
2 cos 0 sin 0. (3.6)
In the same manner, any multiple-angle formulae can be calculated in an easier
way than using the angle-sum formulae repeatedly.
3.3.2 Angle Sum Formulae
Using the same techniques as above,
cos(0
1
C0
2
) Re
n
e
i(0
1
C0
2
)
o
Re f(cos 0
1
Ci sin 0
1
)(cos 0
2
Ci sin 0
2
)g
Re fcos 0
1
cos 0
2
sin 0
1
sin 0
2
Ci (cos 0
1
sin 0
2
Csin 0
1
cos 0
2
)g
cos 0
1
cos 0
2
sin 0
1
sin 0
2
(3.7)
Similarly,
sin(0
1
C0
2
) cos 0
1
sin 0
2
Csin 0
1
cos 0
2
(3.8)
3.3.3 Powers of Sine/Cosine
Sometimes we need to perform the inverse of the multiple angle formulae: ex-
press a given power of a sine/cosine in terms of a linear combination of its
angle-multiple version, usually to be able to integrate it. For example,
cos
5
0

e
i0
Ce
i0
2
!
5

e
5i0
C5e
3i0
C10e
i0
C10e
i0
C5e
3i0
Ce
5i0
32

10
32

e
i0
Ce
i0

C
5
32

e
3i0
Ce
3i0

C
1
32

e
5i0
Ce
5i0

5
8
cos 0 C
5
16
cos 30 C
1
16
cos 50