10.

1 The Function of Digestion

Macromolecules and Living Systems -there are three main compartments of the body: the cytoplasm inside the cells, the fluid between the cells (interstitial fluid), and the fluid in the blood -the fluid in these compartments is 60% water and are also composed of thousands of different kinds of molecules and ions -some of these molecules and ions, such as water, phosphates, hydrogen ions and sodium ionsare inorganic (non-living) matter -organic molecules, contain carbons bonded to hydrogen, as well as other atoms such as oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen -macromolecules are a very large molecule made up of smaller (organic) molecules that are linked together -are also known as nutrients -monomers are the small molecular subunits that make up macromolecules -are all used to maintain the bodys metabolismthe sum total of all of the chemical reactions that occur in an organism -macromolecules are now classified as an essential nutrienta nutrient that cannot be made by the body and must be obtained by food Biological Macromolecules -an extremely large molecule; a molecule of very high molecular weight -made up of long chains of monomers, called polymersa macromolecule built by forming covalent bonds between a long chain of similar components -perform the functions of our cells structural support, protection, transport and store energy, defense regulation, motility and information storage -assembled or broken down using the same type of chemical process, involves adding/removing H 2O molecules -the dehydration synthesis is when H2O molecules are removed from two macromolecules to join them together -one H is removed from a macromolecule, OH removed from the other -also known as a condensation reaction -classified as an anabolic reaction where smaller subunits produce a large molecule -another process, hydrolysis, adds H2O to break apart macromolecules into smaller subunits -classified as a catabolic functionfunctions that break macromolecules into individual subunits -are grouped into four main categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids Carbohydrates -contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio: 1 to 2 to 1 -provides both short term and long term energy storage for organisms -plants produce it by photosynthesis -three main types of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides Monosaccharides -mono meaning one -monomer forms into carbohydrates -distinguished by the carbonyl group they possesaldehide or keytoneand the number of carbon atoms in their carbon backbone -they all have the same chemical formulaC6H12O6 but are structurally different, known as isomers -most sugars end in the prefix ose

Glucose

-most common simple sugar -found in all cells of our body -primary source of energy -important for 2 reasons: 1. can be broken down quickly for the release of energy for metabolism in all cells 2. is the monomer for the synthesis of larger carbohydrate molecules Fructosefound in fruits (sweeter than glucose) Galactocsesugar in milk Oligosaccharides -oligo meaning few -two monosaccharides bonded together creates disaccharides -formed by dehydration synthesis For Example; Glucose + Fructose Sucrose (table sugar) Glucose + Glucose Maltose (beer) Glucose + Galactose Lactose (milk) *enzymes that break down disaccharides end in ase (lactase, maltase, etc.) Polysaccharides -poly meaning many -complex carbohydrates -long chained molecules of monosaccharides -have 2 functions; energy storage and structural support Energy Storage Starchenergy storage in plants -good source of energy for the human cell -composed of analose (straight chain) and amylopectin Glycogenanimal starch -short term energy storage molecule in human cells -similar to amylopectin but longer and highly branched Structural Support Cellulose -makes up the plant cell wall -very long, non-branched polymer of glucose (contains thousands of glucose) -cannot be digested by animals, only by certain bacteria Chitin -polysaccharides form hard external skeleton of animals such as insects and crustaceans *differences between the polysaccharides are caused by differences in their molecular structure **organisms must break down polysaccharides to obtain feasible glucose molecules Lipids -a group of molecules which have in common the ability to dissolve in one another -are hydrophobicnot soluble in water, water fearing -are not polymers, they are made of several distinct elements that join to form an operational whole Types of Lipids A. Triglycerides (includes oils and fats) -function as a nutrient or structural (insulations, storage) -made of glycerol and 3 fatty acids -formed by dehydration synthesis reaction B. Phospholipids

-glycerol plus 2 fatty acids -important in cell membrane structure C. Glycolipids -involve in cell identifications D. Steroids (ex. cholesterol) E. Waxes (ex. beeswax) F. Turpenes (ex. pigments such as chlorophyll) Proteins -not primarily used for energy -associated with building cell structures -direct and control chemical reactions in life processes -make up part of the cell membrane -provide support and shape to cells -some function as hormones to send chemical messengers between cells -others as enzymes to speed up chemical reactions in your body -half of our bodys dry weight is protein -are polymers of amino acidsthe building block of proteins - 20 amino acids are important to human metabolism -different R groups give amino acids different biological properties -formed by dehydration synthesis within cells -bonds between different amino acids are called peptide bonds -polypeptides are many amino acids Examples of proteins -all enzymes (organic catalysts) -collagen (cartilage bone, tendon) -keratin (in bird feathers) -hemoglobin (in red blood cells) -some hormones (insulin, adrenalin, pepsin) Protein Structure -4 levels of structure 1. Primarypolypeptide chain 2. Secondarypleated/helix form 3. Tertiary3D shape 4. Quaternarypolypeptides held together into a functional unit by any of the bonds linked above -usually has a metal centre molecule holding polypeptide bonds together Nucleic Acids -polymers of nucleotides (contain 5 carbon sugar, phosphate and a base) -two types: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) -RNA is important in protein synthesis Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Ribose Deoxyribose PO4 PO4 Guanine Guanine Cytosine Cytosine Adenine Adenine Urucil Thymine *single stranded *double stranded Breaking Down Macromolecules

-for the body to use these large macromolecules, they need to be broken down first -the process of the chemical breakdown of the macromolecules is called hydrolysis -during hydrolysis, H2O is added to the macromoleculethis breaks the bonds of the smaller molecules that make up the macromolecule -enzymes, a special protein that helps speed up important chemical reactions in the body, help in the breakdown of the chemical bonds -four main types of digestive enzymes Enzyme Macromolecule It Breaks Down Product of Breakdown Example Carbohydrase Carbohydrate Simple Sugars Amylaseproduced in the salivary glands, functions in mouth Lipase Lipids Glycerol and fatty acids Pancreatic lipaseproduced in the pancreas, functions in small intestine Protease Protein Amino acids Pepsinproduced by stomach glands, functions in stomach Nuclease Nucleic Acid Nucleotides Pancreatic nucleaseproduced in the pancreas, functions in small intestine The Vital Roles of Minerals and Vitamins -minerals and vitamins are vital to life -both inorganic and organic -enables chemical reactions to occur and aids in tissue development, growth and immunity Key Functions in the Body Minerals Calcium -forming bone -conducting nerve signals -contracting muscle -clotting blood Iron -producing hemoglobin Magnesium Potassium Sodium Vitamins A (Carotene) B1 (Thiamine) C (Ascorbic Acid) D E -good vision -healthy skin and bones -metabolizing carbohydrates -growth and muscle tone -healthy bones, teeth, gums and blood vessels -boosting immune system -absorbing calcium -forming bone -strengthening red blood cell membranes -supporting enzyme functions -producing protein -conducting nerve signals -contracting muscle -conducting nerve signals -balancing body fluid

The Many Roles of Water in the Body

-makes up two thirds of our bodys mass -needed for the proper functioning of all cells and organs -roles include: -transporting dissolved nutrients into the cells that line the small intestine -flushing toxins from cells -lubricating tissues and joints -forming essential body fluids, such as blood and mucus -regulating body temperature (sweat) -eliminating waste material (urine, sweat) -water is vital for maintaining the bodys fluid balance How Animals Obtain Their Food -all animals obtain their food through one of four means Description Example Filter Feeders Includes tube sponge, flamingoes, tube worms, clams, -use a body structure similar to a filter basket to barnacles, and baleen whales obtain organisms such as protists, bacteria and larvae -filter siphons water into mouth and filters it to obtain small organisms to digest Substrate Feeders Includes caterpillars and worms -live and eat on their food source -for example, worms live in the ground and eat their way through the soil Fluid Feeders Includes mosquitoes, ticks, aphids, spiders, bees, -obtains food by sucking or licking nutrient-rich fluids butterflies, vampire bats and hummingbirds from lives plants/animals -their mouth-parts are used to suck or lick blood/sap Bulk Feeders Most animals and humans -most animals (including humans) -ingest large pieces of food -use tentacles/pincers/claws/fangs/jaws and teeth to kill prey, and take in mouthfuls of animal or plant food The Four Stages of Food Processing -after obtaining food, nutrients must get into the individual cell of the body in a feasible form -the digestive system breaks down food into useable substances that can be absorbed into the circulatory system -circulatory system transports the substances to the individual cells of the body -digestion of food occurs in four stages: 1. Ingestiontaking in/eating of food 2. Digestionthe breakdown of food 3. Absorptionthe transport of products of digestion to the circulatory system, which distributes them to the rest of the body 4. Eliminationthe removal of undigested waste matter from the body Digestion and the Alimentary Canal -to digest food, most animals have an alimentary canala long open tube that starts from the mouth and ends at the anus -mouth ingests food, anus eliminates waste

-different organs of the digestive system process the food in different ways as the food moves long the tube -the earthworms digestive tract is very simple

-food enters the mouth, passes to the pharynx (throat) -then the esophagus channels the food into the crop where the food is softened and stored -the gizzard, a muscular chamber with small particles of sand grinds to food to break it down further -lastly, the food is further digested in the intestine and whatever is undigested, is eliminated in the anus -in more complex animals (such as humans), the food enters the mouth and is physically broken into smaller pieces in the mouth -this is called mechanical digestion -food is further broken down as it moves along the digestive tract by muscular contractions in the tube -at the same time, liquids and enzymes are released to help chemically breakdown the macromolecules into smaller molecules -is called chemical digestion

The digestive system of a typical mammal The length of the Digestive Tract -the length varies according to the feeding habits of the species -herbivores and omnivores usually have longer digestive systems compared to omnivores -cellulose walls in plant tissue take longer to digest than animal tissue

10.2 The Human Digestive System

Parts of the Human Digestive System -made up of a group of organs working together -starts at the mouth, food triggers the salivary glandsglands in the mouth that produce saliva (begins chemical digestion) -three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth -saliva contains the enzyme amylase that breaks down the starches into simple sugars -saliva dissolves water soluble food particles -also stimulates the tastes buds, allowing you to taste the flavours as well as lubricating the food to make it easier to swallow -mechanical digestion also begins in the mouth, as teeth bite and grind food into smaller pieces -it also exposes more surface area of the food to the saliva The Esophagus -the tongue helps mould and smooth the food into a soft mass as you chew -this mass is called a bolus -when swallowed, the bolus enters the top of the esophagus, leading to the stomach -the esophagus is a muscular tube through which food passes from the mouth to the stomach - is also next to the opening of the windpipe (trachea) -to prevent the food from going into the windpipe, the trachea is closed by the epiglottis, a valve, when you swallow -food is transported to the stomach by wave-like muscular contractions in the esophagus, called peristalsis -glands lining the esophagus produce mucus that keeps the passage moist and aids in swallowing -the entrance to the stomach is controlled by a ring of muscle called the esophageal sphincter -is normally closed to prevent the acidic contents of the stomach from backing up into the stomach -only opens to allow each bolus of food to enter The Stomach -a muscular organ where food is temporarily stored while further chemical and mechanical digestion takes place -lies of the left of the abdominal cavity, below the diaphragm -the diaphragm separates the heart, lungs and ribs from the abdominal cavity -walls of stomach are folded, expands after eating -stomach is lined with gastric glands that secrete gastric juicesa mixture of HCl, salts, enzymes, water and mucus -aids in chemically breaking down food in the stomach

-stomach walls are coated with mucus, protecting it from attack by the strong, acidic gastric juices -first, the stomach secretes a little bit of gastric juices until food is present -then the stomach secretes mucus, protecting the stomach lining -ulcers are caused by over secretion of gastric juices, usually brought on by nervousness/stress (HCl creates a hole through the mucus lining of the stomach) -the non-active form of pepsin (called pepsinogen), an enzyme in gastric juice that helps break down protein, is released -becomes active when it comes in contact with hydrochloric acid (HCl) -there are three layers of muscle fibres that contract and relax to churn and chemically break up pieces of food -liquids pass through in approximately 20 minutes or less, solids for 2-6 hours since they are reduced further -chyme is a thick liquid produced in the stomach and made up of digested food combined with gastric juice -is the result of the churning and mixing in the stomach -stomach is surrounded by a network of nerves that help regulate the activities of the digestive system -the chyme passes in small amounts through the pyloric sphincter into the first part of the small intestine, the duodenum -if the small intestine is full, the stomach temporarily holds the chyme The Small Intestine -part of the alimentary canal where digestion is completed -about 6.5-7m long -when food is present, the small intestine is in constant motion (peristalsis) -the chyme is squeezed through, then mixed with digestive enzymes -this mechanically breaks down the chyme, which speeds up absorption -the nutrient macromolecules are broken down into component molecules -nutrients are then absorbed through the membranes of the cells lining the small intestine -then are passed from the digestive system into the circulatory system, where the nutrients are carried to cells and tissues throughout the body -has three consecutive sections; the duodenum, jejunum and ileum The Duodenum -is a short, wide U-shaped section of the small intestine in which food passes from the stomach -receives secretions from pancreas and gall bladder -the walls are lined by folds to increase surface area and to speed up the process of absorption -folds are covered by finger-like projections called villi (sing. villus) -each villus is covered with fine, brush-like microvilli The Jejunum and Ileum -the jejunum immediately follows after the duodenum -approximately 2.5 m long -performs most digestion and chemical absorption -breaks down remaining proteins and carbohydrates -the ileum immediately follows after the jejunum -approximately 3m long -absorbs the rest of the nutrients and pushes the undigested material into the large intestine The Accessory Organs -the pancreas and gall bladder arent part of the alimentary canal -are attached by ducts -considered accessory organs -an accessory refers to something that aids or provides support to something else

-the pancreas secretes about 1L of pancreatic fluid into the duodenum everyday -the presence of acidic chyme stimulates intestinal walls to secrete two hormones into the bloodstream: 1. Secretin 2. Cholecystokinin -stimulates the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juices and pancreatic enzymes through the pancreatic duct into the intestine -pancreatic fluid contains numerous enzymes that chemically digest carbohydrates, lipids and proteins -includes bicarbonates which is important to the function of the enzyme as it alters the pH of the chyme from being acidic (pH 1) to slightly basic (pH 8) -produces conditions that the enzymes can work most efficiently -pancreatic enzymes include: A. Amylasebreaks down remaining starch B. Proteasecontinues the breakdown of protein (ex. trypsin and chymotrypsin) C. Lipasesbreak down fats -the liver is the largest internal organ (size of a football) -has a mass of about 1.5kg -secretes bilea greenish-yellow fluid secreted to help digest fat -produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder -contain no enzymes -made up of bile pigments and bile salts -bile pigments do not take part in digestionthey are waste products from the destruction of old red blood cells, are eliminated through feces -bile salts are essential for the digestion of fats -since fats are insoluble in water, they are in the chyme as small droplets -the bile salts act as emulsifiers and break up the fat droplets into smaller droplets so they can disperse through the chyme -this creates a greater surface area to be exposed for digestive enzymes to further break down the fats -also makes it easier for the intestinal cells to absorb the fats -this is physical digestion, not chemical since chemical bonds are not broken Chemical Digestion and Absorption -enzymatic digestion of macromolecules is performed by: Carbohydrase (breaks down) carbohydrates (into) simple sugars, monosaccharides Lipase (breaks down) lipids (into) glycerol and fatty acids Protease (breaks down) proteins and larger polypeptides (into) amino acids Nuclease (breaks down) nucleic acids (into) nucleotides Factors That Affect Enzyme Action -temperature and pH can affect the rate at which an enzyme functions to break down macromolecules -more energy, higher temperatures increase the enzyme activity -as energy/temperature increases, the chemical bonds become weakened, changing the molecular shape and structure -for example, when an egg white becomes heated, it goes from clear to white -for human enzymes, the optimal temperature range is narrow (peaking at about 37) -enzymes also work best at within a certain pH range -some human enzymes, such as pepsin, function best at a low pH (acidic) -most human enzymes function best at a pH range of 6-8 (slightly acidic-slightly basic) Absorption in the Small Intestine -monosaccharides are absorbed into the bloodstream through the lining of the small intestine -then, they are transported to the liver where monosaccharides are converted to glucose -then the glucose is carried throughout the body through the circulatory system

-any excess glucose is converted to glycogen and is stored in the liver and muscles -amino acids are carried by the bloodstream to the liver -in the liver, they are converted into sugars or used in energy-releasing chemical reactions -some amino acids go through further transformation in the liver and become ureaa nitrogen rich waste -urea is filtered by the excretory system and expelled from the body in urine -other amino acids are carried by the circulatory system to the make enzymes and other proteins -glycerol and fatty acid molecules are absorbed into the cells of the small intestine -they are reassembled to form triglycerides which are coated with protein to make them water-soluble -then they are transferred to the bloodstream where the protein coating is removed -the triglycerides are broken down by lipase enzymes back to glycerol and fatty acids -the smaller glycerol and fatty acid molecules provide energy to the cells The Large Intestine -the remaining material, after all the nutrients has been absorbed into the bloodstream, moves to the large intestine (the colon) -is shorter but wider than the small intestine -main function is to absorb water from the alimentary canal -90% is absorbed back into the blood and extra-cellular fluids -volume of the undigested food is reduced by two thirds -anaerobic bacteria, bacteria that dont live/grow in oxygen, further breakdown undigested matter -these bacteria produce important vitamins (folic acid, vitamin K, etc.) -the leftover matter is feces, which is pushed by muscular contraction from the colon to the rectum -the rectum stores the feces until it is eliminated at the anus Time Required for Human Digestion Digestive Structure Primary Function Time Food Spends in Each Structure Mouth Mechanical and chemical digestion 5-30 seconds Esophagus Transport (swallowing) 10 seconds Stomach Mechanical and chemical digestion 2-24 hours Small Intestine Mechanical and chemical digestion 3-4 hours Large Intestine Water absorption 18 hours 2 days

10.3 Digestive System Disorders

Peptic Ulcers -are a sore in the lining of the stomach/duodenum caused by an infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori -ulcers form when tissues become inflamed because the protective mucus has weakened -are very painful since unprotected tissues become in contact with acidic gastric juices -the bacterium H. pylori, is acid-resistant and attaches itself to the wall of the digestive tract, preventing the protective mucus to form in that area -treated with antibiotics Inflammatory Bowel Disease -also known as IBD, the general name for a group of diseases that cause inflammation in the intestines -is a chronic disease meaning that it is long-lasting or recurrent -can only be treated and not cured by medication -Crohns disease is a form of IBD that can affect any part of the alimentary canal -children with Crohns disease do not grow properly during puberty -they develop thinner bones and experience poor muscle development -ulcerative colitis is a form of IBD that attacks the colon -symptoms include loose and bloody stools, cramps and abdominal pain

Constipation -common disorder where bowel movements are reduced to three per week -stools are dry, small and often difficult to eliminate -caused by inadequate water intake and lack of good nerve and muscle function in the bowel -fibre, parts of fruits, vegetables or grain that are not broken in the digestive system, is essential for maintaining a healthy digestive system -fibre passes through the body almost unchanged -mainly made up of cellulose, which humans are unable to digest Disorders of the Accessory Organs -hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver -three types: A, B and C -hepatitis A is usually contracted by drinking contaminated water -hepatitis B is spread by sexual contact -hepatitis C is contracted by contact with infected blood (no vaccine) -cirrhosis is the irreversible replacement of healthy liver tissue with non-functioning scar tissue -caused by excessive alcohol intake or hepatitis C -once scar tissue replaces the healthy liver tissue, it prevents the liver from functioning properly -liver transplant is the primary treatment for liver failure -another common disorder is gallstonessmall masses that form in the gall bladder -cholesterol precipitates out of the bile, stored in the gallbladder, and forms crystals that become gallstones -obesity, alcohol intake and heredity are all factors that relate to the formation of gallstones -usually treated with medications or ultrasound shock waves to disintegrate the stones so they can be passed out in urine -the entire gallbladder may need to be removed if the problem is serious The Endoscope and Digestive System Disorders -modern technology allows surgeons to locate, diagnose, and remove ulcers, tumours and other problems of the digestive tract without being too invasive -the endoscope is used to confirm medical problems that are hard to observe with other methods like an X-ray -allows surgeons to visually inspect the lining of any part of the alimentary canal -cameras and lasers can be attached to an endoscope for various reasons -a more recent development would be the capsule endoscope, a camera placed inside a capsule that is swallowed -useful for seeing the inside of the small intestine, which is too long and coiled for the endoscope to be used -endoscopy is known as a non-invasive surgery, since the surgeon does not have to cut into the body to repair or remove tissues and organs -are painless and patients recover faster compared to traditional surgery -the risk of infection is greatly reduced Diabetes -a chronic disease in which body cells are unable to use glucose to provide energy for muscles and tissues -normally, the pancreas releases insulin into the bloodstream which allows the glucose to enter the bodys cells -also lowers the amount of glucose circulating in the bloodstream -diabetes develops when there is not enough insulin in the bloodstream or when the body cannot properly use the insulin that is produced by the pancreas -without insulin, glucose cannot enter the cells and levels of glucose in the blood can become increasingly high The Three Types of Diabetes -there is type 1, type 2 and gestational diabetes -type 1 occurs when the insulin-producing cells are destroyed by the immune system -usually diagnosed in children, teens and young adults

-type 2 occurs when either the body does not make enough insulin or the body cannot properly use it -more often diagnosed in people over the age of 40 -slowly becoming increasingly common in children and adolescents -gestational diabetes usually develops during pregnancy and become type 2 after giving birth -is the result of pregnancy hormones or inadequate levels of insulin production Canadian Contributions to Diabetes Research -the connection between insulin and diabetes was discovered in 1922 by Frederick Banting and Charles Best -the production of insulin in large quantities was developed in Torontos Connaught Laboratories Technological Advances in Treating Diabetes -diabetes is become more common as a result of increasingly sedentary lifestyle and an ageing population -other risk factors for diabetes include: having a family history, and belonging to certain high-risk ethnic groups (Aboriginal peoples, African, Asian, Hispanic and Pacific Island decent) -scientists have developed several new technologies including; Manufacturing Human Insulin -until the 1980s, insulin from pigs or cattle was used to treat diabetes -the human body treats these kinds of insulin as foreign and triggers an immune response to it -the development of genetic engineering during the 1990s allowed pharmaceutical companies to manufacture human insulin using bacteria and modified plasmids Timing Insulin Delivery -until the 1980s, people had to monitor their glucose levels in order to know when to inject their insulin -researchers developed computerized insulin pumps which monitors glucose levels and pumps insulin into the bloodstream when necessary -it provides better control over blood glucose levels, reducing long-term complications -a disadvantage of it would be how expensive it is -also, the pump must be attached most of the time, users may find it uncomfortable