SUMMER TRAINING PROJECT REPORT

HONDA
SUBMITTED BY B.E. (MECHANICAL) SSG PANJAB UNIVERSITY HSP

PREFACE

As a part of course curriculum of Bachelor of Technology we were asked to undergo 6 weeks summer training in any organization so as to give us exposure to practical skill and competence to get us familiar with various activities taking place in the organization. I have put my sincere efforts to accomplish my objectives within the stipulated time. I have worked to my optimum potential to achieve desired goals. Being neophytes in the highly competitive world of technology . With the kind help and genuine interest and the guidance of my supervisor. I tried my level best to conduct a research to gain a thorough knowledge about the project. I put the best of my efforts to bring out this piece of work. If anywhere something is found unacceptable or unnecessary to the theme; valuable suggestions are thankfully acknowledged. Yours sincerely Praver dassi

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Overview of Industry as a whole 1.2. History of the Organisation 1.3. Company Profile Chapter 2 Manufacturing 2.1. Casting & its types 2.2. Furnace & its Components 2.3. Casting defects Chapter 3 Gear Hobbing 3.1. Overview of Instruments & Gear Data 3.2. Construction of Machines under Gear Hobbing 3.3. Process Bush Pressing Chapter 4 Cam Shaft Chapter 5 piston and cylinder Chapter 6 -crankshaft Chapter 7- parts of automobile

Chapter 8-assembling parts of motorcycles

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW - INDIAN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Over a period of more than two decades the Indian Automobile industry has been driving its own growth through phases. The entry of Suzuki Corporation in Indian passenger car manufacturing is often pointed as the first sign of India turning to a market economy. Since then the automobile sector witnessed rapid growth year after year. By late-90's the industry reached self reliance in engine and component manufacturing from the status of large scale importer. With comparatively higher rate of economic growth rate index against that of great global powers, India has become a hub of domestic and exports business. The automobile sector has been contributing its share to the shining economic performance of India in the recent years. With the Indian middle class earning higher per capita income, more people are ready to own private vehicles including cars and two-

wheelers. Product movements and manned services have boosted in the sales of medium and sized commercial vehicles for passenger and goods transport. Side by side with fresh vehicle sales growth, the automotive components sector has witnessed big growth. The domestic auto components consumption has crossed rupees 9000 crores and an export of one half size of this figure Overview Of Automobile Industry The Indian automobile industry is going through a technological change where each firm is engaged in changing its processes and technologies to sustain the competitive advantage and provide customers with the optimized products and services. Starting from the two wheelers, trucks, and tractors to the multi utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and the luxury vehicles, the Indian automobile industry has achieved tremendous amount of success in the recent years. As per Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) the market share of each segment of the industry is as follows:

The market shares of the segments of the automobile Industry

The automobile industry had a growth of 15.4 % during April-January 2007, with the average annual growth of 10-15% over the last

decade or so. With the incremental investment of $35-40 billion, the growth is expected to double in the next 10 years. Consistent growth and dedication have made the Indian automobile industry the second- largest tractor and two-wheeler manufacturer in the world. It is also the fifth-largest commercial vehicle manufacturer in the world. The Indian automobile market is among the largest in Asia. The key players like Hindustan Motors, Maruti Udyog, Fiat India Private Ltd, Tata Motors, Bajaj Motors, Hero Motors, Ashok Leyland, Mahindra & Mahindra have been dominating the vehicle industry. A few of the foreign players like Toyota Kirloskar Motor Ltd., Skoda India Private Ltd., Honda Siel Cars India Ltd. have also entered the market and have catered to the customers needs to a large extent. Not only the Indian companies but also the international car manufacturing companies are focusing on compact cars to be delivered in the Indian market at a much smaller price. Moreover,

the automobile companies are coming up with financial schemes such as easy EMI repayment systems to boost sales. There have been exhibitions like Auto-expo at Pragati Maidan, New Delhi to share the technological advancements. Besides, there are many new projects coming up in the automobile industry leading to the growth of the sector. The Government of India has liberalized the foreign exchange and equity regulations and has also reduced the tariff on imports, contributing significantly to the growth of the sector. Having firmly established its presence in the domestic markets, the Indian automobile sector is now penetrating the international arena. Vehicle exports from India are at their highest levels. The leaders of the Indian automobile sector, such as Tata Motors, Maruti and Mahindra and Mahindra are leading the exports to Europe, Middle East and African and Asian markets.

History of the Organization

Soichiro Honda, the developer of Honda motorcycles, didnt set out to manufacture them. In fact, his passion was vehicles. He also loved the idea of driving fast and enjoyed racing. He worked from the time he was a teenager in an auto repair shop, so he had a great understanding of the mechanical end of things. He also owned a Harley and an Indian, giving him plenty of motorcycle riding experience.

In 1928, Honda opened his own repair shop. As a hobby he also indulged in building race cars. He did not start the Honda Motor Company until he was 41 years old in 1948. They manufactured several two stroke and four stroke motorcycle models. He focused on the areas of quality and design, offering well made products to compete in the industry. While the motorcycle sells continued to rise over the next two decades, the company almost went

under in 1953. This was due to the end of the Korean War and economic depression in Japan. However, they continued to sell a small amount of motorcycles and continue production. The main reason Honda did not close the factory was because he did not want to see more people out of work. It was a good choice as by 1958 Honda was again profitable. In July of that year they introduced the C100 Super Cub which is known as the most successful motorcycle in the world. It was marketed as a cheap and versatile model that could be used by anyone. The bike featured a four stroke motor and a three speed transmission. The bike was very easy for new motorcycle riders to operate as well. Women even used it as a means of commuting. As a result, Honda became the largest manufacturer of motorcycles in the world by 1959.

Honda decided this was a good time to think about international expansion. They focused on Asia and Europe instead of the United States. This is because they felt there was too much competition with American made bikes to be profitable. However, the decision was made to come to the United States because Honda felt if the American people accepted their models, then it would set precedence for the rest of the world to do so. The first Honda retail store in the United States was based in Los Angeles, California; opening its doors in June of 1959. Honda fought hard to promote their products in the United States with a positive image. This ploy worked well, and Honda

had more than 75 successful dealerships in the United States by 1960. Honda is also credited with establishing the Motorcycle Industry Council and the Motorcycle Safety Council. They provided half of the funding needed to start both organizations. Their community involvement was noticed and highly appreciated by the motorcycle enthusiasts of the United States, resulting in more trust in Honda products. Throughout the 1970s Honda continued to rule the motorcycle industry, developing new motorcycles that people around the world couldnt get enough of. They also got a reputation for the fastest bikes around, as their models won more than 70 high profile races around the world in 1973. In 1975 Honda took another leap that paid off well for them. They introduced the GL1000 Gold Wing as a touring bike. It brought a whole new level of comfort and style to touring bikes that other manufacturers quickly copied. Since then, Honda has continued to produce innovative motorcycle models that appeal to the various cultures around the world. They have also continued to invest in the public interest. Honda donates thousands of motorcycles to worthy

causes each year. They also help fund motorcycle training courses to help ensure motorcyclists have the best information to operate their bikes safely. Honda has proven themselves to be a manufacturer of reliable motorcycles for the past several decades. They are among the top sellers in the motorcycle industry because of their unique designs, long lasting equipment, and low cost motorcycle models. While they have taken some huge risks over the years, they have helped them to build the successful motorcycle empire they have today.

Companies profile

CORE COMPETENCIES---------------------------------------------Customer #1 We put customers first in everything we do. We take decisions keeping the customer in mind. Challenging Spirit We strive for excellence in everything we do and in the quality of

goods & services we provide. We work hard to achieve what we commit & achieve results faster than our competitors and we never give up. Team-work We work cohesively with our colleagues as a multi-cultural team built on trust, respect, understanding & mutual cooperation. Everyone's contribution is equally important for our success. Frank & Fair Organization We are honest, sincere, open minded, fair & transparent in our dealings. We actively listen to others and participate in healthy & frank discussions to achieve the organization's goals.

CORPORATE PHILOSOPHY-----------------------------------------------------honda Motor is a company that has worked ever since its founding to build products defined by the concepts of high-quality and high-performance and light weight and compactness as we have continued to develop new technologies in the areas of small

engine technology and FRP processing technology as well as control and component technologies. It can also be said that our corporate history has taken a path where people are the fundamental element and our product creation and other corporate activities have always been aimed at touching peoples hearts. Our goal has always been to provide products that empower each and every customer and make their lives more fulfilling by offering greater speed, greater mobility and greater potential.

Manufacturing
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Plaster itself may be cast, as can other chemical setting materials such as concrete or plastic resin - either using single-use waste molds as noted above or multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made of small ridged pieces or of flexible material such as latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete, the finished product is, unlike marble, unattractive, lacking in transparency, and so it is usually painted, often in ways that give the appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the first layers cast may contain colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By casting concrete, rather than plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A simulation of high-quality marble may be made using certain chemically-set plastic resins (for example epoxy or

polyester) with powdered stone added for coloration, often with multiple colors worked in. The latter is a common means of making attractive washstands, washstand tops and shower stalls, with the skilled working of multiple colors resulting in simulated staining patterns as is often found in natural marble or travertine.

Furnance
A furnace is a device used for heating. The name derives from Latin fornax, oven. The earliest furnace was excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to its mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BC). The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects. In American English and Canadian English, the term furnace on its own is generally used to describe household heating systems based on a central furnace (known either as a boiler or a heater in British English), and sometimes as a synonym for kiln, a device used in the production of ceramics. In British English the term furnace is used exclusively to mean industrial furnaces which are used for many things, such as the extraction of metal from ore (smelting) or in oil refineries and other chemical plants, for example as the heat source for fractional distillation columns. The term furnace can also refer to a direct fired heater, used in boiler applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to chemical reactions for processes like

cracking, and is part of the standard English names for many metallurgical furnaces worldwide. The heat energy to fuel a furnace may be supplied directly by fuel combustion, by electricity such as the electric arc furnace, or through Induction heating in induction furnaces.

Components of furnance

An industrial furnace or direct fired heater, is an equipment used to provide heat for a process or can serve as reactor which provides heats of reaction. Furnace designs vary as to its function, heating duty, type of fuel and method of introducing combustion air. However, most process furnaces have some common features. Fuel flows into the burner and is burnt with air provided from an air blower. There can be more than one burner in a particular furnace which can be arranged in cells which heat a particular set of tubes. Burners can also be floor mounted, wall mounted or roof mounted depending on design. The flames heat up the tubes, which in turn heat the fluid inside in the first part of the furnace known as the radiant section or firebox. In this chamber where combustion takes place, the heat is transferred mainly by radiation to tubes around the fire in the chamber. The heating fluid passes through the tubes and is thus heated to the desired temperature. The gases from the combustion are known as flue gas. After the flue gas leaves the firebox, most furnace designs include a convection section where more heat is recovered before venting to the atmosphere through the flue gas stack. (HTF=Heat Transfer Fluid. Industries commonly use their furnaces to heat a secondary fluid with special additives like anti-rust and high heat transfer efficiency. This heated fluid is then circulated round the whole plant to heat exchangers to be used wherever heat is needed instead of

directly heating the product line as the product or material may be volatile or prone to cracking at the furnace temperature. Radiant section

Middle of radiant section The radiant section is where the tubes receive almost all its heat by radiation from the flame. In a vertical, cylindrical furnace, the tubes are vertical. Tubes can be vertical or horizontal, placed along the refactory wall, in the middle, etc., or arranged in cells. Studs are used to hold the insulation together and on the wall of the furnace. They are placed about 1 ft (300 mm) apart in this picture of the inside of a furnace. The tubes, shown below, which are

reddish brown from corrosion, are carbon steel tubes and run the height of the radiant section. The tubes are a distance away from the insulation so radiation can be reflected to the back of the tubes to maintain a uniform tube wall temperature. Tube guides at the top, middle and bottom hold the tubes in place. convection section

Convection section The convection section is located above the radiant section where it is cooler to recover additional heat. Heat transfer takes place by convection here, and the tubes are finned to increase heat transfer. The first two tube rows in

the bottom of the convection section and at the top of the radiant section is an area of bare tubes (without fins) and are known as the shield section, so named because they are still exposed to plenty of radiation from the firebox and they also act to shield the convection section tubes, which are normally of less resistant material from the high temperatures in the firebox. The area of the radiant section just before flue gas enters the shield section and into the convection section called the bridgezone. Crossover is the term used to describe the tube that connects from the convection section outlet to the radiant section inlet. The crossover piping is normally located outside so that the temperature can be monitored and the efficiency of the convection section can be calculated. The sightglass at the top allows personnel to see the flame shape and pattern from above and visually inspect if flame impingement is occurring. Flame impingement happens when the flame touches the tubes and causes small isolated spots of very high temperatue

Burner

Furnace burner The burner in the vertical, cylindrical furnace as above, is located in the floor and fires upward. Some furnaces have side fired burners, such as in train locomotives.The burner tile is made of high temperature refractory and is where the flame is contained in. Air registers located below the burner and at the outlet of the air blower are

devices with movable flaps or vanes that control the shape and pattern of the flame, whether it spreads out or even swirls around. Flames should not spread out too much, as this will cause flame impingement. Air registers can be classified as primary, secondary and if applicable, tertiary, depending on when their air is introduced. The primary air register supplies primary air, which is the first to be introduced in the burner. Secondary air is added to supplement primary air. Burners may include a premixer to mix the air and fuel for better combustion before introducing into the burner. Some burners even use steam as premix to preheat the air and create better mixing of the fuel and heated air. The floor of the furnace is mostly made of a different material from that of the wall, typically hard castable refractory to allow technicians to walk on its floor during maintenance. A furnace can be lit by a small pilot flame or in some older models, by hand. Most pilot flames nowadays are lit by an ignition transformer (much like a car's spark plugs). The pilot flame in turn lights up the main flame. The pilot flame uses natural gas while the main flame can use both diesel and natural gas. When using liquid fuels, an atomizer is used, otherwise, the liquid fuel will simply pour onto the furnace floor and become a hazard. Using a pilot flame for lighting the furnace increases safety and ease compared to using a manual ignition method (like a match).

Sootblower

Sootblowers are found in the convection section. As this section is above the radiant section and air movement is slower because of the fins, soot tends to accumulate here. Sootblowing is normally done when the efficiency of the convection section is decreased. This can be calculated by looking at the temperature change from the crossover piping and at the convection section exit. Sootblowers utilize flowing media such as water, air or steam to remove deposits from the tubes. This is typically done during maintenance with the air blower turned on. There are several different types of sootblowers used. Wall blowers of the rotary type are mounted on furnace walls protruding between the convection tubes. The lances are connected to a steam source with holes drilled into it at intervals along its length. When it is turned on, it rotates and blows the soot off the tubes and out through the stack.

Stack

Stack damper

The flue gas stack is a cylindrical structure at the top of all the heat transfer chambers. The breeching directly below it collects the flue gas and brings it up high into the atmosphere where it will not endanger personnel. The stack damper contained within works like a butterfly valveand regulates draft (pressure difference between air intake and air exit)in the furnace, which is what pulls the flue gas through the convection section. The stack damper also regulates the heat lost through the stack. As the damper closes, the amount of heat escaping the furnace through the stack decreases, but thepressure or draft in the furnace increases which poses risks to those working around it if there are air leakages in the furnace, the flames can then escape out of the firebox or even explode if the pressure is too great. Insulation Insulation is an important part of the furnace because it prevents excessive heat loss. Refractory materials such as firebrick, castable refractories and ceramic fibre, are used for insulation. The floor of the furnace are normally castable type refractories while those on the walls are nailed or glued in place. Ceramic fibre is commonly used for the roof and wall of the furnace and is graded by its density and then its maximum temperature rating. For example, 8# 2,300 F means 8 lb/ft3 density with a maximum temperature rating of 2,300 F. An example of a castable composition is kastolite.

CASTING DEFECTS
Any unwanted deviation from the desired requirements in a cast product results in a defect. Some defects in the cast products are tolerable while others can be rectified by additional processes like welding etc. The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings: 1. Gas defects 2. Shrinkage cavities 3.Moulding material defects 4.Pouring metal defects 5. Metallurgical defects Gas Defects These defects are due to lower gas passing tendency of the mould which is caused by lower venting , lower permeability of the mould and improper design of the casting. The lower permeability of the mould is due to use of finer size grains of sand, higher percentage of clay & moisture and excessive ramming of the mould. Figure Various gas defects The various gas defects are discussed here in detail.

 Blow holes and Open blows: These are spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting or on the surface. When present inside the casting it is called blow hole while it is termed as open blow if it appears on the surface of the casting.

These defects are caused by the moisture left in the mould and the core. Due to heat of the molten metal the moisture is converted into steam, part of which when entrapped in the casting ends up as blow hole or ends up as open blow when it reaches the surface. Thus in green sand mould it is very difficult to get rid of the blow holes, unless properly vented. Scar: A shallow blow, usually found on a flat casting surface, is referred to as a scar. Blister: This is a scar covered by the thin layers of a metal.

 Air inclusions: The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the ladle and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be trapped inside the casting and weaken it. The main reasons for this defect are the higher pouring temperatures which increase the amount of gas absorbed; poor gating design such as straight sprue in unpressurised gating; abrupt bends and other turbulence causing practices in the gating, which increase the air aspiration and finally the low permeability of the mould. The remedies would be to choose the appropriate pouring temperature and improve gating practices by reducing the turbulence. Pin hole porosity: As the molten metal gets solidified it loses the temperature which decreases the solubility of gases and thereby expelling the dissolved gases. The hydrogen which is picked up by the molten metal either in the furnace from the unburnt fuel or by the dissociation of water inside the mould cavity may escape the solidifying metal leaving behind very small diameter and long pin holes showing the path of escape. The high pouring temperature which increases the gas pick up is the main reason for this defect.

Gear hobbing

Hobbing is a machining process for

making gears, splines, and sprockets on a hobbing machine, which is a special type of milling machine. The teeth or splines are progressively cut into the workpiece by a series of cuts made by a cutting tool called a hob. Compared to other gear forming processes it is relatively inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. It is the most widely used gear cutting process for creating spur and helical gears and more gears are cut by hobbing than any other process since it is relatively quick and inexpensive.

Process Hobbing uses a hobbing machine with two nonparallel spindles, one mounted with a blank workpiece and the other with the hob. The angle between the hob's

spindle and the workpiece's spindle varies, depending on the type of product being produced. For example, if a spur gear is being produced, then the hob is angled equal to the helix angle of the hob; if a helical gear is being produced then the angle must be increased by the same amount as the helix angle of the helical gear. The two shafts are rotated at a proportional ratio, which determines the number of teeth on the blank; for example, if the gear ratio is 40:1 the hob rotates 40 times to each turn of the blank, which produces 40 teeth in the blank. Note that the previous example only holds true for a single threaded hob; if the hob has multiple threads then the speed ratio must be multiplied by the number of threads on the hob. The hob is then fed up into workpiece until the correct tooth depth is obtained. Finally the hob is fed into the workpiece parallel to the blank's axis of rotation. Up to five teeth can be cut into the workpiece at the same time. Oftentimes multiple gears are cut at the same time. For larger gears the blank is usually gashed to the rough shape to make hobbing easier.

Equipment
Modern hobbing machines, also known as hobbers, are fully automated machines that come in many sizes, because they need to be able to produce anything from tiny instrument gears up to 10 ft (3.0 m) diameter marine

gears. Each gear hobbing machine typically consists of a chuck and tailstock, to hold the workpiece or a spindle, a spindle on which the hob is mounted, and a drive motor.[3] For a tooth profile which is a theoretical involute, the fundamental rack is straight-sided, with sides inclined at the pressure angle of the tooth form, with flat top and bottom. The necessary addendum correction to allow the use of small-numbered pinions can either be obtained by suitable modification of this rack to a cycloidal form at the tips, or by hobbing at other than the theoretical pitch circle diameter. Since the gear ratio between hob and blank is fixed, the resulting gear will have the correct pitch on the pitch circle, but the tooth thickness will not be equal to the space width. Hobbing machines are characterised by the largest module or pitch diameter it can generate. For example, a 10 in (250 mm) capacity machine can generate gears with a 10 in pitch diameter and usually a maximum of a 10 in face width. Most hobbing machines are vertical hobbers, which means the blank is mounted vertically. Horizontal hobbing machines are usually used for cutting longer workpieces; i.e. cutting splines on the end of a shaft

Hob
The hob is the cutter used to cut the teeth into the workpiece. It is cylindrical in shape with helical cutting teeth. These teeth have grooves that run the length of the hob, which aid in cutting and chip removal. There are also special hobs designed for special gears such as the spline and sprocket gears. The cross-sectional shape of the hob teeth are almost the same shape as teeth of a rack gear that would be used with the finished product. There are slight changes to the shape for generating purposes, such as extending the

hob's tooth length to create a clearance in the gear's roots Each hob tooth is relieved on the back side to reduce friction Most hobs are single-thread hobs, but double-, and triplethread hobs increase production rates. The downside is that they are not as accurate as single-thread hobs.

This list outlines types of hobs: Roller chain sprocket hobs Worm wheel hobs Spline hobs Chamfer hobs Spur and helical gear hobs Straight side spline hobs Involute spline hobs Serration hobs

Semitopping gear hobs

Cam shaft
A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part

Automotive Material Camshafts can be made out of several different types of material. These include:

Chilled iron castings: this is a good choice for high volume production. A chilled iron camshaft has a resistance against wear because the camshaft lobes have been chilled, generally making them harder. When making chilled iron castings, other elements are added to the iron before casting to make the material more suitable for its application.

Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required, engine builders and camshaft manufacturers choose to make the camshaft from steel billet. This method is also

used for low volume production. This is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However the finished product is far superior. When making the camshaft, CNC lathes, CNC milling machines and CNC camshaft grinders will be used. Different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding, which changes the micro-structure of the material. It gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines.

Timing

A camshaft The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, they must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston. For

this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because the frequently-reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to quickly wear out gear teeth. Where gears are used, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil and fuel pumps. Some General Motors vehicles also have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. Also on early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors. In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve is opened once for each rotation of the crankshaft; in these engines, the camshaft rotates at the same rate as the crankshaft. In a four-stroke engine, the valves are opened only half as often; thus, two full rotations of the crankshaft occur for each rotation of the camshaft. The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce better low end torque or it can be retarded to produce better high end torque.

Duration Duration is the number of crankshaft degrees of engine rotation during which the valve is off the seat. As a

generality, greater duration results in more horsepower. The RPM at which peak horsepower occurs is typically increased as duration increases at the expense of lower rpm efficiency (torque). Duration can often be confusing because manufacturers may select any lift point to advertise a camshaft's duration and sometimes will manipulate these numbers. The power and idle characteristics of a camshaft rated at .006" will be much different than one rated the same at .002". Many performance engine builders gauge a race profile's aggressiveness by looking at the duration at .020", .050" and .200". The .020" number determines how responsive the motor will be and how much low end torque the motor will make. The .050" number is used to estimate where peak power will occur, and the .200" number gives an estimate of the power potential. A secondary effect of increase duration is increasing overlap, which is the number of crankshaft degrees during which both intake and exhaust valves are off their seats. It is overlap which most affects idle quality, inasmuch as the "blow-through" of the intake charge which occurs during overlap reduces engine efficiency, and is greatest during low RPM operation. In reality, increasing a camshaft's duration typically increases the overlap event, unless one spreads lobe centers between intake and exhaust valve lobe profiles.

Lift The camshaft "lift" is the resultant net rise of the valve from its seat. The further the valve rises from its seat the more airflow can be realised, which is generally more beneficial. Greater lift has some limitations. Firstly, the lift is limited by the increased proximity of the valve head to the piston crown and secondly greater effort is required to move the valve's springs to higher state of compression. Increased lift can also be limited by lobe clearance in the cylinder head construction, so higher lobes may not necessarily clear the framework of the cylinder head casing. Higher valve lift can have the same effect as increased duration where valve overlap is less desirable. Higher lift allows accurate timing of airflow; although even by allowing a larger volume of air to pass in the relatively larger opening, the brevity of the typical duration with a higher lift cam results in less airflow than with a cam with lower lift but more duration, all else being equal. On forced induction motors this higher lift could yield better results than longer duration, particularly on the intake side. Notably though, higher lift has more potential problems than increased duration, in particular as valve train rpm rises which can result in more inefficient running or loss or torque. Cams that have too high a resultant valve lift, and at high rpm, can result in what is called "valve bounce", where the valve spring tension is insufficient to keep the valve following the cam at its apex. This could also be as a result of a very steep rise of the lobe and short duration,

where the valve is effectively shot off the end of the cam rather than have the valve follow the cams profile. This is typically what happens on a motor over rev. This is an occasion where the engine rpm exceeds the engine maximum design speed. The valve train is typically the limiting factor in determining the maximum rpm the engine can maintain either for a prolonged period or temporarily. Sometimes an over rev can cause engine failure where the valve stems become bent as a result of colliding with the piston crowns.

Position Depending on the location of the camshaft, the cams operate the valves either directly or through a linkage of pushrods and rockers. Direct operation involves a simpler mechanism and leads to fewer failures, but requires the camshaft to be positioned at the top of the cylinders. In the past when engines were not as reliable as today this was seen as too much bother, but in modern gasoline engines the overhead cam system, where the camshaft is on top of the cylinder head, is quite common.

Number of camshafts Main articles: overhead valve and overhead cam While today some cheaper engines rely on a single camshaft per cylinder bank, which is known as a single overhead camshaft (SOHC), most modern engine designs

(the overhead-valve or OHV engine being largely obsolete on passenger vehicles), are driven by a two camshafts per cylinder bank arrangement (one camshaft for the intake valves and another for the exhaust valves); such camshaft arrangement is known as a double or dual overhead cam (DOHC), thus, a V engine, which has two separate cylinder banks, may have four camshafts (colloquially known as a quad-cam engine). More unusual is the modern W engine (also known as a 'VV' engine to distinguish itself from the pre-war W engines) that has four cylinder banks arranged in a "W" pattern with two pairs narrowly arranged with a 15 degree separation. Even when there are four cylinder banks (that would normally require a total of eight individual camshafts), the narrow-angle design allows the use of just four camshafts in total. For the Bugatti Veyron, which has a 16 cylinder W engine configuration, all the four camshafts are driving a total of 64 valves. The overhead camshaft design adds more valvetrain components that ultimately incur in more complexity and higher manufacturing costs, but this is easily offset by many advantages over the older OHV design:multi-valve design, higher RPM limit and design freedom to better place valves, ignition (Spark-ignition engine) and intake/exhaust ports.

Maintenance The rockers or cam followers sometimes incorporate a mechanism to adjust and set the valve play through manual adjustment, but most modern auto engines have hydraulic lifters, eliminating the need to adjust the valve lash at regular intervals as the valvetrain wears, and in particular the valves and valve seats in the combustion chamber. Sliding friction between the surface of the cam and the cam follower which rides upon it is considerable. In order to reduce wear at this point, the cam and follower are both surface hardened, and modern lubricant motor oils contain additives specifically to reduce sliding friction. The lobes of the camshaft are usually slightly tapered, causing the cam followers or valve lifters to rotate slightly with each depression, and helping to distribute wear on the parts. The surfaces of the cam and follower are designed to "wear in" together, and therefore when either is replaced, the other should be as well to prevent excessive rapid wear. In some engines, the flat contact surfaces are replaced with rollers, which eliminate the sliding friction and wear but adds mass to the valvetrain. Alternatives In addition to mechanical friction, considerable force is required to overcome the valve springs used to close the engine's valves. This can amount to an estimated 25% of an engine's total output at idle, reducing overall efficiency.

Some approaches to reclaiming this "wasted" energy include:

Springless valves, like the desmodromic system employed today by Ducati Camless valvetrains using solenoids or magnetic systems have long been investigated by BMW and Fiat, and are currently being prototyped by Valeo and Ricardo The Wankel engine, a rotary engine which uses neither pistons nor valves, best known for being used by Mazda in the RX-7 and RX-8 sports cars.

Cylinder
A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple

cylinders are commonly arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before precision features are machined into it. The cylinders may then be lined with sleeves or liners of some harder metal, or given a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil. Ceramic linings have also been tried, so far unsuccessfully, except with low-speed "oilless" steam engines. A cylinder's displacement, or swept volume, is its crosssectional area (the square of half the bore times pi ) times the distance the piston travels within the cylinder (the stroke). The enginedisplacement is the swept volume of one cylinder times the number of cylinders in the engine. A piston is seated inside each cylinder by several metal piston rings which fit around its outside surface in machined grooves; typically two for compressional sealing and one to seal the oil (In steam engines only compressional sealing rings are used of which there can be from two to five on the piston). A fine vapour of oil is usually maintained suspended in the steam working in the cylinder. The rings make near contact with the hard walls of the liner, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil which is essential to keep the engine from seizing up. This contact, and the resulting wear, explains the need for the hard lining on the inner surface of the cylinder. The breaking in or running in of an engine is a process whereby tiny irregularities in the metals are encouraged to form congruent grooves. An engine job or rebore is a process in which the cylinders are machined out to a slightly larger diameter, and new sleeves and piston rings installed.

Work of cylinder in Internal combustion engines

Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline (petrol),diesel fuel (or some other hydrocarbon) or ethanol, an expansion which is greatly enhanced by the heat produced. They are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods. As a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle; its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. In addition to cylinder-piston engines, there are also rotary turbines. The Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion. Air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, or even six-cylinder air-cooled units in a common block. Water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the

cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, retained the basic design of their V-twin engine while adapting it to water-cooling. In some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have "wet liners". They are formed separately from the main casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have better cooling and a more even temperature distribution, but this design makes the engine as a whole somewhat less rigid. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a single row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines (V6 or V8) use two angled cylinder banks. The "V" is designed to minimize vibration through destructive interference of harmonic overtones. (The "straight-eight" engine is a thing of the past.) Many other engine configurations exist. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the rubbing action of the piston rings and piston skirt. This is minimized by the thin oil film which coats the cylinder walls, but eventually the cylinder becomes worn and slightly oval in shape, usually necessitating a rebore to an oversize diameter and the fitting of new, oversize pistons. The cylinder does not wear above the highest point reached by the top compression ring of the piston, which can result in a detectable ridge. If an engine is only operated at low rpm for its early life (e.g. in a gently driven automobile) then abruptly used in the higher rpm range (e.g. by a new owner), the slight stretching of the connecting rods at high speed can enable the top

compression ring to contact the wear ridge, breaking the ring. For this reason it is important that all engines, once initially run-in, are occasionally "exercised" through their full speed range to develop a tapered wear profile rather than a sharp ridge. Cylinder Sleeving, Cylinder walls can become very worn or damaged from use. In such cases the use of a sleeve can restore proper clearances to an engine. Sleeves are made out of iron alloys and are very reliable. A sleeve is installed by a machinist at a machine shop. The engine block is mounted on a precision boring machine where the cylinder is then bored to a size much larger than normal and a new cast-iron sleeve can be inserted. The sleeves can be pressed into place, or they can be held in by an interference fit. The interference fit is done by boring the cylinder (between .003-.006 thousandths of an inch) smaller than the sleeve being installed, then heating the engine block and while hot, the cold sleeve can be inserted easily. When the engine block cools down it shrink fits around the sleeve holding it into place. Once a sleeve has been installed the cylinder needs to be finish bored and honed to match the piston.

Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic

cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. In popular usage, a complete cylinder assembly, such as an hydraulic cylinder on power excavators and shovels, is incorrectly called a "piston". Such magazines as Popular Science have published articles with this error. Is is possible that the popularity of a Detroit sports team has been a contributing factor.

Work of piston Internal combustion engines

There are two ways that an internal combustion piston engine can transform combustion into motive power: the two-stroke cycle and the four-stroke cycle. A single-

cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single-cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four-stroke engines. However, modern twostroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection utilise fuelinjection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel-injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wrtsil-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-storey houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four-stroke engine has to be larger than a two-stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two-stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two-stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance (despite exceptions like the Ricardo Dolphin engine, and the Twingle engines of the Trojan car and the Puch 250 motorcycle). Even though the simplest two-stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four-stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, also cooling and reliability should improve considerably

Crankshaft
The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach. It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.

Chassis The chassis of a motorcycle includes the frame and suspension, along with the front forks, of the vehicle.

Frame The frame is typically made from welded aluminium or steel (or alloy) struts, with the rear suspension being an integral component in the design. Carbon fibre and titanium are used in a few very expensive custom frames. The frame includes the head tube that holds the front fork and allows it to pivot. Some motorcycles include the engine as a load-bearing (or stressed) member; this has been used all through motorcycle history but is now becoming more common. Oil-in-Frame (OIF) chassis, where the lubricating oil is stored in the frame of the motorcycle, was used for Vincent motorcycles of the 1950s, and for a while during the 1970s on some NVT British motorcycles. It was widely unpopular and generally regarded as a bad idea at the time. Today it is a used on some "thumpers" (singlecylinder four-strokes) that usually have dry-sump lubrication requiring an external oil tank. It has since gained some cachet in the modern custom bike world too because of the space savings it can afford and the reference to an earlier era. Buell motorcycles employ a similar design the oil is held in the swingarm, while the fuel is held in the frame.

Suspension

Modern designs have the two wheels of a motorcycle connected to the chassis by a suspension arrangement, however 'chopper' style motorcycles often elect to forgo rear suspension, using a rigid frame. The front suspension is usually built into the front fork and may consist of telescoping tubes called fork tubes which contain the suspension inside or some multibar linkage that incorporate the suspension externally. The rear suspension supports the swingarm, which is attached via the swingarm pivot bolt to the frame and holds the axle of the rear wheel. The rear suspension can consist of several shock arrangements: Dual shocks, which are placed at the far ends of the swingarm Traditional monoshock, which is placed at the front of the swingarm, above the swingarm pivot bolt Softail style suspension, where the shock absorbers are mounted horizontally in front of the swingarm, below the swingarm pivot bolt and operate in extension.

Front fork
A motorcycle fork is the portion of a motorcycle that holds the front wheel and allows one to steer. For handling, the front fork is the most critical part of a motorcycle. The combination of rake and trail determines how stable the motorcycle is.

A fork generally consists of two fork tubes (sometimes also referred to as forks), which hold the front wheel axle, and a triple tree, which connects the fork tubes and the handlebars to the frame with a pivot that allows for steering.

Engine
Almost all commercially available motorcycles are driven by conventional gasoline internal combustion engines, but some small scooter-type models use an electric motor, and a very small number of diesel models exist (e.g., the USMC M1030 M1 version of the Kawasaki KLR650 and the Dutch-produced Track T-800CDI).

The displacement is defined as the total volume of air/fuel mixture an engine can draw in during one complete engine cycle. In a piston engine, this is the volume that is swept as the pistons are moved from top dead centre to bottom

dead centre. To the layperson this is the "size" of the engine. Motorcycle engines range from less than 50 cc (cubic centimetres), commonly found in many small scooters, to 5735 cc, a Chevrolet V8 engine, currently used by Boss Hoss in its cruiser style motorcycle. Motorcycles have mostly, but not exclusively, been produced with one to four cylinders, and designers have tried virtually every imaginable layout. The most common engine configurations today are the single and twin, the Vtwin, the opposed twin (or boxer), and the in-line triple and in-line four. A number of others designs have reached mass production, including the V-4, the flat 6cylinder, the flat 4-cylinder, the in-line 6-cylinder, and the Wankel engine. Exotic engines, such as a radial piston engine, sometimes appear in custom built motorcycles, though two firms Megola and Redrup put radial engined motorcycles into production.

Engines with more cylinders for the same displacement feel smoother to ride. Engines with fewer cylinders are cheaper, lighter, and easier to maintain. Liquid-cooled motorcycles have a radiator which is the primary way their heat is dispersed. Coolant or oil is constantly circulated between this radiator and the cylinder when the engine is running. Air-cooled motorcycles rely on air blowing past fins on the engine case to disperse heat. Liquid cooled motorcycles have the potential for greater power at a given displacement, tighter tolerances, and longer operating life, whereas air cooled motorcycles are

potentially cheaper to purchase, less mechanically complex and lighter weight. An air cooled engine contracts and expands with its wider temperature range, requiring looser tolerances, and giving shorter engine life. The temperature range of an air cooled two stroke is even more extreme and component life even shorter than in an air cooled four stroke. As applied to motorcycles, two-stroke engines have some advantages over equivalent four-strokes: they are lighter, mechanically much simpler, and produce more power when operating at their best. But four-stroke engines are cleaner, more reliable, and deliver power over a much broader range of engine speeds. In developed countries, two-stroke road-bikes are rare, becausein addition to the reasons abovemodifying them to meet contemporary emissions standards is prohibitively expensive. Almost all modern two-strokes are singlecylinder, liquid-cooled, and under 600 cc. In November 2006, the Dutch company E.V.A. Products BV Holland announced that its diesel-powered motorcycle, the Track T-800CDI, achieved production status. The Track T-800CDI uses a 800 cc three-cylinder Daimler Chrysler diesel engine. Other manufacturers, including Royal Enfield, had been producing dieselpowered bikes since at least the 1980s.Also, Intelligent Energy, a British alternative-fuel company, is developing a motorcycle powered by a detachable hydrogenpowered fuel cell, which it calls an Emissions Neutral Vehicle (ENV).According to reports, the vehicle can

sustain speeds of 50 mph (80 km/h) while making virtually no noise, and can run for up to four hours without refueling

Transmission
Modern motorcycles (excepting scooters) all change gears (of which they will increasingly have five or six) by foot lever. The weight of the largest touring motorcycles (sometimes in excess of 360 kg or 800 lbs) is such that they cannot effectively be pushed backwards by a seated rider, and they are fitted with a reverse gear as standard. In some cases, including the Honda Gold Wing and BMW K1200LT, this is not really a reverse gear, but a feature of the starter motor which when reversed, performs the same function. In earlier times pre WWII, hand-operated gear changes were common, a lever was provided to the side the fuel tank. British and many other motorcycles after WWII used a lever on the right but today gear-changing is standardised on a foot-operated lever to the left. All two-wheelers use a sequential gearbox. On a motorcycle either first or second gear can be selected from neutral, but higher gears may only be accessed in order - it is not possible to shift from second gear to fourth gear without shifting through third gear. A five-speed of this configuration would be known as "one down, four up" because of the placement of the gears with relation to neutral. Neutral is to be found "half a click" away from first

and second gears, so shifting directly between the two gears can be made in a single movement. Traditional scooters still have manual gear-changing by a twist grip on the left hand side of the handlebar, with a clutch on a lever also rotating. Increasingly they may be fitted with a continuously variable transmission or CVT instead, a kind of automatic transmission (as once used in the DAF car) that is stepless. Step-through motorcycles often have a three-speed foot change, but the clutch is automatic. The clutch is typically an arrangement of plates stacked in alternating fashion, one geared on the inside to the engine and the next geared on the outside to the transmission input shaft. Whether wet (rotating in engine oil) or dry, the plates are squeezed together by a spring, causing friction build up between the plates until they rotate as a single unit, driving the transmission directly. A lever on the handlebar exploits mechanical advantage through a cable or hydraulic arrangement to release the clutch spring, allowing the engine to freewheel with respect to the transmission.

Final drive
Power transfer from the gearbox to the rear wheel is accomplished by different methods.

Chain drive uses sprockets and a roller chain, which requires both lubrication and adjustment for elongation (stretch) that occurs through wear. The lubricant is subject to being thrown off the fast-moving chain and results in grime and dirt build up. Chains do deteriorate, and excessive wear on the front and rear sprockets can be dangerous. In a chain drive the power is transmitted into the real wheel via a cush drive. Virtually all high performance racing motorcycles use chain drive. A belt drive is still subject to stretch but operates very quietly, cleanly, and efficiently. However, belt drives are limited in the amount of power they can transmit. A toothed belt is frequently used. A shaft drive is usually completely enclosed; the visual cue is a tube extending from the rear of the transmission to a bell housing on the rear wheel. Inside the bell housing a bevelled gear on the shaft mates with another on the wheel mount. This arrangement is superior in terms of noise and cleanliness and is virtually maintenance free, with the exception of occasional fluid changes. However, the additional gearsets are a source of power loss and added weight. A shaft-equipped motorcycle may also be susceptible to shaft effect.

Wheels
The wheel rims are usually steel or aluminium (generally with steel spokes and an aluminium hub) or magtype cast or machined aluminium. At one time,

motorcycles used spoke wheels built up from separate components, but, except for dirtbikes, one-piece wheels are more common now. Performance racing motorcycles often use carbon-fibre wheels, but the expense of these wheels is prohibitively high for general usage. Wire wheels have a central hub connected to the rim of the wheel via spokes made of wire. These spokes are generally quite solid and will not easily bend as would typical wire cord. Nevertheless, they mechanically function as wires under tension, holding the rim true and providing strength to the wheel. Cast magnesium disks, produced by one-step hot forging from magnesium alloys ZK60 and MA-14, are also used for many motorcycle wheels.

Tires
Motorcycles mainly use pneumatic tires. However, in some cases where punctures are common (some enduros), the tyres are filled with a "mousse" which is unpunctureable. Both types of tyre come in many configurations. The most important characteristic of any tyre is the contact patch, the small area that is in contact with the road surface while riding. There are tyres designed for dirtbikes, touring, sport and cruiser bikes.

Dirtbike tyres have knobbly, deep treads for maximum grip on loose dirt, mud, or gravel; such tyres tend to be less stable on paved surfaces. Touring tyres are usually made of harder rubber for greater durability. They may last longer, but they tend to provide less outright grip than sports tyres at optimal operating temperatures. The payoff is that touring tyres typically offer more grip at lower temperatures, meaning they can be more suitable for riding in cold or winter conditions whereas a sport tyre may never reach the optimal operating temperature. Sport/performance tyres provide amazing grip but may last 1,000 miles (1,600 km) or less. Cruiser and "sport touring" tyres try to find the best compromise between grip and durability. There is also a type of tyre developed specifically for racing. These tyres offer the highest of levels of grip for cornering. Because of the high temperatures at which these tyres typically operate, use on the street is unsafe because the tyres will typically not reach optimum temperature before a rider arrives, thus providing almost no grip en route. In racing situations, racing tyres would normally be brought up to temperature in advance by the use of tyre warmers.

Brakes There are generally two independent brakes on a motorcycle, one set on the front wheel and one on the rear. However, some models have "linked brakes"

whereby both can be applied at the same time using only one control. Front brakes are generally much more effective than rear brakes: roughly two thirds of stopping power comes from the front brakemainly as a result of weight transfer being much more pronounced compared to longer or lower vehicles, because of the motorcycle's short wheelbase relative to its center of mass height. This can result in brake. Brakes can either be drum or disc based, with disc brakes being more common on large, modern or more expensive motorcycles for their far superior stopping power, particularly in wet conditions. There are many brakeperformance-enhancing aftermarket parts available for most motorcycles, including brake pads of varying compounds and steel-braided brake lines. In 1981, BMW introduced an antilock braking system (ABS) on a motorcycle. Other manufacturers have since also adopted this technology, although Harley Davidson only offers it on some police motorcycles and not on civilian motorcycles. ABS is normally found on motorcycles of 500 cc or greater engine capacity, although it is available on motor scooters down to 49 cc.

Instruments

Most road motorcycles have an instrument panel, usually consisting of speedometer, odometer and tachometer. Fuel gauges are becoming more common, but traditionally a reserve tank arrangement is used with petlocks (petrol tap) on the side of the motorcycle allowing the rider to switch to a reserve fuel supply when the main fuel supply is exhausted. There is not actually a separate reserve tank: The intake for the petcock has two pipes, one extending higher into the fuel tank than the other. When fuel no longer covers the longer pipe the engine will lose power/splutter and the rider switches the petcock to the "reserve" setting, which accesses the shorter pipe. Riders whose bikes lack a fuel gauge (most machines prior to the past few years) usually learn how far they can go with a full tank of fuel, and then use a trip meter if available to judge when they must refill the tank