Food chains and food webs trace the energy transfer between the different types of organisms in an ecosystem.

Food webs consist of different food chains. These food chains themselves are typically made up of three to six trophic levels consisting of: autotrophs (producers), consumers (primary to quaternary), and decomposers (a special type of consumer). Consumers are composed of herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters), and omnivores (plant and meat eaters). Decomposers are responsible for the process of ammonication (the synthesis of ammonium from nitrogen, and nitrogen xation (changing nitrogen into usable forms in plants). There are three types of ecological pyramids: numbers, biomass, and energy. Number pyramids show the number of organisms in their trophic levels. Biomass pyramids indicate the mass of the organisms in their trophic level (g/square metres). Energy pyramids indicate the amount of Joules in each trophic level. Only the numbers, and biomass pyramids can be inverted because: a) the organisms that are on inverted level reproduce enough to sustain the next trophic level; b) the organisms provide enough food to sustain the next trophic level; c) the energy still follows the rule of 10. The rule of 10 states that only about 10 percent of the energy in each trophic level is passed on to the trophic level above it. Therefore, the amount of consumers is limited in a food web. Thermodynamic laws apply to the rule of 10. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; all energy conversions result in heat being wasted.

Organisms are classied through binomial nomenclature and taxonomy. Binomial nomenclature is the use of two words (often Latin based), to classify an organism, while taxonomy states that there are three domains and six kingdoms that animals can be classied in.

Organisms inside a food web have evolved over time, and have changed due to several factors. Adaption occurs as a result of mixing alleles, or mutation. Mutation can occur as a result of UV radiation, or an unexpected change in the DNA when meiosis occurs. Several mutations are more noticeable in groups than individuals. These adaptations can be passed on to the next generation if they are helpful. For example, giraffes have evolved because their long necks were once adaptations that now help them today. Adaptations are structural (camouage), behavioral, or modes of life (reproductive mating call). In order to trace evolution, we have used fossils found in sedimentary rock as a practical, direct tool to help understand evolution. Fossils essentially are teeth, shells, bones, or soft tissues that have been preserved over long periods of time. Teeth, shells, and bones (hard matter), can be preserved in dry environments; soft tissues can be preserved in frozen, icy environments. Impressions of foot prints, fecal matter, and tissue can be also be found along with these fossils. As fossils develop in the ground, the cell cavities can be replaced with minerals (petrication). There are two ways to track the dating of fossils: absolute, and relative. Relative dating involves using the layers of strata to nd the relative age of fossils; older fossils are found deeper, younger fossils are found closer to the surface. Absolute dating involves tracking the half lives of substances inside the fossils, such as uranium. Tracking these fossils indicates that evolution and change within a species has occurred. Although there are direct ways to track evolution such as fossils, and dating, there are indirect methods as well: ! -Embryology: similarities in embryos suggest common ancestor (tetrapod) ! -Homologous structures: different in structure, but originated from common ancestor (divergent evolution) ! -Analogous structures: similar in structure, but originated from different ancestors (convergent evolution) ! -Physiological evidence: similarities between organisms suggesting common ancestor ! -Biochemical similarities: similarities in chemical makeups ! -Biogeography: gives insight into evolutionary events by studying global distribution of particular organisms

! Before modern evolutionary theories took place, spontaneous generation was a popular theory created by Aristotle. Aristotle stated that abiogenesis occurred to produce organisms, which was disproven by biogenesis. Other theories occurred at the time as well: ! Buffon: challenged non-evolution, noted similarities between apes and humans ! Cuvier: studied fossils, revolutions caused extinctions, relative dating ! Lyell: gradualism, slow changes, inspired Darwin ! Lamarck: believed in evolution, compared fossils, thought nurtured characteristics could be passed on, heredity was a mechanism of evolution (similar to Darwin) ! 1. 2. 3. 4. Darwin and Wallace combined to make the theory of natural selection: Overproduction: all organisms produce more offspring than can possibly survive Variation: no two individuals are alike, the best variations are passed on, mutation Competition: overproduction forces competition for life necessities Natural Selection: best will survive (selective advantaged ones will reproduce, unt will die off)

Before adaptation can occur, usually Darwins law of survival of the ttest applies, as the weaker individuals would die off in a short time. Speciation is a key aspect of evolution that can occur in two forms: allopatric, and sympatric. Allopatric is a geographical separation that results in the formation of a new species, while sympatric results in the formation of a new species in the same area. Allopatric occurs more often. A variation of speciation is adaptive radiation (Galapagos Finches). This occurs as a result of one species diversifying into many others with separate adapted trait. Allopatric speciation often causes the origin of endemic species. Because the organisms are isolated from their native environment, they cannot reproduce with the original species until they have already gotten past the point where they had the potential to reproduce with the original species. Today, there are some modern evolutionary theories: punctuated equilibrium, and gradualism. Punctuated equilibrium occurs as a result of rapid change in short bursts interspersed in between periods of lack of change. Gradualism is a result of change that doesnt occur rapidly, but continuously over long spans of time. ! All organisms require water. This unique molecule can do so many different things because of its unique properties, which stem from its hydrogen bonds: ! ! ! ! ! -High heat capacity (requires a large amount of energy in order to be broken down) -Adhesion (water molecules sticking to other surfaces) -Cohesion (water molecules sticking to each other) -Polarity (one end, hydrogen is ionized, oxygen is not) ! -ability to carry solutes

Plants use photosynthesis in order to help animals respire. Photosynthesis is a process that takes light energy, and converts it into storable chemical energy in glucose bonds. CO2 is also used from the outside environment. This process takes place in the chloroplast of the organelle; however, the light reaction takes place in the thylakoid disc (inner part is called lumen), and the light independent reaction takes place in the stroma. During photosynthesis, oxidation (removing electron) and reduction (gaining electron) are used to transfer positive hydrogen ions, and negative electrons. Electrons and protons, both key parts of making energy, are carried by NAD+, NADP+, FAD+ transport these to the electron transport chain. The reaction rst starts when light splits a water molecule (photolysis) into H+, O2, and e-. These are carried from photosystem II down a channel; along the way, the electrons make ATP by donating their

energy. After passing through this channel, they reach photosystem I, replenishing the energy there. At photosystem I, another ray of light reenergizes the electron. Soon after, the particles reach the electron transport chain in the thylakoid membrane. Here, the electrons help to make ATP by providing movement energy, while the H+ move down the gradient to turn ATP synthase, which synthesizes ADP and P into ATP. There is more hydrogen found in the thylakoid membrane than in the stroma, because of the electron transport chain. The light independent reaction (Calvin Cycle in the stroma) starts when CO2 bonds with RuBP (six carbon). This RuBP molecule is broken down into two PGA (three carbon) then into PGAL (three carbon). These two PGAL then form into glucose after six cycles. Along the way, ATP is split into ADP, NADPH is split into NADP to help move the PGA, and PGAL molecules.

Chlorophyll is an important pigment in photosynthesis. It is a green pigment that reects the green wavelength so it appears green. Cellular respiration is an aerobic process used by all organisms. This process takes oxygen and glucose, and turns them into CO2, H2O, and ATP. The rst phase, glycolysis (anaerobic), takes place in the cytoplasm where 2 ATP are put into a reaction in order to have a gain of 2 ATP (4 ATP total), while NAD is reduced to NADH. Electrons are carried by NADH. This reaction helps break down glucose into pyruvate. Pyruvate is a three carbon compound. Before the pyruvate reaches the Krebs cycle, the pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is transformed into a 2 carbon compound. In the process, a NADH gets made, and a CO2 molecule is released. Coenzyme A is added to the modied pyruvate to make acetyl CoA. At the Krebs cycle, pyruvate helps reduce NAD+ molecules into NADH and H+, and convert ADP and P into ATP, and FAD into FADH2. Each pyruvate generates 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH; other substances are

released such as CO2. Both the electron transport channel, and Krebs cycle are aerobic. The electron transport chain works much like the one in photosynthesis. The NADH and FADH donate their e- to the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Protons are pumped through the surrounding area and through ATP synthase in order to generate high levels of ATP (chemiosmosis). ATP is made from adenosine diphosphate and a phosphate. When broken down, ATP generates energy; it provides energy for active transport. If ATP is used, an exothermic reaction takes place. Meanwhile, the electrons provide the energy, and excess protons are carried by oxygen, resulting in water. If oxygen is not present, ethanol and lactic acid can be made through fermentation. Ethanol is produced by yeasts, and lactic acids are produced in animals. In order to create energy, pyruvate is broken down in a series of chemical reactions.

Outside of the water cycle, there are four main cycles of other atomic substances: carbon (CO2), nitrogen (N2 - product of denitrication (takes N2 from NO3, and NO2, NO3, NO2, NH4), sulfur (S8, SO4, SO2, H2S), and phosphorus (PO4 - can create algal bloom, which can harm aquatic organisms by using the oxygen supply). These cycles illustrate the movements of those substances in the atmosphere and biosphere. Acid rain can be formed from the sulfur and carbon cycles. NO2, and CO2 can accumulate in the atmosphere resulting in rain with a low pH. In the sulfur cycle, there is a unique ow of energy because plants cannot photosynthesize. Instead, chemosynthesis is used. Chemosynthesis creates energy through chemical reactions, usually in deep sea vents. In ecosystems, there are a variety of terms that help to explain ecosystems: ! Species: organisms that able to breed with one another and produce fertile offspring ! Population: group of individuals of the same species living in a specic area at the same time (predator-prey relationships do not exist) ! Community: all individuals in all populations in certain area (predator-prey relationships exist) ! Niche: role that organisms play in community and the total range of biotic and abiotic requirements needed for its survival

In a lake, there can be a variety of species with different niches because of the sunlight. The sunlight affects visibility and temperature, resulting in different abiotic requirements for organisms. Fish that like warm water would likely be near the surface, while sh that thrive in dark environments would be near the bottom. The growth of ecosystems is limited by both biotic and abiotic factors: ! -Soil, moisture, temperature, humidity, competition, predators, parasites, vegetation, etc.

Digestion is made up of four non-metabolic processes: ingestion, digestion, elimination, and absorption. Unicellular organisms digest in the cell, but multicellular organisms digest outside of the cell. Physical digestion increases SA for absorption, a metabolic (takes place in cells) reaction. As the body processes these ingredients, the law of thermodynamics apply: 1. 2. Energy is not created or destroyed; energy is only transferred from one form to another. Heat energy is always released during a transfer; therefore, no transfer is 100% efcient.

When a person ingests food, the teeth break down the food physically, while the salivary amylase chemically digests the food by breaking its bond through a catabolic chemical reaction. Mechanical digestion increases the surface area for particles to be absorbed after chemical digestion. Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down amylose (starch) into disaccharides, present in the pancreas and mouth is made of a protein with an active site specic to its substrate. Enzymes catalyze anabolic (store energy) or catabolic reactions (release energy) by lowering the activation energy required by increasing the concentration of reactants. While enzymes are useful, they can be denatured or coagulated by high or low pH (drastic environmental changes) or high (weakens bonds) or low temperatures (lack of exibility to perform chemical reaction); the concentration of substrate and amount of inhibitor can affect reaction speed as well. Inhibitors can compete for the active site, or they can alter the enzymes shape by occupying an allosteric site. Increasing the amount of substrate will not affect speed but increasing enzyme concentration will slightly speed up the reaction. Enzymes can rely on coenzymes which can be organic (vitamins) or inorganic (minerals). Vitamins are water or fat soluble. Minerals are used in chemical reactions. While enzymes are catalysts that are used frequently, they are reusable. In the mouth, catabolic reactions take place. Before the initial digestion of sugars (carbohydrates) begin, iodine would indicate the presence of the polysaccharide, starch. After the process, Benedicts solution will indicate simple sugars. The starch in the mouth is usually organic, because of the carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen. In addition, the organic compound may contain HNOPS. After the mouth, the epiglottis closes over the trachea before the esophagus uses peristalsis to move the bolus through the esophageal sphincter. When carbohydrates (sugars) have their glycosidic bonds broken down, they become mono/disaccharides (maltose). Carbohydrates, composed of CHO (1:2:1 for monosaccharides), provide energy in mono or disaccharide form. Examples of monosaccharides include When they are broken down, water must be added; anabolism removes water. Monosaccharides, come in two forms; aldose and ketose, which are trioses, pentoses or hexoses. The heads are formed by carbon, and hydrogen. Carbon must have four bonds. However, polysaccharides (complex sugars) store energy and provide structure in four forms: chitin, cellulose, which are structural; starch and glycogen, which are storage. Chitin and cellulose are structural carbohydrates, while starch and glycogen are storage carbohydrates. Starch is processed in photosynthesis, and glycogen is synthesized from monosaccharides in the liver.

In the stomach, hydrochloric acid activates inactive pepsinogen into pepsin. Gastrin, a digestive hormone, signals the making of HCl. Hydrochloric acid is important because it provides an acidic environment to kill bacteria and break down proteins. The muscular stomach secretes mucus around the rugae, which prevents the acid from damaging the stomach. After digestion of water, salts, and lipid-soluble substances (alcohol), the acidic chyme is directed to the pyloric sphincter. Proteins (CHONS) are broken down in the stomach by pepsin with the aid of hormones into amino acids. They are indicated by Biurets Solution. Amino acids can be essential or unessential. Essential amino acids are needed in the diet, while non-essential amino acids must be obtained through the diet. Proteins are used for growth, repair, and immunity, and hormones, as well as emergency energy. They come in four types: the sequence of amino acids, helix, wrap/sheet, and rope. In molecular form, they are composed of two carbons attached to a nitrogen, followed by a carbon attached to a peptide group and a hydrogen, followed by a carbon bonded to an oxygen and a nitrogen in a peptide bond (assuming bonded). The peptide bonds are between the carboxyl and hydroxyl group of amino acids.

After passing through the pyloric sphincter, the chyme goes to the small intestine, which contains villi, and microvilli, which increase SA for diffusion. In the small intestine, enzymes activate: ! -Secretin: tells pancreas to release bicarbonate ! -CCK: tells gallbladder to release bile (emulsies fats) and the pancreas to release digestive enzymes (amylase (pancreatic amylase is the nal processing of starch), lipase, trypsin) ! -Trypsin: breaks polypeptides into smaller polypeptides ! -Erepsin: converts smaller polypeptides into amino acids The small intestine is composed of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Segmentation (physical digestion) also occurs. The duodenum is important because it contains villi for lipid digestion. The jejunum further breaks down food particles, while the ileum is responsible for absorbing nutrients and sending the remaining matter to the large intestine. Bile salts emulsify lipids so they can be absorbed into lacteals, where they are transported to lymph vessels. Lipids come in four forms: triacylglycerides, phospholipids, steroids/cholesterols, and waxes. They provide energy, insulation, and aid in vitamin absorption. Triglycerides are made from three fatty acids ester bonded to a glycerol. If there are double bonds, an unsaturated, liquid, plant fat is present. The liquid, plant fats are also known as oils. If there are singular bonds, a saturated, solid, animal fat is present. This saturated fat is straighter than its unsaturated counterpart. Phospholipids are made of hydrophilic heads, and hydrophobic tails. Lipids are dangerous in LDL form because they can cause atherosclerosis.

Before the remaining nutrients and wastes reach the large intestine, it passes through the caecum. In the lsmall intestine, nucleotides, part of DNA (genes), or RNA (copy of genes), formed from a phosphate group, sugar, and nitrogen base are broken down by nucleotidases. The nucleosides then are broken down by nucleosidases into their individual parts. The large intestine then absorbs the remaining vitamins, and water, with the help of symbiotic bacteria, before excretion begins. The urinary system is responsible for removing wastes (carbon dioxide, water, indigestible molecules from food, broken down hemoglobin, proteins and nucleic acids. and excess uids from the body. It is composed of the liver (glycogen storage, detoxify drugs, break down hemoglobin, nucleic acids, and deamination (removal of amino group) of amino acids), kidneys (2), urinary bladder, ureters (2), and urethra, not including the smaller tissues used. Male urethras are longer, which makes them less susceptible to bladder infection. In males, the urethra is used for both the urinary and reproductive systems, while in females, there are two body organs used. While most excess molecules are removed through diffusion, the urinary/excretory system gets rid of other substances. In the excretory system, blood containing nitrogenous wastes travels to the kidney. This nitrogenous waste combines with water, salt, and sugars in the kidney before traveling through the ureter into the bladder. The bladder stores this urine (aqueous waste) until it reaches between 200-600 mL. At this stage, the sphincter muscles are under voluntary control until the bladder is overfull, where it becomes involuntary, As the urinary sphincters relax, urine travels out through the urethra.

The liver is responsible for the deamination of amino acids. When proteins are broken down, the amino group falls off, which contains nitrogen. These amino acids are processed in the urinary system, or redistributed into the body cells. The nitrogen is converted into ammonia, which is toxic. Therefore, the liver changes it to non-toxic urea, a metabolic waste. This urea travels through the blood into the kidney from the liver, where it is ltered out of the blood and combines with water, salts, and sugars to form urine. The kidneys are the rst part of the excretory system, where primary functions occur. These include blood ltration, waste excretion, and regulation of blood pressure, volume, and salt balance. The cortex is made of three layers. The outer part of the kidney is called the cortex, and the inside, the medulla (high salt content), and the pelvis, which consists of calyces (projections) around the renal pyramids. There is a set of path of excretion, mainly passing through the nephron, which puts vital nutrients and water back into the blood and the renal tubule. The nephron is the site of ltration for blood plasma. The

composition of the ltrate. Before the blood containing wastes gets to the kidney, it passes through the renal artery. If there is high pressure, the rate of ltration is increased. First, the waste passes through the glomerulus inside the Bowmans capsule, which only allow water and small ions to pass through (proteins remain). This is called glomerular ltration. In the afferent arteriole, the glomerulus receives blood at high pressure. In the glomerulus, the urea passes into the nephron ducts, and the blood passes through blood vessels until returning to the heart. The ltrate then leaves the glomerulus via the efferent arteriole. This ltrate passes through the Bowmans or glomerular capsule. In the afferent arteriole, the glomerulus receives blood at high pressure. This then passes through the renal vein, into the proximal convoluted tubule (no proteins). This is where tubular reabsorption occurs. From then on, it passes to the Loop of Henle, where there is an adjustment of salt balance, as the water ows out at the bottom of the loop of Henle, which in itself contains a high concentration of sodium ions. As the loop of Henle ascends, it is now slightly permeable to ions, so minerals such as sodium can pass through Then, the waste travels through the distal tubule, the last segment of the nephron. Finally, the urine travels to the collecting duct, where it can be sent to the bladder. Two processes mainly occur tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion. For tubular reabsorption, cells in the proximal tubule remove water and nutrients from the ltrate and pass them back into the blood, while wastes are retained. For tubular secretion, wastes, such as hydrogen,and potassium remaining, are removed from the blood into the distal tubule. In the collecting duct, water reabsorption can occur, so it can be reused. The formation of urine is dependent on three factors: ltration, reabsorption, and secretion. Filtration occurs as a result of the movement of uids/urea from the Bowmans capsule. This all takes place in the sequence of afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole and renal capillary. The high pressure of the blood in the glomerulus moves solutes into the Bowmans capsule, along with diffusion. Even though there are blood cells, plasma proteins, and platelets, they are too big to move into the Bowmans Capsule, so they stay in the blood stream. Reabsorption occurs in the loop of Henle, and the proximal tubule where sodium ions are reabsorbed into intracellular spaces outside the nephron. Chlorine and other negative ions also follow because of the charge attraction. The high concentration of solutes outside the nephron draws water outside through osmosis. Secretion can also occur. Waste in the blood can travel into the nephron, such as hydrogen ions, histamines, ions, and minerals. This occurs in the distal tubule. The ADH hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH increases water absorption in the collecting duct. If there is lots of this hormone, lots of the hormone will result in concentrated urine and plenty of reabsorbed water. Little ADH amounts will result in little water reabsorbed and dilute urine. This hormone is triggered by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, located above the pituitary gland. They are responsible for detecting change in osmotic pressure (water content of blood). High osmotic pressure, or high concentration of blood plasma (dehydration) will result in high ADH, as the body seeks to retain the water inside. Low osmotic pressure will result in less ADH, meaning the person is healthy. This signals the collecting duct and distal tube to be less permeable to water, so water can be excreted, which concentrates solutes in the blood. When there is low water in the blood, the water moves into the blood from the tissues. These tissues shrink, which allow the osmoreceptors to detect the change in osmotic pressure.The hypothalamus then sends a nerve stimulus to the pituitary to release ADH, while also creating a thirst sensation. As the ADH travels to the nephron, it signals the blood to reabsorb water into the blood. When the water returns to the blood, there is an in osmotic pressure. If there is less water, there is more ADH released. If the water returns to the tissues, the hypothalamus swells. Aldosterone, another key hormone, is responsible for regulating blood pressure. They do this by adjusting blood volumes. This hormone is released from the adrenal cortex, and sent to the nephron. It tells the nephron to increase sodium reabsorption into the blood. When the aldosterone causes reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting ducts, the osmotic gradient draws water with the sodium, increasing blood pressure. It also can stimulate secretion of potassium ions into distal tubes and collecting ducts if the concentration is too high.

There are a few disorders of the kidney system. Kidney stones can be formed in the renal medulla and pelvis of the kidney. It is a result of excess calcium in the urine, which creates calcium stones that must painfully pass through the urinary tract. Kidneys can fail during periods of high blood pressure, because the blood vessels get ripped apart. Polycystic kidney disease is a result of high blood pressure. Blood appears in the urine, along with back and abdominal pain. The abdomen enlarges, and indicates kidney failure. Diabetes mellitus occurs as a result of high glucose levels, as a result of low insulin. Diabetes insipidus occurs as a result of the kidneys inability to conserve water as a result of the failure to produce the ADH hormone. This causes dehydration, and the person can urinated between 4-8 L/day. Renal insufciency occurs when homeostasis is not maintained due to nephron damage. Nephron damage can be a result of, but is not limited to kidney infection, poisoning, atherosclerosis, or tubule blockage. There are also diseases. A urinary tract infection occurs when bacteria enters the urinary tract. Symptoms include burning during urination, a need to frequently urinate, and discoloured urine. Also, chills, fever, nausea and vomiting may exist. These can result in kidney damage or failure. Peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis are used as treatments for kidney disorders. Dialysis is the diffusion of dissolved materials through a semipermeable membrane. Hemodialysis uses an articial membrane in an external device that is connected to an arm vein or artery. Peritoneal dialysis occurs in the stomach, and uses the lining of the intestine as a dialysis membrane. As a primary component of respiration, air is composed of four elements: N, O, Ar, and CO2. (Oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli) When it rst enters the body, it passes through the nasal cavity or mouth. In the nasal cavity, small hairs lter air. In both the nasal cavity and trachea, mucus trap smaller pollutants, while keeping cell moist. It also contains turbinate bones, which increase surface area. Mucus is an antiseptic enzyme composed of proteins, salt, and water that should be clear when healthy. After the air has been partially ltered, it passes through the pharynx, before going down the trachea, while the epiglottis covers the opening to the trachea, the glottis. The trachea is lined with ciliated hair cells that help sweep mucus secreted by goblet cells; a mucociliary escalator is formed. Inside the trachea, if there is cigarette smoke, frequent coughing may occur because mucus cannot be released because of paralyzed cilia cells. Soon after, the trachea gives way to the larynx, two thin sheets of elastic ligaments (vocal chords) that vibrate with air. They are protected by the Adams Apple. The trachea also carries air to two bronchi, containing cartilaginous rings, before the bronchi branch into the lung. Bronchioles, or smaller bronchi, are made of smooth muscle. Asthma occurs as a result of bronchiole blockage; bronchodilators help to restore function. People with asthma are sensitive to pathogens, but this cannot be cured. Inhalers, which inject medicine, and normal medication to reduce inammation is used. Both the bronchi and the bronchioles contain cilia and mucus producing cells. The ends of the bronchioles lead to the alveoli, which are singular cell layered cells, surrounded by capillaries, which aid in diffusion during external respiration. Alveoli lead to the capillaries, and use facilitated diffusion to help move the oxygen into the blood into the capillaries.The alveoli can be affected by emphysema, which reduces their elasticity, which reduces surface area for gas exhcange, and is non-curable, resulting in shortness of breath. The main treatment is lung volume reduction surgery. The lung, which contains the alveoli, have lobes. The right lobe has three, while the left lobe has two (-1 for heart space). They are sounded by a pleural membrane, which provides moisture for chemical reactions and connects the two lungs.

There are some diseases in the respiratory system. Tonsillitis and laryngitis are infections and inammations respectively caused by infection/virus. Laryngitis affects the larynx and reduces speaking capability, and is shown by sore throat and hoarseness. Bronchitis is a result of mucus lled and inamed bronchi. There is acute, which is treated by antibiotics, and chronic, which is a long-term disorder. Chronic is most dangerous as it results in destroyed cilia cells, further inaming the bronchi, and increasing the likely hood of inammation. The most likely cause is preventable, smoking. There is no cure, but treatment can occur with medication and regular exercise. Pneumonia, a common disease that is lobular, or bronchial, occurs when the alveoli in the lungs become inamed and lled with liquid. The body becomes starved for oxygen. The main causes are infection, and viruses, with the latter being less dangerous as it can be treated with anti-viral medications. Cystic brosis, a genetic condition, affects the lungs, and results in a lack of homeostasis, which results in an accumulation of pathogens. Respiration is an exothermic process occurs in inspiratory (body/lungs), expiratory (lungs (capillaries)/air) and cellular forms. In cellular respiration, ATP fuels the reaction that exchanges sugars, and air reactants for carbon dioxide and water products. The purpose is to bring oxygen to key tissues of the body, while also removing excess carbon dioxide. The two systems that control this are the muscular and nervous system. Breathing involves pressure differences between the atmosphere, and the chest cavity. Gasses diffuse using pressure differences to achieve inspiration and expiration. The diaphragm, which separates the chest/stomach and thoracic cavity contracts to allow more volume and less pressure, resulting in inspiration/inhalation (reverse applies), aided by rib movements. Intercostal muscles work a direct relationship. When they contract, the ribs move up and down, inating the lungs. The inverse applies. If this process does not work, a mechanism called the iron lung can be used to create an articial pressure

difference. Exhalation happens when the diaphragm and the rib muscles relax, reducing the voluming in the lungs, so air moves from the lungs outside the body. Chemoreceptors signal the medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate. The chemoreceptors detect high levels of carbonic acid. Low oxygen chemoreceptors are found in the aortic and carotid bodies, which are responsible for high-altitude breathing rates. This is usually the rst response at the high altitude level. Carbon monoxide also competes with oxygen for hemoglobin (iron and protein) spots, which bypasses the chemoreceptors. Spirometry is made of four components: ! Tidal Volume: the volume of exhaling/inhaling ! Expiratory: volume exhaled ! Inspiratory Reserve: what cant leave the lungs unless forced ! Vital Capacity: Lung Volume

Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport is almost the same. Oxygen has high pressure, while carbon dioxide has low pressure outside of the body. Oxygen requires this high pressure to stick to hemoglobin. Considering oxygen has low pressure in the capillaries, oxygen drops in this area so it can diffuse into tissues. In cells, carbonic acid is formed by the enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, as the low pressure allows diffusion into the blood. Disassociation occurs to maintain pH. Once blood reaches the lung area, oxygen dislodges the hydrogen, which forms carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The carbon dioxide then diffuses into the alveoli. After the alveoli, the air goes to the alveolar sacs, which provide a large surface area surrounded by capillaries. The circulatory system revolves around the heart, an organ made of cardiomyogenic muscle (contracts without nerve). Single celled organisms possess no circulatory system, while most multicellular ones do. The main exception for the multicellular organism is the hydra, which uses simple diffusion across cell membranes. The purpose of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients and oxygen for cellular respiration, and to transport wastes. Secondary purposes include immunity, for defense, heat distribution and maintenance of It uses the sinoatrial node in the right atrium to act as a pacemaker to force atrial contraction. The atrioventricular node in the bottom right section of the right ventricle forces ventricular contraction. Atria and ventricles contract at the same time respectively. When the atrioventricular valves close, lub is made. The dub is produced as a result of the semilunar valves closing. Heart murmurs occur when vein leakage is present.

There is a main passage for blood. The blood ows from the aorta to the arteries, which branch to the arterioles, and then to the capillaries. After being used by the tissues, the blood ows back through the capillaries, then to the venuoles and the veins. The arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They carry oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery, which itself has a high concentration of hydrogen ions. The blood is under high pressure in the arteries, which are made of three layers. The outer and inner layer is made of rigid connective tissue while the middle is made of muscle and elastic connective tissue. This allows the artery to withstand the changes in pressure. The contraction of arteries is what creates the pulse. When the arteries branch off, the blood ows into arterioles, smaller arteries with a exible diameter. Arterioles leading to capillaries (precapillary sphincter) only open in that area when blood is required. There are two main processes in the arterioles. Vasoconstriction occurs to decrease blood ow to tissues, while increasing pressure. When vasodilation occurs, there is increased blood ow to tissues, decreasing pressure. This can occur when body temperature increases, such as during exercise, as there is increased blood ow to the skin. There are two main problems that can occur in the arteries. If there a uid lled bulge in the artery wall, the artery can rupture, causing a stroke (aneurysm). The cells die because they cannot contain oxygen. Atherosclerosis, a form of arteriosclerosis, can also occur when there is fat and mineral accumulation, resulting in plaque in the coronary artery and can cause angina (chest pain). Treatment includes angioplasty (opening arteries using tube), or coronary bypass surgery (skin graft internally that creates path around heart). In the heart, there are coronary arteries that branch off the aorta and supply the heart with its own oxygenated blood. If angina occurs, it is a fault of the pulmonary system supplying the coronary system as there is low oxygen.

The capillaries are tiny blood vessel connectors that are the primary site for diffusion. They are composed of a single cell layer, and when many of them are together, a capillary bed is formed. These capillaries are also quite fragile, and can be ruptured under high pressure. Bruising may occur when blood ows into the interstitial space/uid and rupture capillaries. When in clusters, a systemic capillary bed is formed; this bed is a primary site for diffusion. When the capillaries merge and become larger, venuoles, made of smooth muscles are formed. These venuoles become veins, thin walled vessels, which return to the heart. All veins except for the pulmonary vein carry deoxygenated blood under low pressure. They have valves to prevent backow, and skeletal muscles to help the push blood back. The heart is made of four chambers, the right and left ventricle/atrium, which are surrounded by pericardium, a uid that prevents friction. Right and left sides of the heart are separated by the septum. The left ventricle is thicker because it pumps blood to all parts of the body. It also has the vena cava, which brings deoxygenated blood from the body to the right side of the heart. The top is superior, while the bottom is inferior. The aorta, located at the top of the heart, which carries oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to the body (systemic circulatory system). In the heart, there are two types of valves: the atrioventricular valves, which separate atria from the ventricles; the semilunar valves, which separate the ventricle from blood vessels. When the blood travels through the lungs, it is considered in the pulmonary system. The pulmonary artery takes deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lung. The pulmonary vein takes oxygenated blood from lungs to the left atrium. Cardiac output consists of stroke volume and cardiac output. Cardiac output composed of heart rate, and beat/min., while stroke volume is the mL/beat. This affects blood pressure, which is systole/diastole. Systole is the maximum pressure of ventricular contraction, while diastole is the lowest pressure of artery relaxation when the heart is full. There are four potential blood types in the body: A, B, AB, and O. These blood types each have their unique antigen and antibody. The A and B and AB types all possess their respective antigens, which are displayed on the surface of the cells. Blood type O is unique, because it lacks this antigen, which is attacked by antibodies, a type of protein. Blood type A has B antibodies, while blood type B has A antibodies. Blood type AB is unique, because it lacks antibodies. This is why it is considered the universal receiver of blood (lack of antibodies). Blood type O possesses both A, and B antibodies, which prevents it from receiving either types. However, the lack of antigens allows it to become the universal donor. All types of blood may or may not possess a Rhesus protein. Rhesus protein is an added protein that can be detected by antibodies. Mothers can encounter the problem if they are Rhesus negative, and their husbands are Rhesus positive. During the formation of the baby, the Rhesus protein can be inherited. Because of this, there is a possibility that the babys blood (positive) can come in contact with the mothers negative Rhesus blood. Her negative Rhesus blood possesses antibodies that will attack positive Rhesus blood. Usually during the rst birth, this is not a problem, as the babys blood does not come into contact with the mothers. The second or later births may have problems if the mothers blood came in contact with the babys during birth. The activation of the antibody can result in the attacking of the babys blood, deforming the baby, and possibly resulting in a miscarriage. This is called erythroblastosis fetalis. Electrocardiographs map electrical elds within the heart; P waves represent activity before atrial contraction, QRS waves represent before ventricular contractions, while T wave signal ventricle contractions when they are recovering from contraction. They can detect high blood pressure, or hypertension, or low blood pressure, hypotension. Hypertension can rupture vessel walls (stroke), while hypotension can reduce capacity to transport blood.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of consistency in the blood. Nerves and hormones (baroreceptors) located in the aorta and carotid arteries help to maintain this. If there is high blood pressure, the parasympathetic nerve is turned on by the medulla oblongata, which lowers the heart rate and turns off the sympathetic, which allows the arterioles to increase in diameter. If there is low pressure, the sympathetic nerve is turned on by the medulla oblongata, which increases blood pressure by constricting the arterioles, and increasing cardiac output. Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is an adrenal gland secreted hormone that increases the release of red blood cells (erythropoiesis) in the bone marrow, and increases heart and breathing rate. The blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, and white blood cells/platelets. Plasma consists of many different components such as water, and waste. In the plasma, there are albumins (water balance), globulins (produce antibodies), and brogen, which is key in blood clotting. There are diseases that can occur in red blood cells, such as anemia, a lack of heme, in the hemoglobin; and sickle cell anemia, which is a shape abnormality in the red blood cell. However, sickle cell anemia also helps to prevent malaria. For every 700 red blood cells, there is a leukocyte, or white blood cell (has nucleus), which is produced in the bone marrow. They aid in immune response. Leukemia is a disease where the white blood cells dont form properly. There are three types of white blood cells: granulocytes, which are composed of neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils; monocytes, which can leave bloodstream and become macrophages; and lymphocytes. Granulocytes and monocytes typically engulf pathogens, while lymphocytes produce antibodies that incapacitate pathogens and signal killer T cells for destruction. Platelets (thrombocytes) without a nucleus)) are used to help clot. They are also produced in the bone marrow. To initiate blood clotting: ! -Thromboplastin (released) combines with calcium to catalyze the production of prothrombin. The prothrombin mixes with the thromboplastin to form thrombin. This combines with water soluble brinogen to make brin, a non-soluble substance. Without platelets, hemophilia can occur, where blood cannot clot properly. The immune response has two main types of defenses. Non-specic defenses occur in the form of physical barriers, and chemical barriers, which trigger inammation and phagocytosis. Examples include the skin, hair, coughing, and sneezing, sweat, tears, and acid. If a virus triggers a non-specic defense, the cell secretes histamines, which dilates the blood vessel (inammation). The capillaries in the infected area leak, and uid leaves the blood vessels and enters the tissues (edema). During this time, there is increased blood ow, and more macrophages (engulf pathogens using phagocytosis). A fever may start, which kills bacteria through high temperatures. This can be potentially harmful for the body if it persists, because it can kill helpful enzymes, and antibodies in the body. Specic defenses are a result of cellmediated immunity, and antibody mediated immunity. These take place after non-specic defense mechanisms have taken place. Lymphocytes are released and directly attack the pathogen. The Tlymphocytes respond to antigens displayed on a macrophages surface (antigen presenting complex). BLymphocytes also exist, as they produce antibodies (plasma cell), which recognize foreign antigens. It takes 14 days for the B-cell to make a correct antibody. After, it becomes a memory B-cell, which keeps track, and can produce the antibody needed faster. Complimentary proteins also exist in the blood plasma. They form a protective coating around the invader, which dissolves its cell membrane. The purpose of the immune system is to protect the bodies from harmful pathogens that can inict harm. During times of good health, the body secretes suppressor T-cells, which prevent the overproduction of killer T cells. When a pathogen rst enters the bloodstream, it is attacked by a macrophage, which digests

it whole, and displays its antigens. This macrophage then gets help from a helper-T cell, which signals the rest of the body to send an immune response. During this reaction, the macrophage releases interleukin-1, which stimulates the helper T cell to secrete interleukin 2.This signals the body to rapidly create killer T cells and B cells. The cytotoxic T cells can bind to a pathogen and puncture its cell membrane. The B cells are used to produce antibodies that bind to the antigen on the pathogen. They can also become memory B cells, which remember the pathogens antigens, so an immune response can be stimulated in the future. Antibiotics can be injected to a persons immune system. It contains a dead form of the virus that is destroyed by the body, which creates memory cells to prevent against it in the future. Allergies are basically an overreactive immune system. When a non-harmful pathogen enters the body, the body recognizes it as dangerous, and attacks it, resulting in common sickness symptoms. The body is composed of three types of muscles in the body: skeletal muscles are connected to the bones to provide movement, smooth muscles form the walls of organs (eg. stomach), and cardiac muscles keep the heart beating. These muscles are classied as involuntary, or voluntary. Between bones, there is tendons, that connect them to muscles. Muscles can pull, but cannot push. Skeletal muscles are striated and tubular muscles that are very long. They possess multiple nuclei, and are voluntary muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton. Smooth muscles are non-striated muscles with a nucleus found in internal organs. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart, where they contract involuntarily. They are striated, tubular, and branched, while possessing a singular nucleus. Skeletal muscles are one of the more important muscles. They support the body, make the bones move, maintain constant temperature, protect internal organs and stabilize the joints. These muscles are formed in pairs, and have opposites that do the inverse when an action is performed. The work done in a muscle during contraction. During this contraction, there must always be a force available to stretch it. Before contraction begins, calcium is needed. Tropomyosin, a protein on actin, blocks the myosin head binding sites. When the muscle bre is stimulated to contract, it calcium is released from the sacroplasmic reticlum. This calcium binds to troponin, a protein on tropomyosin, to move the tropomyosin so that the contraction can occur. When the nerve impulse stops, calcium is returned to the sacroplasmic reticulum. During contraction, there are two types of myolaments: actin, and myosin. Actin is formed by two protein strands wrapped each other, while myosin is formed by two long protein strands with two heads and a long rod shape. In the reaction, the myosin head attaches to the actin along with an ADP and P (broken down ATP), before exing. This slides the actin past the myosins original position. The myosin head detaches, and then unexes using ATP, before reattaching near the original position. Afterwards the gained ATP breaks down into ADP and P, releasing energy that is stored in the myosin for movement. In this process, the actin is anchored at one end of each myolament at the Z-line. The movement of action moves the Z lines with it. Both are pulled inward (opposite directions), causing the plasma membrane to pull together, causing the contraction of entire muscle bre.