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The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use in the world today. It has been a particularly successful cellular phone technology for a variety of reasons including the ability to roam worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to operate on GSM networks in exactly the same way - provided billing agreements are in place. The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale Mobile, but as it became clear this cellular technology was being used world wide the meaning of GSM was changed to Global System for Mobile Communications. Since this cellular technology was first deployed in 1991, the use of GSM has grown steadily, and it is now the most widely cell phone system in the world. GSM reached the 1 billion subscriber point in February 2004, and is now well over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily increasing.
GSM services
Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the GSM cellular system. To achieve this the speech is digitally encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of vocoders are available for use, being aimed at different scenarios. In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology supports a variety of other data services. Although their performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G, they are nevertheless still important and useful. A variety of data services are supported with user data rates up to 9.6 kbps. Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be supported. One service that has grown enormously is the short message service. Developed as part of the GSM specification, it has also been incorporated into other cellular technologies. It can be thought of as being similar to the paging service but is far more comprehensive allowing bi-directional messaging, store and forward delivery, and it also allows alphanumeric messages of a reasonable length. This service has become particularly popular, initially with the young as it provided a simple, low fixed cost.
GSM basics
The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when the development started:
It should offer good subjective speech quality It should have a low phone or terminal cost Terminals should be able to be handheld The system should support international roaming It should offer good spectral efficiency The system should offer ISDN compatibility
The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed provided for all of these. The overall system definition for GSM describes not only the air interface but also the network or infrastructure technology. By adopting this approach it is possible to define the operation of the whole network to enable international roaming as well as enabling network elements from different manufacturers to operate alongside each other, although this last feature is not completely true, especially with older items. GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are time division multiplexed to enable up to eight users to access each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system. The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small groups, controlled by a base station controller (BSC) which is typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its associated BTSs is termed the base station subsystem (BSS). Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is known as the mobile switching centre (MSC). Associated with it is the location registers, namely the home location register (HLR) and the visitor location register (VLR) which track the location of mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them. Additionally there is the Authentication Centre (AuC), and the Equipment Identify Register (EIR) that are used in authenticating the mobile before it is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of these are explained in the following pages. Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or mobile equipment, this is the item that the end user sees. One important feature that was first implemented on GSM was the use of a Subscriber Identity Module. This card carried with it the users identity and other information to allow the user to upgrade a phone very easily, while retaining the same identity on the network. It was also used to store other information such as "phone book" and other items. This item alone has allowed people to change phones very easily, and this has fuelled the phone manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with additional features to be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to increase their average revenue per user (ARPU) by ensuring that users are able to access any new features that may be launched on the network requiring more sophisticated phones.
933 -960 MHz Downlink frequency band (basic 900 MHz band only) Channel spacing Modulation Speech coding Speech channels per RF channel Channel data rate Frame duration 200 kHz GMSK Various - original was RPE-LTP/13 8 270.833 kbps 4.615 ms
GSM History
Today the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in the world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and the networks are robust and reliable. The GSM system is also feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging, international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being enhanced with technologies including GPRS and EDGE. To achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the result of both technical development and international cooperation. The GSM history can be seen to be a story of cooperation across Europe, and one that nobody thought would lead to the success that GSM is today. The first cell phone systems that were developed were analogue systems. Typically they used frequency-modulated carriers for the voice channels and data was carried on a separate shared control channel. When compared to the systems employed today these systems were comparatively straightforward and as a result a vast number of systems appeared. Two of the major systems that were in existence were the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) that was used in the USA and many other countries and TACS (Total Access Communications System) that was used in the UK as well as many other countries around the world. Another system that was employed, and was in fact the first system to be commercially deployed was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT). This was developed by a consortium of companies in Scandinavia and proved that international cooperation was possible.
The success of these systems proved to be their downfall. The use of all the systems installed around the globe increased dramatically and the effects of the limited frequency allocations were soon noticed. To overcome these a number of actions were taken. A system known as E-TACS or Extended-TACS was introduced giving the TACS system further channels. In the USA another system known as Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) was developed.
New approaches
Neither of these approaches proved to be the long-term solution as cellular technology needed to be more efficient. With the experience gained from the NMT system, showing that it was possible to develop a system across national boundaries, and with the political situation in Europe lending itself to international cooperation it was decided to develop a new Pan-European System. Furthermore it was realized that economies of scale would bring significant benefits. This was the beginnings of the GSM system. To achieve the basic definition of a new system a meeting was held in 1982 under the auspices of the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT). They formed a study group called the Groupe Special Mobile ( GSM ) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system. Several basic criteria that the new cellular technology would have to meet were set down for the new GSM system to meet. These included: good subjective speech quality, low terminal and service cost, support for international roaming, ability to support handheld terminals, support for range of new services and facilities, spectral efficiency, and finally ISDN compatibility. With the levels of under-capacity being projected for the analogue systems, this gave a real sense of urgency to the GSM development. Although decisions about the exact nature of the cellular technology were not taken at an early stage, all parties involved had been working toward a digital system. This decision was finally made in February 1987. This gave a variety of advantages. Greater levels of spectral efficiency could be gained, and in addition to this the use of digital circuitry would allow for higher levels of integration in the circuitry. This in turn would result in cheaper handsets with more features. Nevertheless significant hurdles still needed to be overcome. For example, many of the methods for encoding the speech within a sufficiently narrow bandwidth needed to be developed, and this posed a significant risk to the project. Nevertheless the GSM system had been started.
Further impetus was given to the GSM project when in 1989 the responsibility was passed to the newly formed European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Under the auspices of ETSI the specification took place. It provided functional and interface descriptions for each of the functional entities defined in the system. The aim was to provide sufficient guidance for manufacturers that equipment from different manufacturers would be interoperable, while not stopping innovation. The result of the specification work was a set of documents extending to more than 6000 pages. Nevertheless the resultant phone system provided a robust, feature-rich system. The first roaming agreement was signed between Telecom Finland and Vodafone in the UK. Thus the vision of a pan-European network was fast becoming a reality. However this took place before any networks went live. The aim to launch GSM by 1991 proved to be a target that was too tough to meet. Terminals started to become available in mid 1992 and the real launch took place in the latter part of that year. With such a new service many were sceptical as the analogue systems were still in widespread use. Nevertheless by the end of 1993 GSM had attracted over a million subscribers and there were 25 roaming agreements in place. The growth continued and the next million subscribers were soon attracted.
Frequencies
Originally it had been intended that GSM would operate on frequencies in the 900 MHz cellular band. In September 1993, the British operator Mercury One-to-One launched a network. Termed DCS 1800 it operated at frequencies in a new 1800 MHz band. By adopting new frequencies new operators and further competition was introduced into the market apart from allowing additional spectrum to be used and further increasing the overall capacity. This trend was followed in many countries, and soon the term DCS 1800 was dropped in favour of calling it GSM as it was purely the same cellular technology but operating on a different frequency band. In view of the higher frequency used the distances the signals travelled was slightly shorter but this was compensated for by additional base stations. In the USA as well a portion of spectrum at 1900 MHz was allocated for cellular usage in 1994. The licensing body, the FCC, did not legislate which technology should be used, and accordingly this enabled GSM to gain a foothold in the US market. This system was known as PCS 1900 (Personal Communication System).
GSM success
With GSM being used in many countries outside Europe this reflected the true nature of the name which had been changed from Groupe Special Mobile to Global System for Mobile communications. The number of subscribers grew rapidly and by the beginning of 2004 the total
number of GSM subscribers reached 1 billion. Attaining this figure was celebrated at the Cannes 3GSM conference held that year. Figures continued to rise, reaching and then well exceeding the 3 billion mark. In this way the history of GSM has shown it to be a great success.
Mobile station (MS) Base-station subsystem (BSS) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
Mobile station
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased. There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware and the SIM. The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display, case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and to be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen. The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of the user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols. Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.
Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC): The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to enable the
requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks. Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various sub-centres to for operational reasons. Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient. Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its problems. Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel. Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to an MSC. SMS Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards. The two gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message Service Centre.
The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system.
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Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signalling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, known as LAPDm is used. Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency allocation in the BTS. A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the MSC. The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be allocated to the mobile equipments being serviced by the BSSs. The messaging required within the network to enable handover etc to be undertaken is carried over the interface. B interface The B interface exists between the MSC and the VLR . It uses a protocol known as the MAP/B protocol. As most VLRs are collocated with an MSC, this makes the interface purely an "internal" interface. The interface is used whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding a MS located in its area. C interface The C interface is located between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G. When a call originates from outside the network, i.e. from the PSTN or another mobile network it ahs to pass through the gateway so that routing information required to complete the call may be gained. The protocol used for communication is MAP/C, the letter "C" indicating that the protocol is used for the "C" interface. In addition to this, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR after the call is completed and cleared down. D interface The D interface is situated between the VLR and HLR. It uses the MAP/D protocol to exchange the data related to the location of the ME and to the management of the subscriber. E interface The E interface provides communication between two MSCs. The E interface exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs using the MAP/E protocol. F interface The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the MAP/F protocol. The communications along this interface are used to confirm the status of the IMEI of the ME gaining access to the network.
G interface The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure. 10. H interface The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It transfers short messages and uses the MAP/H protocol. 11. I interface The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME. Messages exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS.
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Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorouly defined as many might like, they do at least provide a large element of the definition required, enabling the functionality of GSM network entities to be defined sufficiently.
It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation. Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying. It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life. Note on GMSK:
GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment.
Click on the link for a GMSK tutorial The nominal bandwidth for the GSM signal using GMSK is 200 kHz, i.e. the channel bandwidth and spacing is 200 kHz. As GMSK modulation has been used, the unwanted or spurious emissions outside the nominal bandwidth are sufficiently low to enable adjacent channels to be used from the same base station. Typically each base station will be allocated a number of carriers to enable it to achieve the required capacity. The data transported by the carrier serves up to eight different users under the basic system by splitting the carrier into eight time slots. The basic carrier is able to support a data throughput of approximately 270 kbps, but as some of this supports the management overhead, the data rate allotted to each time slot is only 24.8 kbps. In addition to this error correction is required to overcome the problems of interference, fading and general data errors that may occur. This means that the available data rate for transporting the digitally encoded speech is 13 kbps for the basic vocoders.
It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the slots in the uplink and the downlink are not simultaneous, and there is a time offset between the transmit and receive. This offset in the GSM slot timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that which is allocated the same slot in both directions does not transmit and receive at the same time. This considerably reduces the need for expensive filters to isolate the transmitter from the receiver. It also provides a space saving.
GSM burst
The GSM burst, or transmission can fulfil a variety of functions. Some GSM bursts are used for carrying data while others are used for control information. As a result of this a number of different types of GSM burst are defined.
Normal burst uplink and downlink Synchronisation burst downlink Frequency correction burst downlink Random Access (Shortened Burst) uplink
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1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the previous field. 26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing reference and for equalisation. There is a total of eight different bit sequences that may be used, each 26 bits long. The same sequence is used in each GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same radio frequency channels will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate between the various cells using the same frequency. 1 bit flag Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field. 57 data bits Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for carrying data. 3 tail bits These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just tail bits. 8.25 bits guard time At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period. This is introduced to prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles overlapping. As a result of their differing distances from the base station.
3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power 39 bits of information: 64 bits of a Long Training Sequence: 39 bits Information: 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.
3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up its power. 2. 142 bits all set to zero: 3. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 4. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.
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7 tail bits: The increased number of tail bits is included to provide additional margin when accessing the network. 41 training bits: 36 data bits: 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down. 69.25 bits guard time: The additional guard time, filling the remaining time of the GSM burst provides for large timing differences.
It is also necessary for the system to add background or comfort noise when the transmitter is turned off because complete silence can be very disconcerting for the listener. Accordingly this is added as appropriate. The noise is controlled by the SID (silence indication descriptor).
GSM frame consisting of eight slots The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the GSM messaging and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst period and it lasts for approximately 0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame.
In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and control. Accordingly the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame, one for the traffic on the main traffic carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the beacon frequency.
GSM multiframe
The GSM frames are grouped together to form multiframes and in this way it is possible to establish a time schedule for their operation and the network can be synchronised. There are several GSM multiframe structures:
Traffic multiframe: The Traffic Channel frames are organised into multiframes consisting of 26 bursts and taking 120 ms. In a traffic multiframe, 24 bursts are used for traffic. These are numbered 0 to 11 and 13 to 24. One of the remaining bursts is then used to accommodate the SACCH, the remaining frame remaining free. The actual position used alternates between position 12 and 25. Control multiframe: the Control Channel multiframe that comprises 51 bursts and occupies 235.4 ms. This always occurs on the beacon frequency in time slot zero and it may also occur within slots 2, 4 and 6 of the beacon frequency as well. This multiframe is subdivided into logical channels which are time-scheduled. These logical channels and functions include the following: Frequency correction burst Synchronisation burst Broadcast channel (BCH) Paging and Access Grant Channel (PACCH) Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)
GSM Superframe
Multiframes are then constructed into superframes taking 6.12 seconds. These consist of 51 traffic multiframes or 26 control multiframes. As the traffic multiframes are 26 bursts long and the control multiframes are 51 bursts long, the different number of traffic and control multiframes within the superframe, brings them back into line again taking exactly the same interval.
GSM Hyperframe
Above this 2048 superframes (i.e. 2 to the power 11) are grouped to form one hyperframe which repeats every 3 hours 28 minutes 53.76 seconds. It is the largest time interval within the GSM frame structure. Within the GSM hyperframe there is a counter and every time slot has a unique sequential number comprising the frame number and time slot number. This is used to maintain synchronisation of the different scheduled operations with the GSM frame structure. These include functions such as:
Frequency hopping: Frequency hopping is a feature that is optional within the GSM system. It can help reduce interference and fading issues, but for it to work, the transmitter and receiver must be synchronised so they hop to the same frequencies at the same time. Encryption: The encryption process is synchronised over the GSM hyperframe period where a counter is used and the encryption process will repeat with each hyperframe. However, it is unlikely that the cellphone
conversation will be over 3 hours and accordingly it is unlikely that security will be compromised as a result.
d 380 410 450 480 710 750 810 850 900 900 900 900 180 0 190 0
(MHz) 380.2 389.8 410.2 419.8 450.4 457.6 478.8 486.0 698.0 716.0 747.0 762.0 806.0 821.0 824.0 849.0 890.0 915.0 880.0 915.0 876.0 915 870.4 876.0 1710.0 1785.0 1850.0 1910.0
k (MHz) 390.2 399.8 420.2 429.8 460.4 467.6 488.8 496.0 728.0 746.0 777.0 792.0 851.0 866.0 869.0 894.0 935.0 960.0 925.0 960.0 921.0 960.0 915.4 921.0 1805.0 1880.0 1930.0 1990.0 P-GSM, i.e. Primary or standard GSM allocation E-GSM, i.e. Extended GSM allocation R-GSM, i.e. Railway GSM allocation T-GSM
The usage of the different frequency bands varies around the globe although there is a large degree of standardisation. The GSM frequencies available depend upon the regulatory requirements for the particular country and the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) region in which the country is located. As a rough guide Europe tends to use the GSM 900 and 1800 bands as standard. These bands are also generally used in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania. For North America the USA uses both 850 and 1900 MHz bands, the actual band used is determined by the regulatory authorities and is dependent upon the area. For Canada the 1900 MHz band is the primary one used, particularly for urban areas with 850 MHz used as a backup in rural areas. For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands are the most widely used although there are some areas where other frequencies are used.
A table of GSM power levels is defined, and the base station controls the power of the mobile by sending a GSM "power level" number. The mobile then adjusts its power accordingly. In virtually all cases the increment between the different power level numbers is 2dB. The accuracies required for GSM power control are relatively stringent. At the maximum power levels they are typically required to be controlled to within +/- 2 dB, whereas this relaxes to +/- 5 dB at the lower levels. The power level numbers vary according to the GSM band in use. Figures for the three main bands in use are given below:
Power level number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Power output level dBm 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 GSM power level table for GSM 900
Power output level dBm 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 GSM power level table for GSM 1800
30 31 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
PL3 PL29
36 dBm / PL30 4W
The channels may also be divided into common and dedicated channels. The forward common channels are used for paging to inform a mobile of an incoming call, responding to channel requests, and broadcasting bulletin board information. The return common channel is a random access channel used by the mobile to request channel resources before timing information is conveyed by the BSS. The dedicated channels are of two main types: those used for signalling, and those used for traffic. The signalling channels are used for maintenance of the call and for enabling call set up, providing facilities such as handover when the call is in progress, and finally terminating the call. The traffic channels handle the actual payload. The following logical channels are defined in GSM: TCHf - Full rate traffic channel. TCH h - Half rate traffic channel. BCCH - Broadcast Network information, e.g. for describing the current control channel structure. The BCCH is a point-to-multipoint channel (BSS-to-MS). SCH - Synchronisation of the MSs. FCHMS - frequency correction. AGCH - Acknowledge channel requests from MS and allocate a SDCCH. PCHMS - terminating call announcement. RACHMS - access requests, response to call announcement, location update, etc. FACCHt - For time critical signalling over the TCH (e.g. for handover signalling). Traffic burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. SACCHt - TCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring. SDCCH - For signalling exchanges, e.g. during call setup, registration / location updates. FACCHs - FACCH for the SDCCH. The SDCCH burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. Function not clear in the present version of GSM (could be used for e.g. handover of an eight-rate channel, i.e. using a "SDCCH-like" channel for other purposes than signalling). SACCHs - SDCCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.
different conditions, although the AMR codec is now the most widely used. Also the newer AMR wideband (AMR-WB) codec is being introduced into many areas, including GSM Voice codec technology has advanced by considerable degrees in recent years as a result of the increasing processing power available. This has meant that the voice codecs used in the GSM system have large improvements since the first GSM phones were introduced.
CELP: The CELP or Code Excited Linear Prediction codec is a vocoder algorithm that was originally proposed in 1985 and gave a significant improvement over other voice codecs of the day. The basic principle of the CELP codec has been developed and used as the basis of other voice codecs including ACELP, RCELP, VSELP, etc. As such the CELP codec methodology is now the most widely used speech coding algorithm. Accordingly CELP is now used as a generic term for a particular class of vocoders or speech codecs and not a particular codec. The main principle behind the CELP codec is that is uses a principle known as "Analysis by Synthesis". In this process, the encoding is performed by perceptually optimising the decoded signal in a closed loop system. One way in which this could be achieved is to compare a variety of generated bit streams and choose the one that produces the best sounding signal. ACELP codec: The ACELP or Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction codec. The ACELP codec or vocoder algorithm is a development of the CELP model. However the ACELP codec codebooks have a specific algebraic structure as indicated by the name.
VSELP codec: The VSELP or Vector Sum Excitation Linear Prediction codec. One of the major drawbacks of the VSELP codec is its limited ability to code non-speech sounds. This means that it performs poorly in the presence of noise. As a result this voice codec is not now as widely used, other newer speech codecs being preferred and offering far superior performance.
Later another vocoder called the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) vocoder was added in response to the poor quality perceived by the users of the original RPE-LPC codec. This new codec gave much better sound quality and was adopted by GSM. Using the ACELP compression technology it gave a significant improvement in quality over the original LPC-RPE encoder. It became possible as the processing power that was available increased in mobile phones as a result of higher levels of processing power combined with their lower current consumption.
be experienced. However network operators are able to prioritise each station for either quality or capacity. The AMR codec has a total of eight rates: eight are available at full rate (FR), while six are available at half rate (HR). This gives a total of fourteen different modes.
Mode AMR 12.2 AMR 10.2 AMR 7.95 AMR 7.40 AMR 6.70 AMR 5.90 AMR 5.15 AMR 4.75
Bit rate (kbps) 12.2 10.2 7.95 7.40 6.70 5.90 5.15 4.75
Full Rate (FR) / Half rate (HR) FR FR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR FR / HR AMR codec data rates
AMR-WB codec
Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, AMR-WB codec, also known under its ITU designation of G.722.2, is based on the earlier popular Adaptive Multi-Rate, AMR codec. AMR-WB also uses an ACELP basis for its operation, but it has been further developed and AMR-WB provides improved speech quality as a result of the wider speech bandwidth that it encodes. AMR-WB has a bandwidth extending from 50 - 7000 Hz which is significantly wider than the 300 - 3400 Hz bandwidths used by standard telephones. However this comes at the cost of additional processing, but with advances in IC technology in recent years, this is perfectly acceptable. The AMR-WB codec contains a number of functional areas: it primarily includes a set of fixed rate speech and channel codec modes. It also includes other codec functions including: a Voice Activity Detector (VAD); Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) functionality for GSM; and Source Controlled Rate (SCR) functionality for UMTS applications. Further functionality includes in-band signaling for codec mode transmission, and link adaptation for control of the mode selection. The AMR-WB codec has a 16 kHz sampling rate and the coding is performed in blocks of 20 ms. There are two frequency bands that are used: 50-6400 Hz and 6400-7000 Hz. These are coded separately to reduce the codec complexity. This split also serves to focus the bit allocation into the subjectively most important frequency range.
The lower frequency band uses an ACELP codec algorithm, although a number of additional features have been included to improve the subjective quality of the audio. Linear prediction analysis is performed once per 20 ms frame. Also, fixed and adaptive excitation codebooks are searched every 5 ms for optimal codec parameter values. The higher frequency band adds some of the naturalness and personality features to the voice. The audio is reconstructed using the parameters from the lower band as well as using random excitation. As the level of power in this band is less than that of the lower band, the gain is adjusted relative to the lower band, but based on voicing information. The signal content of the higher band is reconstructed by using an linear predictive filter which generates information from the lower band filter.
Notes
6.60
This is the lowest rate for AMR-WB. It is used for circuit switched connections for GSM and UMTS and is intended to be used only temporarily during severe radio channel conditions or during network congestion. This gives improved quality over the 6.6 kbps rate, but again, its use is only recommended for use in periods of congestion or when during severe radio channel conditions. This is the main bit rate used for circuit switched GSM and UMTS, offering superior performance to the original AMR codec. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high. Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio noise levels are high.
8.85
23.05 Not suggested for full rate GSM channels. 23.85 Not suggested for full rate GSM channels, and provides speech quality similar to that of G.722 at 64 kbps.
Not all phones equipped with AMR-WB will be able to access all the data rates - the different functions on the phone may not require all to be active for example. As a result, it is necessary to inform the network about which rates are available and thereby simplify the negotiation between the handset and the network. To achieve this there are three difference AMR-WB configurations that are available:
Configuration A: 6.6, 8.85, and 12.65 kbit/s Configuration B: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 15.85 kbit/s Configuration C: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 23.85 kbit/s
It can be seen that only the 23.85, 15.85, 12.65, 8.85 and 6.60 kbit/s modes are used. Based on listening tests, it was considered that these five modes were sufficient for a high quality speech telephony service. The other data rates were retained and can be used for other purposes including multimedia messaging, streaming audio, etc.
Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the frequency or slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver, but changes the channel or slot. Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC. In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile. Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one BSC, a more involved form of handover has to be performed,
handing over not only from one BTS to another but one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by the MSC. Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The two MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.
Old and new BTSs synchronised: In this case the mobile is given details of the new physical channel in the neighbouring cell and handed directly over. The mobile may optionally transmit four access bursts. These are shorter than the standard bursts and thereby any effects of poor synchronisation do not cause overlap with other bursts. However in this instance where synchronisation is already good, these bursts are only used to provide a fine adjustment. Time offset between synchronised old and new BTS: In some instances there may be a time offset between the old and new BTS. In this case, the time offset is provided so that the mobile can make the adjustment. The GSM handover then takes place as a standard synchronised handover. Non-synchronised handover: When a non-synchronised cell handover takes place, the mobile transmits 64 access bursts on the new channel. This enables the base station to determine and adjust the timing for the mobile so that it can suitably access the new BTS. This enables the mobile to re-establish the connection through the new BTS with the correct timing.
Inter-system handover
With the evolution of standards and the migration of GSM to other 2G technologies including to 3G UMTS / WCDMA as well as HSPA and then LTE, there is the need to handover from one technology to another. Often the 2G GSM coverage will be better then the others and GSM is often used as the fallback. When handovers of this nature are required, it is considerably more complicated than a straightforward only GSM handover because they require two technically very different systems to handle the handover. These handovers may be called intersystem handovers or inter-RAT handovers as the handover occurs between different radio access technologies. The most common form of intersystem handover is between GSM and UMTS / WCDMA. Here there are two different types:
UMTS / WCDMA to GSM handover: There are two further divisions of this category of handover: Blind handover: This form of handover occurs when the base station hands off the mobile by passing it the details of the new cell to the mobile without linking to it and setting the timing, etc of the mobile for the new cell. In this mode, the network selects what it believes to be the optimum GSM based station. The mobile first locates the broadcast channel of the new cell, gains timing synchronisation and then carries out non-synchronised intercell handover. Compressed mode handover: using this form of handover the mobile uses the gaps I transmission that occur to analyse the reception of local GSM base stations using the neighbour list to select suitable candidate base stations. Having selected a suitable base station the handover takes place, again without any time synchronisation having occurred. Handover from GSM to UMTS / WCDMA: This form of handover is supported within GSM and a "neighbour list" was established to enable this occur easily. As the GSM / 2G network is normally more extensive than the 3G network, this type of handover does not normally occur when the mobile leaves a coverage area and must quickly find a new base station to maintain contact. The handover from GSM to UMTS occurs to provide an improvement in performance and can normally take place only when the conditions are right. The neighbour list will inform the mobile when this may happen.