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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................... 3 Chapter 2: Useful critical thinking skills ......................................................... 8 Chapter 3: Gathering Skills 11 1. Observing ............................................................................................. 12 2. Questioning ........................................................................................... 14 Chapter 4: Organizing Skills 1. Comparing and Contrasting .................................................................. 2. Classifying and Sequencing .................................................................. 3. Identifying Cause and Effect ................................................................. Chapter 5: Generating Skills 1. Inferring ................................................................................................ 2. Summarizing ......................................................................................... 3. Synthesizing ......................................................................................... 4. Generating Ideas ................................................................................... Chapter 6: Recognizing Skills 1. Recognizing Fact and Opinion .............................................................. 2. Recognizing Tone ................................................................................. 3. Recognizing Bias................................................................................... 4. Recognizing Underlying Assumptions .................................................. Chapter 7: Analyzing Skills 1. Evaluating ............................................................................................. 2. Inducing ................................................................................................ 3. Deducing .............................................................................................. 18 19 21 23 25 26 28 30 31 34 35 38 40 43 45 46 48 52
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Thinking critically is not thinking negatively with a predisposition to find fault or flaws. It is a neutral and unbiased process for evaluating claims or opinions, either someone elses or our own. It does not mean being argumentative or being critical of others. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, they can also be used to support other viewpoints, and to cooperate with others in solving problems and acquiring knowledge. In fact, a more accurate term would be evaluative thinking. The result of evaluation can range from positive to negative, from acceptance to rejection or anything in-between.
Critical thinking is not intended to make people think alike. For one reason, critical thinking is distinct from ones values or principles, which explains why two people who are equally adept at critical thinking, but have different values or principles, can reach entirely different conclusions. Additionally, there will always
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be differences in perception and basic emotional needs which prevent us from thinking the same way.
Critical thinking does not threaten ones individuality or personality. It may increase your objectivity, but it will not change who you are. It is not a belief. Critical thinking can evaluate the validity of beliefs, but it is not a belief by itself it is a process. Critical thinking does not discourage or replace feelings or emotional thinking. Emotions give our lives meaning, pleasure, and a sense of purpose. Critical thinking cannot possibly fulfill this role. Still, emotional decisions that are also critical decisions (such as deciding to get married or have children) should embody critical thinking. Critical thinking does not blindly support everything based on science. For example, our culture is full of false scientific claims that are used to market everything. It is also important to understand that arguments based on critical thinking are not necessarily the most persuasive. Perhaps more often than not, the most persuasive arguments are those designed to appeal to our basic human/emotional needs rather than to our sense of objectivity. For that reason, it is common for highly persuasive arguments by politicians, and sales people, among others, to intentionally lack critical thinking.
Self-confidence and a sense of control over ones life are the two main personal benefits of being a critical thinker. Ability to listen with an open mind, even to a conflicting point of view. Guarantee, as far as possible, that ones beliefs and actions are justifiable and can withstand the test of rational analysis. Improvement in ones studying and course work. Significant correlation between Critical Thinking scores and college GPA. Ability to solve problems in a manner which allows you to have a reflective overview of what you have done. It gives one the chance to think, to consider the data before making a decision that could be critical to his livelihood. Being more honest with ourselves and to admit what we don't know. We would be less afraid to say "I was wrong" and be able to learn from our mistakes. Our beliefs would really be our own, not simply passed on to us by others. Developing the ability to imagine putting ourselves in the place of others and understand the viewpoints of others. Being patient to think before acting. Ability to distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.
Sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-assessment. Suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered. Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs. Is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found. Examines problems closely. Is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant.
Recognizing fact and opinion Recognizing tone Recognizing bias Recognizing organization Recognizing underlying assumptions Analyzing Evaluating Inducing Deducing
Stirring Up Thinking
Much of our thinking is habitually biased, partial, uninformed, or even prejudiced because we seldom think about our thinking & so do not apply any standards to it. Any time our thinking is stirred up so that we force our self to think about our thinking and apply standards to it, we are using thinking skills that go beyond recall of information. Systematically cultivating the process of thinking leads to an increased ability to conceptualize, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information fairly and accurately.
Critical thinking must be actively sought and learned and then practiced.
Easier to understand, compare to other natural skills (Climbing). We learn to climb as children: Stairs, chairs, coaches, ladder, and trees. However, we would not dream of attempting to climb the sheer face of cliff or rock-climbing without specialized training. As with climbing, people develop thinking skills naturally to some degree, but not sufficiently to take on the specialized thinking tasks necessary to consciously control their own thinking at all times.
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Gathering Information
1. Observing
We cannot create observers by saying observe, but by giving them the power and the means for this observation and these means are procured through education of the sense. Maria Montessori
Observing Definition:
Actively seeking information through one or more senses.
Some great habits that can help you build your observation skills:
Trying to look at everyday life in a clear manner. Trying to judge people and their perceptions. Always trying to ask questions to people or in your mind.
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Observation is different from mere passive seeing and hearing. It involves employing all of our senses in an active effort to note, discern, be aware of, acquire, and retain critical information. When we observe well, we lay a foundation for seeing and interpreting details that frequently contain the key to solving problems or generating ideas. Observing is a means of coming to know clearly, of learning by carefully studying and active remembering. When we work at developing our observation skills, we benefit by becoming more aware of what we see and hear and better able to infer, and to differentiate between what is true and what is false, and between what is fact and what is speculation.
What words or phrases make this story sad? Exciting? What words influence the way we feel about the characters? What non verbal behavior did the speaker exhibit, and what did they communicate about what was been said? What evidence can you give in support of that observation?
... 2. What was the person wearing (style, colors, type of shoes, etc.)? ... 3. What color were the persons eyes? ....
4. Was the person wearing glasses? Describe them?
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Gathering Information
2. Questioning
Instead of parents asking their children, What did you learn in school today? they should ask them, What good questions did you ask today? Anonymous
Questioning Definition:
Seeking information by asking questions.
Basic questions
What do we have to do to become a skillful questioner and therefore an independent learner? What is required is very little more than knowing when to ask questions and what kind of questions to ask?
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Types of Questions:
Open questions:
These are useful in getting another person to speak. They often begin with the words: What, Why, When, Who. Sometimes they are statements: tell me about, give me examples of. They can provide you with a good deal of information.
Closed questions:
These are questions that require a yes or no answer and are useful for checking facts. They should be used with care - too many closed questions can cause frustration and shut down conversation.
Specific questions:
These are used to determine facts. For example How much did you spend on that.
Probing questions:
These check for more detail or clarification. Probing questions allow you to explore specific areas. However be careful because they can easily make people feel they are being interrogated.
Hypothetical questions:
These pose a theoretical situation in the future. For example, What would you do if? These can be used to get others to think of new situations. They can also be used in interviews to find out how people might cope with new situations.
Reflective questions:
You can use these to reflect back what you think a speaker has said, to check understanding. You can also reflect the speakers feelings, which is useful in dealing with angry or difficult people and for defusing emotional situations.
Leading questions:
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These are used to gain acceptance of your view they are not useful in providing honest views and opinions. If you say to someone you will be able to cope, wont you? they may not like to disagree. You can use a series of different type of questions to funnel information. This is a way of structuring information in sequence to explore a topic and to get to the heart of the issues. You may use an open question, followed by a probing question, then a specific question and a reflective question.
Exercise: Are there any questions that have no answer? Really? If you believe there are questions that have no answers, what are some of them?
Students waste learning time when they routinely (and unnecessarily) challenge everything, thereby having little time left to absorb what needs to be learned. There is little to be gained by questioning well and learning little.
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Organizing Skills
1. Comparing and Contrasting
Comparing Definition:
Noting similarities between two or more things, events, or ideas
When we compare items, we look for their similarities; the things that make them the same. Example: Apples and oranges
Both are fruit. Both are food. Both are made into juice. Both grow on trees.
Contrasting Definition:
Noting differences between two or more things, events, or ideas
When you contrast items, you look at their differences. Example: Apples and oranges:
Apple is red, orange is orange. They have different textures. Orange needs a warmer place to grow; apple can grow in cooler places.
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Organizing Skills
2. Classifying and Sequencing
Classifying Definition:
Arranging things or concepts into groups or categories according to a shared characteristic
Sequencing Definition:
Putting things or concepts in sequential order according to some criterion
The two skills of classifying and sequencing are just really the extension of comparing and contrasting. When we classify things or ideas we sort and group them according to one or more attributes that they have in common.
We classify when we call one person a friend, another person an enemy, and a third person a stranger. Our houses are great examples of classifying in action, living in the living room, sleeping in the bedrooms, bathing in the bathrooms. In kitchen, we classify when we group things according to certain shared attributes or functions. Classifying things make it easier for us to locate items when needed.
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How do we classify?
1. We first identify our purpose or goal. We want to place the cars we have into as few categories as possible. 2. We then glance at the information or list of items to note interesting features, that may give us an idea for our classifications. What similarities do the items have? 3. Try out a set of criteria to see if it works. According to price, mileage, power ..etc.
4. Take the first label and describe its classifying feature.
Corolla is the most economical car. 5. Identify the items or ideas that share that label, that classifying feature. Tiida, yaris, sunny.are all economic cars. 6. Repeat, starting another group. 7. Check to see that all items or ideas are classified. 8. Decide what to do with leftovers. 9. Decide if combining group or sub-classifications are possible or desirable.
How do we sequence?
1. We look at the items or ideas and determine the possible ways to order them. Options: general to specific, least understandable to most understandable, oldest to newest, first to last, softest to hardest. 2. We select the most appropriate sequence type for our purpose.
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Organizing Skills
3. Identifying Cause and Effect
Identifying cause and effect Definition:
Recognizing the relationship between an effect and its cause.
In this case, usually conclusions come with words such as: usually, probably, may, most, and likely.
Exercise: What are the possible causes for the following effects?
Your mobile hasnt rung in over 3 days, and you usually receive several calls a day. One of your professors seems to be calling on you frequently in the class. Your car frequently makes a strange noise. Your right arm is stiff and aching. You have been eating constantly for the last few days. Your cat hasnt been around in nearly two weeks. Your have just failed an exam in your favorite class.
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Generating Skills
1. Inferring
Inferring Definition:
Making an assumption, stating a hypothesis, or coming to a conclusion based on limited information.
An inference is a statement about the unknown, based on the known. Frequently we do not have enough information to make a fact-based decision, so we interpret the fact that we have as best as we can. In these cases we use inferring to arrive at a conclusion.
Your inferences are closely and directly tied to the information available. Sometimes your inferences are logical because the information you have is clear. At other times, your inferences may be weak because they have little foundation in fact.
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Exercise: Make two possible but contradictory inferences for each scene described:
Two young men dressed in T-shirt and jeans are pushing a high-priced sport car down the street. You arrived at Critical Thinking class after being absent for the last two classed sessions and find the classroom empty. Your professor has spent the last four classes on the Organizing Information skills. The midterm exam is next week.
time) all the information that might be relevant to their subject. Thus, they must rely on their audiences ability to infer.
2. Writers and speakers sometimes leave out information because including it would
divert attention from the point being made or from the train of reasoning.
3. Writers and speakers sometimes leave out information because they assume their
and artistic value. This technique is often applied in creative writing such as poetry or fiction. Leaving something unstated often contributes to humor; fear, irony, or climax when the reader has to infer a point or draw a conclusion.
5. Writers and speakers sometimes leave information they dont want their audience
to know when they want to present a one-sided argument. They hope that their audience will not be aware of the facts left out. This is questionable writing at worst, and editorial writing at best. Be aware of calculated evasions.
6. Writers or speakers sometimes must trust their audiences inferential skills because
including specific information may be illegal or dangerous (in some countries), or it may leave the writer/speaker open to a lawsuit.
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Generating Skills
2. Summarizing
Summarizing Definition:
Condensing the essence of the information accurately and efficiently.
When we summarize material, we actively engage our thinking abilities in order to condense it, to determine its essence. We are deciding what counts.
the main point, the purpose of the discussion, reasons or facts that support the main point, any conclusion that is drawn.
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arguments.(cars, trucks, busescan be replaced by one word vehicles) 4. Use an encompassing word or phrase for a series of actions or events. Example: The bank fired their in house marketing staff, recruited industry outsiders and stock exchange marketing staff, refocused marketing proprieties, and developed a new marketing and advertising program for its retail..etc. this can be summarized as: the bank changed its marketing plan. 5. When summarizing lengthy or complicated passages, begin by selecting a key sentence or a topic sentence for each paragraph. 6. If the passage or paragraph has no topic sentence, create your own. 7. Combine your summary statements into a summary of summaries. If necessary, reduce the length of this final summary still further.
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Generating Skills
3. Synthesizing
Synthesizing Definition:
Creating new information by combining two or more pieces of information.
The synthesizing process functions like thinking software, allowing the rest of your thinking skills to operate both independently of one another and together.
Examples:
Which of these birds, plants, and animals will be able to live both in cold and hot weather? You have to combine what you know about birds, plants and animals with what you know about weather in order to give the answer.
Given that a room measures 8 feet by 12 feet and that carpet costs AED 50 a square yard. How much would it cost to carpet the room? Is wool, fur, cotton, or silk the best heat insulator for a chicken egg incubator?
Ali and Hassan are the same age. Ali is older than Ahmad, who in turn is older than Khalid. Sami is older than Khalid, but he is younger than Ali and Ahmad. Hassan is younger than Fahad. What is the order of age of these six people?
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Generating Skills
4. Generating Ideas
Generating Ideas Definition:
Creating new information, alternatives, or applications.
The need for new ideas never diminishes. It is usually lumped in a category called Creative Thinking because it involves generating and developing new information by reusing old information in new ways.
We might as well close the Patent Office. Everything that can be invented has been invented. (Charles Duell, Director of the Patent Office, in 1899)
Heavier than air flying machines are impossible. (Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society in 1895)
Break it into smaller parts and list ideas for each part. We can divide into pieces, functions, spaces, roles. looking at the pieces often stimulates ideas Combine it with something else. We can combine ideas, uses, purposes, and see what we come up with. Simplify it. We can make it streamlined, easier, more natural. Substitute. We try substituting other materials, power sources, approaches, ingredients, processes, people, or places. Subtract from it. We can take away one part or several parts. We reduce the number. We reduce whats no longer necessary. Reverse it. What are its opposites? We can look at it upside down, inside out, backwards, or transpose cause and effect. Add to it. We can add other parts, ingredients, motion, color, flavor, functions, sounds, or texture. Redesign it. We can redesign the interior or the exterior, or both. We can make fun of it. We can change the pace, shape, capacity, function. Magnify it. We can make it bigger, better. We can make some parts bigger or more important. Minimize it. We can make it smaller, lower, or lighter. We can understate it or condense it.
Brainstorming Activity:
Suggest as many different ideas as you can, as quickly as you can. No judgment or evaluation. Sometimes an idea seems to be irrelevant at the time of suggestion will later prove valuable.
Our willingness to put forth effort, involve others, postpone judgment, how we simulate our thinking.
The more practice idea generating the more prolific we get at it and the easier it becomes.
Generate Ideas!
We use our idea generating skill when we think about and answer questions like this:
How many uses can you think of for a paper clip? The average new automobile tire loses about two pounds of rubber through use before it wears down becomes bald and is discarded. Where could all the rubber that is worn off millions of tires each year possibly go?
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Recognizing Skills
1. Recognizing Fact and Opinion
Recognizing Fact and Opinion Definition:
Distinguishing between a statement of fact and a statement of opinion.
It is important for us to be able to determine the value of what we read and hear. We must be able to decide whether we should accept or reject new information, or seek additional information. Students who do not think critically assume that because a statement appears in a textbook, journal that statement is automatically a fact. In order to do this we must develop habits of questioning and evaluating while reading and listening, and we must become adept at distinguishing between statements of fact and statements of opinion. To be an efficient thinker and decision-maker, we will need to know if we are being presented an opinion, a fact or fact and opinion combined. Once we are able to differentiate in this way, we will be able to draw proper conclusions about what we have read or heard. As we learn, we keep questions similar to the following in mind:
Where can we check to see if this is really true? Is this a mixture of fact and opinion? How is our judgment of a persons credibility affected if we know he or she is stating an opinion as if it were a fact?
A fact is anything that can be validated or proved. If a statement can be proved right or wrong by measurement or testing, it is a fact (sometimes with one or more of our senses: smell, distance, ). An opinion cannot be validated. An opinion is what a person believes. A statement is an opinion when there is no way to check its accuracy.
Statements of facts
Statements of fact present information without interpreting it. They imply neither judgment nor evaluation. Unlike statements of opinion, statements of fact can be verified in records or historical or scientific documents, or by means of tests or measurements.
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Statements of opinion
Statements of opinion express an authors or speakers impressions, beliefs, and judgments about something. Opinions cannot be judged true or false, or right or wrong, because they are a persons individual impressions about something. It is important to note that an opinion is not necessarily incorrect it just hasnt been proved.
they are in error and proved false. A statement of fact, then, is not always accurate or correct. It could very easily be an incorrect statement of fact. For example: 40 students attended the meeting on Sunday, (there were only 25 students, and it was on Monday).
2. Statements that present evaluations, attitudes, or probabilities are statements of
opinion, because they cannot be proved true or false. Statements of opinion are often presented in an authoritative voice, and may be true, but they are still statements of opinion. For example: Not enough people care about protecting the environment to ensure any positive change.
3. Statements dealing with persons, places objects, occurrences, or processes that exist
or did exist, and which can be proved or disproved, are statements of fact. Example: Last class I showed a presentation about problem solving procedure.
4. Statements about future events are statements of opinion even when the events
seem likely to occur. Example: Eventually, there will be cure for H1 N1 virus.
5. Statements of fact often use concrete words referring to things, events, or
measured: love, faith, hope, courage, health etc). These words cant be specifically defined and limited; people use them to use different degrees of the same thing or even to mean something completely different. 7. Watch for clue words and phrases in statements of opinion. Value-judgment words (good, bad, necessary), opinion phrase (I believe, we suggest, it appears), emotion words (loving, honest, evil, warm).
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8. Cultivate a spirit of healthy skepticism about what you read and hear in college. Ask questions like: (where is the proof? Who says?) 9. Beware of expert opinion disguised as fact. Dont be impressed by what experts say. (A doctor promoted a toothpaste!)
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Recognizing Skills
2. Recognizing Tone
Recognizing Tone Definition:
Identifying a sentiment or mood by assessing the writers or speakers choice of words.
We must be able to recognize the attitude the writer or speaker takes toward the material he or she discusses. That attitude can be anything: lighthearted or malicious, ironic or gentle, or funny, or any number of others.
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Recognizing Skills
3. Recognizing Bias
Recognizing Bias Definition:
Noting the presence and nature of a writers or speakers prejudice
What is Bias?
Bias is an inclination or preference that influences one's judgment from being balanced or even-handed. It is when a writer or speaker uses a selection of facts, choice of words, and the quality and tone of description, to convey a particular feeling or attitude.
Bias Purpose:
Bias purpose is to convey a certain attitude or point of view toward the subject. Biased information tries to change your mind, how you think.
We seldom think of questioning statements that we hear in lectures or read in textbooks or journals and wonder if they are unbiased in presenting facts. We should be more questioning because it is possible that they are biased. Some newspapers and magazines, as well as some journalists, have widely recognized reputations for being biased, primarily because of the liberal or conservative stands they take on issues. Nothing is wrong with this fixed bias unless you allow yourself to be unknowingly influenced. Accepting every bit of information and interpretation without question will result in confusion.
Example:
Do you really believe that the state government has a right to invade your private life by requiring that you fill in and return that questionnaire?
Did the writer of this piece seem to like the social worker, the police officer, the single parent, or the child best? Which is more likely to be fair and objective, this newspaper or my psychology textbook? What makes me feel that the instructor is biased in her presentation of the events? Is the sample in this study representative? Does it have the same characteristics in the same proportion as the target population? Are these experts affiliated with any interest groups? Do they subscribe to a cause?
As you read or listen to biased materials, keep the following questions in mind: 1. What facts has the author omitted? 2. What additional information is necessary? 3. What words create positive or negative impressions? 4. What impression would I have if different words had been used?
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recent scandal will blow over, and people will resume their donations.)
3. Highly emotional, even inflammatory statements (example: we will feel the
same way: let them go back where they came from and stop causing trouble in our community. They dont belong here with normal people).
4. False assumptions based on weak or inaccurate information (example: Asian
refugees have a hard time adjusting to western society because they are used to being told when to do everything ,and in this country people are free to do whatever they want to do).
5. Stereotyping, often with inaccurate overgeneralizations (example: Everyone
knows that men make much better airline pilots than women). 6. The argument appeals more to the emotions than to logic. 7. Things are worded with the intent to oversimplify or over generalize. 8. The author wishes to present a limited view of the topic. Keep in mind that biased writing may be very interesting to read and biased speaking may be very interesting to listen to because of the colorful, emotional language designed to sway you. This doesnt mean you should be suspicious of all interesting speaking and writing, but you should heighten your sensitivity to bias.
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Recognizing Skills
4. Recognizing Underlying Assumptions
Recognizing Underlying Assumptions Definition
Recognizing the suppositions that are taken for granted and that are the foundation of a proposition, notion, or idea.
In every situation where a conclusion is called for, even the most simple, there are underlying assumptions. Not to consider these assumptions is to increase the likelihood of responding incorrectly to the situation.
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2. Reality assumptions
Reality assumptions are beliefs [perceptions really] that we hold about the way things are. They are assumptions that we make and hold about what happened or what exists or how something works. Example: when two cars collide at a busy intersection, the two drivers usually have different reality assumptions. In fact their perceptions of what happened may differ dramatically. It is not surprising that police officers must rely on detached, unemotional observers to determine what really occurred.
2. Growing, selling, and smoking marijuana should be legalized. 3. Radios are as necessary in cars as airbags. 4. Youre going to love this shirt I bought you. 5. That bottled mineral water is of superior quality; it comes from Europe.
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Analyzing Skills
1. Evaluating
Evaluating Definition:
Appraising something according to certain criteria and forming a judgment as to its worth or quality.
When we employ the thinking skill of evaluation, we express our conclusions about such things as the appropriateness of underlying assumptions, the accuracy of reporting, the credibility of sources, the authority of someone or some idea, and the relevancy, consistency, appropriateness, and value of evidence. In the process, we also give clues to our preferences, our attitudes, our likes and dislikes, our values. What sets evaluation apart from opinion is the foundation of criteria on which the evaluation rests and which is missing when we merely express our opinion or attitude. In order for evaluation to be evaluation, justifiable criteria must be offered for the evaluations made, and all evaluations must be set forth in the light of those criteria. It is not sufficient in evaluation to say the play is bad; the book is great; the solution is inadequate. We must also indicate our criteria for this judgment. It is always important to know and sometimes to indicate the standards or criteria that are being used for an evaluation. Otherwise, the evaluation may be simply opinionating and lack value or authority.
Whenever we called upon to evaluate, we must follow essentially the same steps: 1. Determine exactly what we are going to evaluate. 2. Identify the criteria to be used in the evaluation. [We can use an existing set of criteria or create our own.] 3. Illustrate these criteria by descriptive limits or examples. 4. Examine the situation or information against each criterion. 5. Determine the extent to which the situation or information matches the criteria. 6. State a judgment.
Exercise: How reasonable and appropriate are your criteria in each of the following cases?
1. Task: Selecting a college major / vocation. Criteria: . .... 2. Task: selecting a used car. Criteria: . .... 3. Task: Selecting a personal computer. Criteria: .
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Analyzing Skills
2. Inducing
Inducing Definition:
Analyzing individual facts or premises in order to derive a general conclusion
Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a conclusion about a broad group based on a set of observations of a sample of the group. When we reason inductively we start with specific premises, evidence, details, and facts. Then we use these specifics in our thinking process to formulate inferences and conclusions of a broad and general nature.
Example:
Ive noticed previously that every time I kick a ball up, it comes back down, so I guess this next time when I kick it up, it will come back down, too. With inductive thinking, we can take limited evidence about some members of a class or about the facts of a problem in order to form a conclusion about all members of the class or to arrive at a probable solution for the problem. When it is impossible to examine all the data, we derive a conclusion from the data that we have. In reasoning inductively, scientists work from a collection of particular events to formulate general principles.
Inducing Applications:
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In the practice of medicine, doctors rely heavily on inductive thinking. They look at the evidence -the symptoms- in order to come to a conclusion- a diagnosis. The diagnosis is the general principle formulated from the particular symptoms. Inductive thinking occurs regularly during televised election-day voting coverage. Network experts predict the winners after interviewing a limited number of voters. This representative sampling of voters allows for an inference, a prediction, as to the winner of the race.
Validity:
In itself, it is not a valid method of proof. Just because a person observes a number of situations in which a pattern exists doesn't mean that that pattern is true for all situations. It is important that these inferences be probable, not improbable. Because inductive thinking relies on probable inferences, our conclusions can be probable, but they are seldom totally certain. A hypothesis based on inductive reasoning, can, however, lead to a more careful study of a situation. The observer could then conduct a more formal study based on this hypothesis and conclude that his hypothesis was either right, wrong, or only partially wrong.
Are these facts or events sufficient to arrive at a conclusion or inference that answers the question Why did that happen?
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3. Does the conclusion or inference arrived at (the answer to the question) arise naturally and logically from the facts or events?
been biting for the last month in the Gulf waters near my home.
2. Gather information about the event or events. I use lures, not live bait. The
water is very warm. I fish in the early evenings, after work. No one else usually fishes at that time. In past months I often used to catch fish.
3. Develop a theory or hypothesis (a conclusion derived from inductive reason-
ing) to explain, what is happening. Possible explanations for not catching fish are:
Im using the wrong bait. The water is too warm. Im fishing at the wrong time of day for this season.
4. Test the theory or hypothesis through experimentation. Of the possible explanations listed above:
I can rule out the bait because I used the same bait in the past and caught fish. It's probably not water temperature because it is only a few degrees warmer than it was a few months ago when I caught fish. Perhaps I'm fishing at the wrong time of day for the season.
That seems the most reasonable theory to test. It can be tested a couple of ways. Ill ask other people when they fish and when the fish are biting best, and Ill go fishing at different times of the day.
5. Evaluate the theory or hypothesis. The theory that I was fishing at the wrong
time of the day was correct. I evaluated the theory by going fishing several times earlier in the day, and each time I caught something. As you can see from these steps, and as you may remember from your experiences in school, the scientific method leads thinkers step by step in inducing causal relationships, first analyzing individual facts or premises, then deriving a general conclusion, and then testing the accuracy of the conclusion.
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Exercise: Stir It Up
Select one of the following situations and analyze it by working through the steps of the scientific method described above.
You drove to school, parked your car, and went to class, but now your car won't start. What's wrong? You are having a hard time passing the quizzes and exams in one of your courses. Whats wrong?
Step 1: describe the situation. Step 2: Gather information (Details? Possible causes?). Step 3: What is your theory about what is happening? (What is the likely reason?). Step 4: Test your theory. (How can you test your theory?). Step 5: Evaluate your theory. (Results? Do you accept or reject your theory?)
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Analyzing Skills
3. Deducing
Deducing Definition:
Applying general principles or a broad framework to a situation in order to come to a conclusion about it.
When we think inductively about specifics, we can infer broad conclusions, generalizations, and principles. When deducing, we move from an understanding of the general principle to conclusions about related specifics. Deducing is a kind of mirror image of inducing. Deductive reasoning can be employed to make predictions from the general statements, principles, or hypothesis believed to be true. A broad conclusion, generalization, or principle reached through inducing can be used as the general premises in deductive applications.
Examples:
Newton's Law states: Everything that goes up must come down. And so, if you kick the ball up, it must come down. The sum of the angles in any triangle is always 180 degrees.
Arguments based on laws, rules, or other widely accepted principles are best expressed deductively. Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form of proof. When we use the thinking skill of deduction, we are reasoning from the general to the specific. The challenge in deductive thinking is to be certain that the general truth or statement actually applies to the particular cases and to avoid the many thinking fallacies that are associated with deductive thinking. In the following list there is a principle or general concept stated or implied, and then a specific question is asked that requires you to apply that principle or information to a particular case:
1. Sweet foods with lots of sugar in them are not good for you. Which of the foods
listed below are not good for you? (In this case, the particular foods must each be
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measured against the lots of sugar condition to determine which foods on the list are not good for you.)
2. If radiation can cause cancer, as indicated by extensive research, then which of the
following illness best justifies the use of radiation? (Since we accept the truth of the statement that radiation can cause cancer, we must look at the specific illness to see which illness is already so serious that the potential benefit of the treatment outweighs the threat of cancer).
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The intention of this chapter is to assist you in applying what you learnt in the previous chapters to the textbooks that you are required to read for your other classes.
Read with a Purpose: have at least one purpose for everything you read, purpose gives meaning to your reading. Think deeply about the assignment, then determine
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your purpose and keep that purpose in mind. This will help keep you from being distracted and from slowing down.
Skimming: This is a very simple but effective means of identifying the main idea of a passage. You read only the first sentence of the paragraph in order to get the central idea of the entire passage. Scanning: This technique allows you to look for a word, a phrase, a number, or other detail. You must know what you are looking for. Glancing: This skill will be useful for reading and for taking tests. Glancing involves flicking your eyes over a passage in no particular pattern in order to get an impression of the internal structure or organization of the passage. Skipping: You will be able to skip some portions of your reading assignments altogether. Perhaps you are very familiar with something and dont need to review. Save time. Skip it!
Before reading the material, take five to ten seconds to glance at each page, using a pacing motion to guide your eyes down the page. This will give you a preview, an overview or suggestion, of what you are about to read. You should be able to glimpse such things as the main ideas, the thesis, the style, and the illustration. Prereading enables us to identify useless materials without wasting time reading it in details. The effect of pre-reading is a feeling of confidence and assurance that will increase your speed and comprehension. Pre-reading is essential in defining your purpose in reading a particular work. It helps you identify content that is familiar, irrelevant to your purpose, or too technical for you to handle, and that can therefore be safely skipped. Post-readings purpose is to note for a second time the important points that were covered during the reading.
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READ: Fill in the information around the mental structures you've been building
Read each section (one at a time) with your questions in mind. Look for the answers, and notice if you need to make up some new questions.
Remember:
The information you gain from reading is important. If you just "do it" without learning something; you're wasting a lot of time. Train your mind to learn!!!
Comprehension Monitoring
Comprehension monitoring consists of five basic activities in which the reader engages during silent reading:
Questioning is asking yourself teacher-type questions that might come up on a test about the passage. Predicting is trying to tell yourself what is likely to come next in the passage you are about to read.
Its hopeless: As just another way to defeat students. So it is pointless to prepare thoroughly because they will fail any way. Tests are to be feared: Fear of taking tests is quite common. It results in tension that that can make you forget answers that you knew minutes before the test.
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Test results can be controlled: This third attitude is positive. It suggests selfconfidence and understanding of the nature of tests and the proper ways to prepare for them.
3. Schedule your time. 4. Answer easiest questions first. 5. Try to answer all questions. 6. Be the last one to finish. 7. Rarely change answers. 8. Dont cheat or allow cheating.
This important. You need to know this. This will be covered in the exam. You may be tested on this.
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When your instructors make statements like these, they are giving you clues about what you will need to know: 1. A change in voice. 2. A change in rate of speaking. 3. Use of visuals. 4. Body language.
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