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What is Learning?
AA typical typical dictionary dictionary definition definition::
To gain knowledge of something or acquire
skill to some art or practice.
To commit to memory
to gain by experience, example etc.
To become informed
Other Other definitions definitions
Learning systems belong to the class of
systems which show a gradual improvement of
performance due to the improvement of the
estimated unknown information [Fu, 1970].
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What is Learning?
Learning Learning is is optimization optimization under under conditions conditions of of
insufficient insufficient a a priori priori information information. .
Learning Learning is is the the process process by by which which one one entity entity acquires acquires
knowledge knowledge. .
Learning Learning can can be be regarded regarded as as synthesizing synthesizing an an
approximation approximation of of aa multi multi--dimensional dimensional function, function, that that
is is solving solving the the problem problem of of hypersurface hypersurface
reconstruction reconstruction. .
Behavior Behavior is is primarily primarily adaptation adaptation to to the the environment environment
under under sensory sensory guidance guidance. . It It takes takes the the organism organism away away
from from harmful harmful events events and and toward toward favourable favourable ones, ones, or or
introduces introduces changes changes in in the the immediate immediate environment environment
that that make make survival survival more more likely likely ..
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What is Learning?
Learning is a process by which the free
parameters of a neural network are
adapted through a continuing process of
stimulation by the environment in which
the network is embedded. The type of
learning is determined by the manner in
which the parameter changes take place.
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A taxonomy of the Learning Process
Learning Process
Learning algorithms
Error
Correction
learning
Boltzmann
learning
Hebbion
learning
Competitive
learning
Learning paradigms
Supervised
learning
Reinforcement
learning
Self organized or
Unsupervised
learning
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Error Correcting Learning
Let d
k
[n] denote some desired response or target
response of neuron k at time n.Let the
corresponding value of the actual response of this
neuron be denoted by y
k
[n].
Typically, y
k
[n] is different from d
k
[n]. Hence, we
may define an error signal as the difference
between the target response d
k
[n] and the actual
response y
k
[n], as shown by
e
k
[n] = d
k
[n] y
k
[n] (1)
The ultimate purpose of error correcting learning is
to minimize a cost function based on the error
signal e
k
[n], such that the actual response of each
output neuron in the network approaches the target
response of that neuron in some statistical sense. 6
Error Correcting Learning
A criterion commonly used for the cost
function is the mean square error criterion,
defined as the mean square value of the sum
of squared errors
(

=

k
2
k
] n [ e
2
1
E J
Where E is the statistical expectation operator, and the
summation is over all the neurons in the output layer of
the network. Minimization of the cost function J with
respect to free parameters leads to the so called method
of the gradient descent.
(2)
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Error Correcting Learning
The difficulty with this optimization
procedure is that it requires knowledge of
the statistical characteristics of the
underlying process. We overcome this
practical difficulty by setting for an
approximate solution to the optimization
problem. Specifically, we use the
instantaneous value of the sum of squared
errors as the criterion of interest:

= c
k
2
k
] n [ e
2
1
] n [
(3)
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Error Correcting Learning
The network is then optimized by
minimizing c[n] with respect to the synaptic
weights of the network. Thus, according to
the error correction learning rule (or delta
rule), the adjustment Aw
kj
[n] made to the
synaptic weight w
kj
at time n is given by
Aw
kj
[n] = qe
k
[n]x
j
[n] (4)
where q is a positive constant that
determines the rate of learning.
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Error Correcting Learning
Error correction relies on the error signal
e
k
[n] to compute the correction Aw
kj
[n]
applied to the synaptic weight w
kj
[n] of
neuron k in accordance with equation (4).
The error signal is itself computed from
equation (1). Finally, following equation is
used to compute the updated (new) value
w
kj
[n+1] of the synaptic weight in question:
] n [ w ] n [ w ] 1 n [ w
kj kj kj
A + = +
(5)
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Error Correcting Learning
A plot of the cost function J versus the synaptic
weights characterizing the neural network
consists of a multidimensional surface referred
to as an error performance surface or simply
error surface. Depending on the type of
processing units used to construct the neural
network, we may identify two distinct situations:
1. The network consists entirely of linear
processing units. In this case the error surface is
bowl shaped (i.e. quadratic function) with a
unique minimum point.
2. The neural network consists of nonlinear
processing units, in which case the error surface
has a global minimum (perhaps multiple global
minima) as well as local minima.
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Error Correcting Learning
In both cases, the objective of the error correction
learning algorithm is to start from an
arbitrary point on the error surface
(determined by the initial values assigned to
the synaptic weights) and then move toward a
global minimum, in a step by step fashion. In
the first case this objective is indeed
attainable. In the second case, on the other
hand, it is not always attainable, because it is
possible for the algorithm to get trapped at a
local minimum of the error surface and there
never be able to reach a global minimum.
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Hebbian Learning:
Hebbs postulate of learning is the oldest and most
famous of all learning rules. In his famous book
Organization of behaviour (1949) he says:
When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a
cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in
firing it, some growth process or metabolic
changes take place in one or both cells such that
As efficiency as one of the cells firing B, is
increased.
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Hebbian Learning:
The above statement is made in a neurobiological
context. We may expand and rephrase it as a
two-part rule as follows:
1. If two neurons on either side of a synapse
(connection) are activated simultaneously (i.e.
synchronously), then the strength of that
synapse is selectively increased.
2. If two neurons on either side of a synapse are
activated asynchronously, then that synapse
is selectively weakened.
Such a synapse is called a Hebbian
Synapse.
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Mathematical Models of Hebbian
Modifications:
Consider a neuron with presynaptic and
postsynaptic activities x
j
and y
k
respectively.
Let the synaptic weight be w
kj
. According to
Hebbs postulate, the adjustment applied to the
synaptic weight w
kj
at time n is expressed as
Aw
kj
[n] = F(y
k
[n],x
j
[n]) (6)
Where F(.,.) is a function of both postsynaptic
and presynaptic activities. The activity terms
x
j
[n] and y
k
[n] are often treated as
dimensionless variables.
As a special case of equation (9), we may write
Aw
kj
[n] = qy
k
[n]x
j
[n] (7)
Where q is a positive constant and determines the
rate of learning.
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Mathematical Models of Hebbian
Modifications:
Equation (7) is the simplest rule for a change in
the synaptic weight w
kj
. It is sometimes
referred to as activity product rule.
The above rule may drive the synaptic weight
w
kj
into saturation. One method of avoiding
saturation is to introduce a nonlinear forgetting
factor in equation (7):
Aw
kj
[n] = qy
k
[n]x
j
[n] - oy
k
[n]w
kj
[n] (8)
or
Aw
kj
[n] = oy
k
[n][cx
j
[n] w
kj
[n]]
where o is a +ve constant and c = q/o. (9)
Equation (9) is referred to as a generalized activity
product rule. 16
Competitive Learning:
In In competitive competitive learning, learning, the the output output neurons neurons
of of aa neural neural network network compete compete among among
themselves themselves for for being being the the one one to to be be active active..
In In a a network network based based on on Hebbian Hebbian learning learning
several several output output neurons neurons may may be be active active
simultaneously, simultaneously, in in the the case case of of competitive competitive
learning learning only only aa single single output output neuron neuron is is
active active at at any any one one time time..
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Competitive Learning:
There There are are three three basic basic elements elements to to a a competitive competitive
learning learning rule rule::
1. 1. AA set set of of neurons neurons that that are are all all the the same same except except for for
some some randomly randomly distributed distributed synaptic synaptic weights, weights, and and
which which therefore therefore respond respond differently differently to to a a given given
set set of of input input patterns patterns. .
2. 2. A A limit limit imposed imposed on on the the strength strength of of each each
neuron neuron..
3. 3. A A mechanism mechanism that that permits permits the the neurons neurons to to
compete compete for for the the right right to to respond respond to to aa given given
subset subset of of inputs, inputs, such such that that only only one one output output
neuron, neuron, or or only only one one neuron neuron per per group, group, is is active active
(i (i..ee.. ON) ON) at at aa time time.. The The neuron neuron that that wins wins the the
competition competition is is called called a a Winner Winner takes takes all all
Neuron Neuron..