Nanotechnology Standards Final

PAS 136:2007
Terminology for
nanomaterials
ICS 01.040.71; 71.100.99
NO COPYING WITHOUT BSI PERMISSION EXCEPT AS PERMITTED BY COPYRIGHT LAW
PUBLICLY AVAILABLE SPECIFICATION
BSI 2007 i
PAS 136:2007
Contents
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 General 2
3 Molecular entities 4
4 Structural entities 4
5 Synthesized materials 5
6 Production of raw material 6
7 Production of constructed material 7
Bibliography 9
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover,
pages i to iv, pages 1 to 9 and a back cover.
BSI 2007 1
PAS 136:2007
Introduction
Many authorities predict that applications of nanotechnologies will
ultimately pervade virtually every aspect of life and will enable dramatic
advances to be realized in most areas of communication, health,
manufacturing, materials and knowledge-based technologies. Even if
this is only partially true, there is an obvious need to provide industry
and research with suitable tools to assist the development, application
and communication of the technologies. One essential tool in this
armoury will be the harmonization of the terminology and definitions
used in order to promote their common understanding and consistent
usage.
This terminology includes terms that are either specific to the sector
covered by the title or are used with a specific meaning in the field of
nanotechnology. It is one of a series of terminology PASs covering many
different aspects of nanotechnologies.
This terminology attempts not to include terms that are used in a
manner consistent with a definition given in the Oxford English
Dictionary [1], and terms that already have well established meanings
and to which the addition of the prefix !nano" changes only the scale to
which they apply but does not otherwise change their meaning.
The multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies can lead to confusion
as to the precise meaning of some terms because of differences in usage
between disciplines. Users are advised that, in order to support the
standardization of terminology, this PAS provides single definitions
wherever possible.
1 Scope
This Publicly Available Specification (PAS) lists terms and definitions
used in or associated with the naming, describing and manufacture of
nanomaterials.
It is applicable to, though not limited to, elemental, compound, organic,
inorganic, metallic, ceramic, polymeric and oxide materials with
nanostructural features including nano-crystallinity, nano-porosity,
nano-reinforcement and deliberately produced nano-topography.
This PAS is intended for use by technologists, regulators,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), consumer organizations,
members of the public and others with an interest in the application or
use of nanomaterials.
PAS 136:2007
2 BSI 2007
2 General
2.1 agglomerate
collection of loosely bound particles or aggregates or mixtures of the
two where the resulting external surface area is similar to the sum of the
surface areas of the individual components
NOTE The forces holding an agglomerate together are weak forces, for
example van der Waals forces, as well as simple physical entanglement.
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.2 aggregate
particle comprising strongly bonded or fused particles where the
resulting external surface area may be significantly smaller than the
sum of calculated surface areas of the individual components
NOTE The forces holding an aggregate together are strong forces, for
example covalent bonds, or those resulting from sintering or complex
physical entanglement.
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.3 mesoporous
possessing pores with at least one dimension between 2 nm to 50 nm
NOTE The term nanoporous is preferred to mesoporous.
2.4 nanomaterial
material having one or more external dimensions in the nanoscale or
which is nanostructured
NOTE Nanomaterials can exhibit properties that differ from those of the
same material without nanoscale features.
2.5 nano-object
discrete piece of material with one or more external dimensions in the
nanoscale
NOTE This is a generic term for all nanoscale objects.
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.6 nanoparticle
nano-object with all three external dimensions in the nanoscale
NOTE If the lengths of the longest and the shortest axes of the nano-object
differ significantly (typically by more than three times) the terms
nanorod or nanoplate are intended to be used instead of the term
nanoparticle.
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.7 nanoporous
possessing pores with at least one dimension in the nanoscale
NOTE The term nanoporous is preferred to mesoporous.
1)
In preparation.
BSI 2007 3
PAS 136:2007
2.8 nanoscale
size range from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm
NOTE 1 Properties that are not extrapolations from larger size will
typically, but not exclusively, be exhibited in this size range.
NOTE 2 The lower limit in this definition (approximately 1 nm) has no
physical significance but is introduced to avoid single and small groups
of atoms from being designated as nano-objects or elements of
nanostructures, which might be implied by the absence of a lower limit.
[ISO/TS 27687
2)
]
2.9 nanostructure
nanoscale structure
2.10 nanostructured
possessing a structure comprising contiguous elements with one or
more dimension in the nanoscale but excluding any primary atomic or
molecular structure
NOTE 1 An example of a primary atomic or molecular structure is the
arrangement of atoms in a crystalline solid.
NOTE 2 The use of the term contiguous implies that a sphere of
approximately 100 nm diameter, inscribed in a nanostructured material,
will intersect more than one element of the structure.
2.11 primary structure
first level of ordered structuring of matter above disorder
NOTE For example, a sequence of mer units in a polymer or amino acids
in a peptide molecule.
2.12 secondary structure
second level of ordered structuring of matter above disorder
NOTE For example, a formation of inter-polymer bonds such as
hydrogen bonding to give rise to beta sheets and barrel regions.
2.13 supramolecule
ordered array of molecules, held together through non covalent
interactions, which exhibits at least a primary structure
2.14 tertiary structure
third level of ordered structuring of matter above disorder
NOTE 1 For example, the surface topography of a protein
macromolecule.
NOTE 2 Higher levels of ordering are possible.
2)
In preparation.
PAS 136:2007
4 BSI 2007
3 Molecular entities
3.1 cage compound
polycyclic compound having the shape of a cage
[IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology 1994, 66, 1092 [2]]
3.2 fullerene
closed-cage structure having more than 20 carbon atoms consisting
entirely of three-coordinate carbon atoms
NOTE A fullerene with 60 carbon atoms (C
60
) is sometimes called
buckminsterfullerene.
[J. Chem. Inf. Comp. Sci. 35, 969-978 [3]]
3.3 graphene
single sheet of trigonally bonded (sp
2
) carbon atoms in a hexagonal
structure
4 Structural entities
4.1 carbon nanotube
nanotube consisting of carbon
NOTE This term is commonly used to refer to a seamless tube constructed
from graphene that can be either a single-wall carbon nanotube
(SWCNT), comprising a single layer of carbon atoms, or a multi-wall
carbon nanotube (MWCNT), comprising multiple concentric tubes.
4.2 micelle
aggregation of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid
NOTE 1 The surfactant molecules are often sequestered into hydrophilic
and hydrophobic regions.
NOTE 2 Micelles are commonly spherical but can also be branched, rods
or worm-like.
4.3 nanocluster
non covalently or covalently bound group of atoms or molecules whose
largest overall dimension is typically in the nanoscale
4.4 nanofibre
flexible nanorod
[ISO/TS 27687
3)
]
4.5 nanoplate
nano-object with one external dimension in the nanoscale and the two
other external dimensions significantly larger
NOTE 1 The smallest external dimension is the thickness of the
nanoplate.
NOTE 2 The two significantly larger dimensions are considered to differ
from the nanoscale dimension by more than three times.
NOTE 3 The larger external dimensions are not necessarily at the
nanoscale.
[ISO/TS 27687
3)
]
3)
In preparation.
BSI 2007 5
PAS 136:2007
4.6 nanopowder
mass of dry nanoparticles
4.7 nanorod
nano-object with two similar external dimensions in the nanoscale
and the third dimension significantly larger than the other two external
dimensions
NOTE 1 The largest external dimension is the length of the nanorod and
is not necessarily in the nanoscale.
NOTE 2 The two similar external dimensions are considered to differ in
size by less than three times and the significantly larger external
dimension is considered to differ from the other two by more than three
times.
NOTE 3 A nanorod can take any cross-sectional shape consistent with the
dimensional limits of the definition.
[ISO/TS 27687
4)
]
4.8 nanotube
hollow nanorod
[ISO/TS 27687
4)
]
4.9 self assembled monolayer
planar two dimensional supramolecular array formed at an interface
NOTE An example of a self assembled monolayer is a Langmuir-Blodgett
film.
5 Synthesized materials
5.1 aerogel
nanoporous low density (less than 5 mgcm
3
) fractal solid
5.2 dendrimer
repeatedly branched macromolecule
NOTE Dendrimers can be configured as a sphere, partial sphere or
wedge structure (i.e. dendritic wedge).
5.3 dendron
dendrimer containing a single chemically addressable group
NOTE The single chemically addressable group is known as the focal
point.
5.4 macromolecule
molecule with high relative molecular mass comprising multiple
repetitive units derived from molecules of lower relative molecular mass
[derived from IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 1996,
68, 2289 [2]]
5.5 nanocomposite
multiphase structure in which at least one of the phases has at least one
dimension in the nanoscale
[derived from Pure and Applied Chemistry, pp 1985!2007 [4]]
4)
In preparation.
PAS 136:2007
6 BSI 2007
5.6 sol-gel
colloidal system in which a porous network of interconnected particles
spans the volume of a liquid medium
NOTE Particles in a sol-gel are often nanoparticles.
5.7 zeolite
nanoporous crystalline solid with a well defined pore structure
6 Production of raw material
6.1 bottom up
progressing from small or subordinate units to a larger and functionally
richer unit
[derived from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language [5]]
6.2 chemical vapour synthesis
production method where vapour, introduced to a reaction chamber by,
for example, pyrolysis, reduction, oxidation or nitridation, condenses to
form particles
NOTE 1 Also referred to as chemical vapour growth.
NOTE 2 One application is the synthesis of carbon nanotubes.
[derived from PAS 71:2005, definition 6.5]
6.3 electrospinning
technique used to produce nanofibres from a reservoir of reactive
precursor species expelled through a nozzle, the tip of which is held at
high voltage, the fibres being collected on a grounded plate
6.4 flame pyrolysis
synthesis method where flame heat is used to vaporize feedstock
material and initiate chemical reaction to produce particles
NOTE Particles produced by flame pyrolysis are often nanoparticles.
[derived from Nanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review [6]]
6.5 laser pyrolysis
gas phase synthesis method where a flowing reactive gas is heated
rapidly with a laser
[PAS 71:2005, definition 6.19]
6.6 nanolithography
process of defining an arbitrary pattern with minimum feature sizes of
less than 100 nm
6.7 nanoprinting
preparation of nanomaterials or nanostructures using techniques
allied to printing
6.8 plasma processing
use of plasma to effect changes in materials
BSI 2007 7
PAS 136:2007
6.9 plasma synthesis
use of high energy plasma to vaporize materials, and promote reactions,
for the production of other material
NOTE Materials produced by plasma synthesis are often
nanomaterials.
6.10 self assembly
assembling of components to create a new level of organization without
external input
6.11 sol-gel processing
production process involving the conversion of a sol to a gel, which is
then desiccated to produce particles or a film
6.12 templating
use of a preformed entity to impart structural and positional ordering
6.13 top down
process that progresses from larger units to smaller units
[derived from The American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language [5]]
7 Production of constructed material
7.1 atomic layer deposition (ALD)
deposition process based on sequential pulsing of chemical precursor
vapours, with each pulse forming one atomic layer
7.2 cluster beam deposition
process of thin film formation from a beam of atomic or molecular
clusters
NOTE 1 Typically the beam used is supersonic.
NOTE 2 This form of deposition is often used to produce structures with
a high degree of porosity for gas sensing applications.
7.3 evaporation induced self assembly
use of a dilute precursor solution to form surface patterning or
structures on a substrate following evaporation of the solvent
7.4 high shear rate processing
mechanical dispersion, deagglomeration, disaggregation or liquid
particle generation process using shear mixing forces to produce
nanomaterials
7.5 high strain rate processing
mechanical processing using strain to produce nanomaterials
7.6 mechanical alloying
process consisting of the repeated bonding, fracturing and rebonding of
elemental or master alloy powders by highly energetic collisions in a
mill under an inert atmosphere or vacuum
NOTE This process can be used to produce alloyed nanomaterials.
PAS 136:2007
8 BSI 2007
7.7 molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)
technique of growing single crystals in which beams of atoms or
molecules are made to strike a single-crystalline substrate in a vacuum,
giving rise to crystals whose crystallographic orientation is related to
that of the substrate
NOTE 1 The beam is defined by allowing the vapour to escape from the
evaporation zone to a high vacuum zone through a small orifice.
NOTE 2 Nanostructures can be grown in this method by exploiting
strain, e.g. InAs dots on GaAs substrate.
[McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms [7]]
BSI 2007 11
PAS 135:2007
NOTE The scanning sequence is usually by row, always scanned in the
same direction with a beam flyback taking place after the end of each
row.
4.1.4.13 vector scan
writing strategy in which the beam is only scanned over the address
grid points contained within individual elements of the pattern
4.1.4.14 serpentine (boustrophedan) scan
writing strategy for individual pattern elements where pixels are
exposed in rows (or columns) in alternate directions
4.1.4.15 areal current density
measure of the intensity of the beam given by the number of particles
(ions or electrons) charge per unit area per second times the charge
carried by each particle
4.1.4.16 areal dose
charge density delivered to the substrate when scanning a
2-dimensional pattern element
4.1.4.17 line dose
charge delivered to the substrate during a single pass line scan,
normally defined in terms of Coulombs per cm
4.1.4.18 gamma
measure of the contrast of a photographic process
NOTE It is normally defined for a positive resist as the maximum value
of slope of a plot of the remaining thickness versus the logarithm to
base 10 of the dose.
4.1.4.19 spot size
for a Gaussian beam the diameter, which contains between 12% and
88% of the integrated current of the beam
4.1.4.20 blankers
device that is between the charge source and the stage that allows or
disallows the charged particles to continue to the stage
4.1.4.21 step size
distance between two adjacent points in the address grid
4.1.4.22 stage
table carrying the sample (wafer) that can be moved to allow field
stitching and alignment
4.1.4.23 field stitching
ability to accurately join small scanned areas together side by side in
order to pattern a larger area
4.1.4.24 address grid
2-dimensional array of points in the plane of the substrate plane onto
which the final focused beam can be positioned
4.1.4.25 main field
portion of the above grid which is addressable directly with the main
field deflector system
NOTE Usually at slow speed but high accuracy.
BSI 2007 13
PAS 135:2007
4.2.2.2 extreme ultra violet (EUV) lithography
reduction printing is used to produce an image in resist using
radiation of wavelength in the 10 to 100 nm range
NOTE Usually reflective optics are used to focus the radiation (see
4.2.2.5, Note 2).
4.2.2.3 deep ultra violet (DUV) lithography
wavelength of the radiation used to produce an image in resist is in
100 to 200 nm range
4.2.2.4 immersion optics
technique of immersing the wafer coated photoresist in a suitable liquid
that is used to reduce the effective wavelength employed to transfer the
image to the resist
NOTE The effective wavelength is decreased by the refractive index of
the liquid.
4.2.2.5 optical lithography
process in which electromagnetic radiation of greater than 100 nm is
used to produce an image in the resist
NOTE 1 This distinguishes optical lithography from x-ray or EUV
lithography in which shorter wavelengths are used
NOTE 2 For optical lithography to achieve the resolution required for
the sub 100 nm regime of interest in nano-fabrication requires the use of
particular techniques, for example immersion and assist features in the
mask. At the time of writing, primary optical lithography in which a
focused beam of light is scanned in order to write an arbitrary pattern has
not been demonstrated in the sub 100 nm regime. Optical printing using
a mask prepared by electron beam lithography has demonstrated sub 100
nm resolution. In such optical lithography, pattern defined in the mask,
then called a reticle, is reduced in size by the optical lenses in this optical
reduction printer.
4.2.2.6 optical proximity correction
denotes the correction of the original pattern so as to ensure that the
aerial image recorded in the photoresist is as good an approximation as
possible to the desired final pattern
NOTE This is done by the addition of assist features to the pattern in the
original mask or reticle.
4.2.2.7 assist features
patterned layer of material, usually transparent, that is present on the
mask or reticle, in addition to the pattern of light absorbing material
NOTE Its purpose is to adjust the phase of the transmitted light.
4.2.2.8 projection optical printing tool
tool in which an image of the mask is projected onto the resist on the
wafer
NOTE Usually such tools that are capable of sub 100 nm resolution use
reduction optics that is a reduced image of the original mask is project
onto the resist. In this case the mask is usually called a reticle.
4.2.2.9 reticle
mask that is a magnified version of the pattern, used in reduction
projection printing
NOTE Also spelt as reticule.
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BSI 2007 17
PAS 135:2007
Bibliography
Standards publications
PAS 71:2005, Vocabulary Nanoparticles
BS ISO 18115:2001, Surface chemical analysis Vocabulary
ISO/TS 27687, Terminology and definitions for nanoparticles
2)
Other publications
[1] Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 6th edition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2007.
[2] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
4th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.
[3] DECKMAN, H.W., J.H. DUNSMUIR, Natural lithography,
Appl.Phys. Lets 41, 377-379 (1982).
[4] McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms.
6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
[5] Institute of Nanotechnology Glossary. http://www.nano.org.uk/
nano/glossary.htm#d
[6] XIA, Y.N., G.M. WHITESIDES, Soft lithography. Annual Review of
Materials Science 28: 153!184, 1998.
Further reading
PAS 130, Guidance on the labelling of manufactured nanoparticles
and products containing manufactured nanoparticles
PD 6699-1, Nanotechnologies Part 1: Good practice guide for
specifying manufactured nanomaterials
PD 6699-2, Nanotechnologies Part 2: Guide to safe handling and
disposal of manufactured nanomaterials
A Brief History of !Pixel" Richard F. Lyon. Paper EI 6069-1.
IS&T/SPIE Symposium on Electronic Imaging 15-19 January 2006,
San Jose, CA, USA.
2)
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16 BSI 2007
PAS 135:2007
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PAS 71:2005
Vocabulary
Nanoparticles
ICS 01.040.07; 07.030
12&23<,1*:,7+287%6,3(50,66,21(;&(37$63(50,77('%<&23<5,*+7/$:
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
i
Contents
Page
Preface ii
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 General terms 1
3 Particle names: generic 2
4 Particle names: chemically specific 6
5 Nanoparticle systems 7
6 Production methods 8
7 Production mechanisms 11
8 Particle characteristics 13
9 Particle volume and diameter 14
10 Measurement and analysis techniques 15
11 Abbreviations 19
Bibliography 23
Index 24
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
1
Introduction
This Publicly Available Specification (PAS) has been commissioned by the UK Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) for the purposes of developing and encouraging the use of a common language for
nanoparticle technologies. Nanotechnology is an emergent technology that is developing quickly and will
gain increasing importance over the next 20 years. This PAS is intended to seed further developments and
discussions in formal standards making and inform the production of other nanotechnology standards.
The market sector of nanoparticle technologies is of current interest to the general nanotechnology
community both in the UK and internationally and has been the subject of much discussion in recent years.
This PAS was commissioned partly in response to demands by UK industry to lay down standards for the
future. The intention is to bring together the current disparate vocabularies of nanoparticle technologies.
The main difference between a PAS and a full British, European or International Standard, is that a PAS
is created in a consultative process across industry rather than gaining the full consensus of a selected
technical committee. This PAS will be withdrawn once it is superseded by a full consensus document on
the subject. Until then it will be updated at regular intervals to cover new developments in the field.
The remit of this PAS is to document and, to a lesser degree, comment on the current use of basic
nanoparticle terms and definitions in current use by manufacturers, suppliers, academia, regulators and
governments and to give recommendations for usage as required. It also includes terms defining common
production methods and analytical techniques currently employed by those working with nanoparticles.
It does not cover nomenclature systems for nanoparticle or fullerene-based materials, as this is a highly
specialized subject and there is no current consensus in the nanotechnology or nanoscience community on
how to approach such a system.
There remain areas of terminology where confusion between researchers, developers and users of
nanoparticles have arisen; these could be greatly reduced by adopting the following good practice:
Ambiguous terminology: due to the interdisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies, the definition of some
technical terms might be different for those with backgrounds in different science or engineering fields and
industry sectors. Whilst this PAS aims to provide a single definition for each term, there were some terms
that had more than one widely used meaning. When using a term for which this vocabulary shows more
than one meaning, it is recommended that qualifying information as to which meaning is intended is
stated.
Means of determination: many of the measurable parameters of nanoparticles can be experimentally
determined by more than one technique. These techniques can be based on fundamentally different
processes, require differing degrees of interpretation or lead to different results. When such information is
communicated, in addition to any normally reported degree of confidence or data distribution that may be
quoted, it is recommended that the means by which the information was derived/determined is stated.
Thanks are due to the leading UK and international nanotechnologists involved in the development and
review of this PAS for enabling it to be produced in a timely manner.
1 Scope
This Publicly Available Specification lists terms and definitions currently in use in the field of
nanoparticles. It is intended to facilitate communications between organizations and individuals in
industry and those who interact with them. This document does not include a nomenclature system for
nanoparticles.
2 General terms
2.1
nanomaterial
material with one or more external dimensions, or an internal structure, on the nanoscale, which could
exhibit novel characteristics compared to the same material without nanoscale features
NOTE Novel characteristics might include increased strength, chemical reactivity or conductivity.
[PAS 71 Steering Group]
PAS 71:2005
2 BSI 25 May 2005
2.2
nanoparticle
particle with one or more dimensions at the nanoscale
NOTE 1 Also referred to as nanoparticulate, although this term is more often used adjectivally.
NOTE 2 Novel properties that differentiate nanoparticles from the bulk material are typically developed at a critical length scale
of under 100 nm.
2.3
nanoscale
having one or more dimensions of the order of 100 nm or less
NOTE Also referred to as nanosize.
2.4
nanoscience
study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where
properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale
[Nanoscience and nanotechnologies [1]]
2.5
nanostructured
having a structure at the nanoscale
NOTE Agglomerates and aggregates of nanoparticles are examples of nanostructured particles.
2.6
nanotechnology
design, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by controlling
shape and size at the nanoscale
[Nanoscience and nanotechnologies [1]]
3 Particle names: generic
3.1
acicular particle
needle shaped particle
[BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology]
3.2
agglomerate
group of particles held together by relatively weak forces, including van der Waals forces, electrostatic
forces and surface tension
[Occupational Ultrafine Aerosol Exposure Characterization and Assessment [2]]
strongly bonded aggregate
[IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology [3], 1991, 63, 1231]
group of strongly associated particles that cannot easily be re-dispersed by mechanical means
NOTE 1 It is recommended that when the term agglomerate is used that it be specified whether the bonding is strong (where elements
require chemical as well as physical means for separation) or weak (where only physical means are required).
NOTE 2 Attention is drawn to the inconsistent definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this term
according to the industry context.
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
3
3.3
aggregate
heterogeneous particle in which the various components are not easily broken apart
<from catalysis> assemblage of primary particles exhibiting an identifiable collective behaviour (e.g.
chemical nature of the aggregated primary particles, texture of the aggregate, resistance to mechanical
separation upon grinding)
NOTE 1 Strongly bonded aggregates are called agglomerates.
NOTE 2 The definition of primary particle used is that from reference [2].
[Adapted from [3] by PAS 71 Steering Group]
weakly associated group of particles that can be re-dispersed by mechanical means
NOTE 3 Attention is drawn to the contrasting definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this term
3.4
bulk nanoparticles
nanoparticles produced by industrial-scale processes
NOTE Examples include carbon black, titanium dioxide and fumed silica.
3.5
dendrimer
synthetic, three-dimensional macromolecule built up from a monomer, with new branches added in a step-
by-step fashion until a symmetrical branched structure is created
NOTE Where there is perfect branching, the particle is referred to as a dendrimer; where the branching is imperfect, it is referred
to as hyperbranched.
3.6
dendritic particle
particle with a highly branched structure
NOTE 1 Similar to nanostructured material, i.e. agglomerates or aggregates.
NOTE 2 Also referred to as a branched-chain aggregate.
3.7
engineered nanoparticles
nanoparticles manufactured to have specific properties or a specific composition
3.8
floc
<in a liquid> assemblage of particles, which, having been initially dispersed, have become loosely coherent
NOTE Also referred to as flocc and flocculate.
3.9
fume
cloud of airborne particles, including nanoparticles of low volatility, arising from condensation of vapours
from either chemical or physical reactions
PAS 71:2005
4 BSI 25 May 2005
3.10
fumed powder
powder recovered from a fume
3.11
incidental nanoparticles
nanoparticles formed as a by-product of man-made or natural processes, e.g. welding, milling, grinding
or combustion
3.12
milled powder
powder produced by comminution in a mill
3.13
nanocluster
group of atoms or molecules whose largest overall dimension is typically in the range of a few nanometres
3.14
nanocore
central part of a nanoparticle encapsulated (or coated) in a dissimilar nanomaterial
3.15
nanocrystal
nanoscale solid formed with a periodic lattice of atoms, ions or molecules
3.16
nanopowder
dry nanoparticles
3.17
nanofibre
nanoparticle with two dimensions at the nanoscale and an aspect ratio of greater than 3:1
NOTE Types of nanofibres include nanowhiskers, nanorods and nanowire.
3.18
nanohorn
nanoscale cone with a curved axis
3.19
nano-onion
nanoparticle composed of concentric molecular shell structures
NOTE Also referred to as a nested nanoparticle.
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
5
3.20
nanoribbon
nanofibre with an approximately rectangular cross-section, where the ratio of the longer to the shorter
dimensions of the cross-section is greater than 2:1
NOTE Also referred to as a nanobelt.
3.21
nanorod
straight solid nanofibre
3.22
nanorope
nanofibres in a twisted conformation
3.23
nanotube
hollow nanofibre
3.24
nanowire
conducting or semi-conducting nanofibre
3.25
primary particle
smallest identifiable subdivision in a particulate system
[Particle Size Characterization [4] and The Use of Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology [5]]
particle introduced into the air in a solid or liquid form, or formed through nucleation from the vapour
phase
NOTE Attention is drawn to the inconsistent definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this term
3.26
quantum dot
nanoscale particle that exhibits size-dependent electronic and optical properties due to quantum
confinement
3.27
secondary particle
particle formed through aggregation or agglomeration of primary particles
particle formed through chemical reactions in the gas phase (gas to particle conversion)
NOTE Attention is drawn to the inconsistent definitions listed here for this term, which reflect the different uses of this term
3.28
ultrafine particle
nanoparticle
NOTE This is a variant in common use by those dealing with industrial products and air pollution measurement.
PAS 71:2005
6 BSI 25 May 2005
4 Particle names: chemically specific
4.1
carbon black
! elemental carbon in the form of near-spherical particles with major diameters less than 1 m, generally
coalesced into aggregates
[ISO 1382:2004, Rubber Vocabulary]
4.2
carbon nanotube
nanotube consisting of one or several graphene sheets rolled up into a seamless tube, forming a single-
or multi-walled tube
[Frost & Sullivan [6]]
NOTE Can be either a single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT), comprising a single layer of carbon atoms (single molecule) arranged
in a cylinder, or a multi-wall nanotube (MWNT), comprising multiple concentric tubes with diameters significantly greater than a
SWCNT.
4.3
fullerene
any closed-cage structure having more than twenty carbon atoms consisting entirely of three-coordinate
carbon atoms
[J. Chem. Inf. Comp. Sci. [7], 35, 969-978]
NOTE Also referred to as buckyball and buckminsterfullerine.
4.4
fumed silica
bulk powdered form of silicon dioxide produced from thermal pyrolysis, which could have primary
particles sized at the nanoscale
NOTE The definition of primary particle used is that from reference [2].
4.5
graphene
individual layers of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-like lattice, found in graphite, a crystalline
form of carbon
[Dictionary and Atlas of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology [8]]
4.6
inorganic fullerene-like material (IFLM)
nanoparticle with a layered fullerene-like structure but composed of non-carbon atoms
[J. Chem. Edu [9], 81, 673-676]
4.7
inorganic nanotube
nanotube composed of non-carbon atoms
[J. Chem. Edu [9], 81, 673-676]
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
7
5 Nanoparticle systems
5.1
aerosol
metastable suspension of solid or liquid particles in a gas; particles generally occur within the range of less
than 1 nm to greater than 100 m in diameter
5.2
aerosol, accumulation
associated with coalescence or coagulation of particles within the nucleation range into larger particles;
distribution modes typically extend from 50 nm to 1 m, but are not confined to these limits
5.3
aerosol, nucleation
aerosol dominated by particle formation from the gas phase, such as through nucleation from a
supersaturated vapor; distribution modes typically extend from less than 1 nm to 50 nm, but are not
confined to these limits
5.4
colloid
substance consisting of particles not exceeding 1 2m dispersed in a fluid
5.5
heterodisperse system
bulk powder or suspension containing particles with a range of sizes
5.6
homogenous suspension
suspension in which the particles are uniformly distributed
5.7
hydrosol
sol in which water forms the dispersion medium
[The Use of Nomenclature in Dispersion Science and Technology [5]]
5.8
monodisperse system
bulk powder or suspension containing primary particles with a very narrow size distribution
NOTE The definition of primary particle used is that from reference [2].
5.9
nanocomposite
composite in which at least one of the phases has at least one dimension on the nanoscale
[Pure and Applied Chemistry [10], pp 1985!2007]
5.10
nanophase
discrete phase, within a material, which is at the nanoscale
PAS 71:2005
8 BSI 25 May 2005
5.11
organosol
sol in which an organic liquid forms the dispersion medium
5.12
sol
liquid dispersion containing particles of colloidal dimensions
5.13
ultrafine aerosol
aerosol consisting predominantly of ultrafine particles
NOTE Also referred to as nanoaerosol.
6 Production methods
6.1
atomization
technique sometimes used for producing solid particles by dispersion of molten material, solution or
suspension sprayed under conditions such that it breaks down and then solidifies or dries as a finely
divided powder or aerosol
NOTE 1 Typically used to make particles down to a size of 2 m, i.e. larger than nanoscale.
NOTE 2 Also referred to as nebulization.
6.2
attrition
form of comminution, where reduction in size is caused by erosion resulting from the collision of particles
with other particles or surfaces
NOTE Also referred to as ultrafine grinding and nanosizing.
6.3
bottom-up processing
additive process to create nanostructures from atoms and molecules
6.4
calcination
producing or modifying powder by heating to a high temperature in a dry environment
6.5
chemical vapour synthesis
production method where vapour is formed in a reaction chamber by, for example, pyrolysis, reduction,
oxidation or nitridation and condenses to form particles
NOTE 1 Also referred to as chemical vapour growth.
NOTE 2 One application is the synthesis of carbon nanotubes.
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
9
6.6
colloidal production methods
established wet chemistry precipitation processes, also used to produce nanoparticles, in which solutions
of different ions are mixed under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure to form insoluble
precipitates, which can remain in liquid suspension for distribution and use, or may be used as slurries or
collected by filtering or spray drying to produce a dry powder
[Nanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review [11]]
6.7
comminution
reduction of particle size by fracture
NOTE See also attrition.
6.8
electro-explosion
process for the production of nanoparticles whereby a wire is fed into a reactor, and subjected to a high-
current, high-voltage microsecond pulse to cause it to explode
[Adapted from Nanosized Alumina Fibers [12] by PAS 71 Steering Group]
NOTE Also referred to as exploding wire aerosol generation.
6.9
electrohydrodynamic atomization
technique able to produce monodisperse droplets of a defined size in the micrometer range: liquid is
supplied to a nozzle, and an electric field generated between the nozzle and a counterelectrode; when the
electrical stress overcomes the surface tension of the liquid, a cone is formed, from which a thin jet emerges,
which breaks up into monodisperse droplets
[American Physiological Society [13]]
6.10
electrospinning
fabrication process using an electric field to control the deposition of polymer nanofibres onto a target
substrate
6.11
Electrostatic Spray Assisted Vapour Deposition (ESAVD)
production method involving spraying atomized precursor droplets across an electric field where the
droplets undergo combustion and chemical reaction in the vapour phase
6.12
flame pyrolysis
gas phase synthesis method where flame heat is used to vaporise feedstock material and initiate the
chemical reactions to produce nanoparticles
6.13
fluidized bed processing
fabricating or coating with another material while in a reactor that uses a suspension of particles in an
upward flow of fluid (or downward flow if the particles are less dense than the fluid)
6.14
functionalization
attachment of chemical functional groups to a surface
PAS 71:2005
10 BSI 25 May 2005
6.15
furnace flow processing
method of gas phase synthesis that produces particles from a saturated vapour for substances having a
high vapour pressure at intermediate temperatures
6.16
gas phase synthesis
all methods where the materials to be processed go through a gas phase; specifically a production method
based on ! nucleation of a supersaturated vapour and subsequent particle growth by condensation,
coagulation and coalescence
NOTE Examples include Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) and Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) techniques.
6.17
high energy milling
form of attrition production that relies on the use of high levels of kinetic energy to break down material
into finer and finer sizes
6.18
laser ablation processing
nanoparticle synthesis method using the energy from a (typically pulsed) laser to erode material from the
surface of a target
6.19
laser pyrolysis
gas phase synthesis method where a flowing reactive gas is heated rapidly with a laser
6.20
mechanical alloying
alloying process that can be used to produce nanomaterials, consisting of the repeated bonding, fracturing
and rebonding of elemental and master alloy powders by highly energetic collisions in a mill under an inert
atmosphere or vacuum
6.21
molecular self assembly
process that produces nanostructures by spontaneous aggregation into larger stable structures, driven by
minimization of Gibbs free energy
6.22
plasma processing
method of gas phase synthesis using a plasma reactor to deliver the energy required to cause evaporation
or initiate chemical reactions
NOTE The main types of plasma used are Direct Current (DC) plasma jet, DC arc plasma and Radio-Frequency (RF) induction
plasma.
6.23
sol-gel processing
production process involving the conversion of a sol to a gel, which is then dessicated to produce particles
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
11
6.24
solution phase templating
method for producing well defined structures in solution using molecular self assembly in conjunction
with a template
6.25
sonochemistry
colloidal production method controlled by acoustic cavitation generating high temperatures and pressures
within highly localized regions in the liquid, where molecular precursors undergo chemical reactions due
to the application of ultrasound
6.26
sonication
physical method to aid the dispersion of nanoparticles in liquid by use of high-frequency sound waves
NOTE Also referred to as ultrasonic agitation and ultrasonication.
6.27
thermal spraying and coating
process for creating nanoparticles and nanostructured coatings where a powder or wire is partially
melted using gas or plasma flames and then deposited onto a surface to give a thin layer
6.28
top-down processing
subtractive process for producing nanostructures from bulk materials
6.29
virus templating
production process using linear form of a virus as a structural template to direct the formation of inorganic
nanowires
[Website of the American Chemistry Society [15]]
7 Production mechanisms
7.1
aerosol scavenging
removal of particles from the air by other particles through inertial, gravitational or diffusive processes
7.2
aggregation, orthokinetic
aggregation induced by hydrodynamic motions, such as stirring, sedimentation or convection
7.3
aggregation, perikinetic
aggregation induced by Brownian motion
7.4
cementation
binding together of particles by precipitation at their points of contact
PAS 71:2005
12 BSI 25 May 2005
7.5
coagulation
<of suspensions> specific type of agglomeration in which formation of aggregates is induced by the
addition of an electrolyte to a suspension
7.6
coalescence
formation of homogeneous particles through the collision and subsequent merging or mixing of constituent
material
7.7
deflocculation
breaking down of a floc
7.8
flocculation
aggregation of particles into a floc
7.9
granulation
process of combining particles into larger agglomerates / granules
7.10
heterocoagulation
aggregation of dissimilar particles; in ceramic applications, the formation of aggregates by the cohesion
between particles of different materials (e.g. alumina and silica)
NOTE Also referred to as heteroagglomeration, heteroflocculation.
7.11
Ostwald ripening
growth of larger crystals from those of a smaller size that have a higher solubility than the larger ones
[Compendium of Chemical Terminology [3]]
7.12
solution precipitation
common type of chemical reaction in solution chemistry where two or more solutions are combined
resulting in a reaction that produces an insoluble product or a precipitate
7.13
solvothermal reaction
chemical reaction or transformation in a solvent under supercritical conditions or near such a pressure!
temperature domain
[Journal of Materials Chemistry [16]]
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
13
8 Particle characteristics
8.1
adsorption surface area
surface area calculated from an adsorption method, e.g. BET
8.2
aspect ratio
ratio of the longest Feret!s diameter of a particle to the shortest perpendicular
[Adapted from BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology, by PAS 71 Steering Group]
8.3
Average Agglomeration Number (AAN)
estimate of the degree of agglomeration in a suspension
8.4
BET surface area
surface area calculated from BET analysis
8.5
effective particle size
measure of particle size that characterizes its properties or behaviour in a specific system
8.6
Electrical Double Layer (EDL)
layer of ions at the solid/liquid interface in which two oppositely charged layers exist due to the attraction
of counterions towards the interface by the surface charge
8.7
electrokinetic phenomena
<for phenomena including electrophoresis and electro-osmosis> effect where an applied electric field causes
a relative motion between a charged surface or particle, and a continuous phase containing ions
<for phenomena including streaming and sedimentation potential> effect where an electrical potential is
generated when a liquid containing ions is caused to flow past a charged surface or particle
NOTE The most familiar electrokinetic phenomena are electro-osmosis, streaming potential, electrophoresis and sedimentation
potential.
8.8
elongation shape factor
ratio of the length of a rectangle with two sides parallel to the longest dimension of a particle to its width
NOTE See aspect ratio.
8.9
Fuchs surface area
<aerosols> surface area of an aerosol particle that interacts with the carrier gas and thus determines
particle behaviour within the gas
8.10
Hamaker constant
<of particle interactions> material constant that measures the relative strength of the attractive van der
Waals forces between two surfaces
PAS 71:2005
14 BSI 25 May 2005
8.11
Point of Zero Charge (PZC)
pH at which the negative and positive charges are balanced, so there is no net charge on the colloid
[Introduction to modern colloid science [19], p 22]
NOTE May also apply to non-colloids.
8.12
specific surface area
ratio of the surface area to the mass of a nanopowder
8.13
zeta potential
electrostatic potential at the slipping plane (which marks the region where the liquid molecules
surrounding the particle first begin to move with respect to the surface) relative to the potential in the bulk
solution
[Introduction to modern colloid science [19], p 22]
9 Particle volume and diameter
9.1
aerodynamic diameter
diameter of a spherical particle with a density of 1 000 kg/m
3
, that has the same settling velocity as the
particle under consideration; related to the inertial properties of aerosol particles
NOTE 1 Generally used to describe particles or agglomerates larger than 300 nm ! 500 nm (where the actual size depends on the
densities of the particle and the medium).
NOTE 2 See equivalent diameter.
9.2
envelope volume
volume of a particle such as would be obtained by tightly shrinking a film to contain it
[PAS 71 Steering Group, adapted from BS 2955:1993, Glossary of terms relating to particle technology]
9.3
equivalent diameter
diameter of a sphere which behaves like the observed particle relative to or deduced from a chosen property
NOTE Different properties include aerodynamic, diffusion, hydrodynamic, mobility, perimeter, surface and volume.
9.4
Feret!s diameter
distance between two parallel tangents on opposite sides of the image of a particle
NOTE Used to calculate the aspect ratio of a particle.
9.5
hydrodynamic diameter (cumulants mean)
effective diameter of a particle in a liquid environment
NOTE 1 The hydrodynamic diameter measured by dynamic light scattering is referred to as the Z-average mean.
9.6
isometric particle
particle with the same measurement in three dimensions
PAS 71:2005
BSI 25 May 2005
15
9.7
mobility diameter
diameter of a spherical particle with the same mobility as the particle under consideration
NOTE 1 The particle is generally smaller than 300 nm ! 500 nm in diameter, the actual size depending on the densities of the particle
and the medium.
9.8
particle size
size of a particle as determined by a specified measurement method
NOTE See the introduction to this PAS.
10 Measurement and analysis techniques
10.1
aerosol diffusion charging
method in which the Fuchs surface area of an aerosol is measured directly, by passing electrically neutral
particles through a unipolar ion cloud and measuring the resulting aerosol charge
NOTE When the charging rate is low, aerosol charge is proportional to the Fuchs surface area.
10.2
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
technique for imaging surfaces by mechanically scanning their surface contours using a microfabricated
probe, in which the deflection of a sharp tip sensing the surface forces, mounted on a soft cantilever, is
monitored as the tip is moved across the surface
NOTE Part of the family of microscopies referred to as Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM).
10.3
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)
technique in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of Auger electrons
emitted from a surface
NOTE AES instruments can achieve lateral resolutions as low as 5 nm.
[BS ISO 18115, Surface chemical analysis Vocabulary]
10.4
BET analysis
characterization technique based on the model developed by Brunauer, Emmet and Teller that allows the
surface area of powders to be determined by gas adsorption
NOTE Typically nitrogen or carbon dioxide is used but gases such as krypton or argon may be used for low surface area materials
because of their greater sensitivity (mass gain per unit area).
10.5
coincidence
detection of two or more particles as a single particle
[BS 2955:1993 and Particle Size Characterization [4]]
10.6
Condensation Particle Counter (CPC)
most widely used type of instrument for detecting and counting nanoparticle aerosols, which operates
by condensing vapour onto sampled ultrafine particles to grow them to a size range that can be detected by
a standard optical counter
PAS 71:2005
16 BSI 25 May 2005
10.7
Differential Mobility Analysis (DMA)
method of establishing the size distribution of aerosols, based on the principle of the mobility of a charged
particle in an electric field
10.8
Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS)
technique where inelastic interaction of an electron beam with atoms in a sample results in an energy
distribution spectrum that contains compositional and chemical bonding information
10.9
Electron Probe MicroAnalysis (EPMA)
spatially-resolved elemental analysis based upon electron-excited x-ray spectrometry with a focused
electron probe and an electron interaction volume with micrometer to sub-micrometer dimensions
[ISO/DIS 23833, Microbeam analysis Electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) Vocabulary]
NOTE Covers both Wavelength Dispersion Spectrometry (WDS) and Energy Dispersion Spectrometry (EDS).
10.10
epiphaniometer
instrument used to measure the Fuchs surface area of aerosols directly: the aerosol is passed through a
charging chamber where lead isotopes created from a decaying actinium source are attached to the particle
surfaces; the particles are transported through a capillary to a collecting filter; the amount of radioactivity
measured is proportional to the particle surface area
[Adapted from Nanoparticles: An occupational hygiene review [11] by PAS 71 Steering Group]
10.11
Field Flow Fractionation (FFF)
method of separating particles in a fluid flowing in a channel by applying a field perpendicular to the flow,
e.g. a transverse flow or thermal field
10.12
Glow Discharge Mass Spectrometry (GDMS)
method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the mass-to-charge quotient and abundance of
ions from a glow discharge generated at a surface
NOTE See also Glow Discharge Spectrometry.
10.13
Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectrometry (GDOES)
method in which an optical emission spectrometer is used to measure the wavelength and intensity of light
emitted from a glow discharge generated at a surface
NOTE See also Glow Discharge Spectrometry.
10.14
Glow Discharge Spectrometry (GDS)
method in which a spectrometer is used to measure relevant intensities emitted from a glow discharge
generated at a surface
NOTE This is a general term which encompasses GDOES and GDMS.
10.15
halo
dark or light false perimeter of a particle image
[Particle Size Characterization [4]]
PAS 71:2005
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10.16
Ion Beam Analysis (IBA)
method to elucidate composition and structure of the outermost atomic layers of a solid material, in which
principally monoenergetic, singly-charged probe ions, scattered from the surface, are detected and recorded
as a function of their energy or angle of scattering, or both
NOTE LEISS, MEISS and RBS are all forms of IBA in which the probe ion energies are typically in the ranges 0,1 keV to 10 keV,
100 keV to 200 keV and 1 MeV to 2 MeV, respectively. These classifications represent three ranges in which fundamentally different
physics is involved.
10.17
isoelectric point (IEP)
pH at which dispersed particles show no electrophoretic mobility and the zeta potential has a value of
zero
10.18
isoionic point
pH of a solution at which a particle or molecule contains as many negative charges as positive charges
10.19
Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy (NSOM)
technique for imaging surfaces in transmission or reflection by mechanically scanning an optical probe
much smaller than the wavelength of light over the surface whilst monitoring the transmitted or reflected
light
NOTE 1 Also referred to as Scanning Near Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM).
NOTE 2 Part of the family of microscopies referred to as Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM).
10.20
PhotoEmission Electron Microscopy (PEEM)
technique that involves shining linearly or circularly polarized X-rays onto the sample surface, allowing
the distribution of electrons emitted from the surface to be imaged
NOTE Has particular applications in magnetic domain imaging; allows the user to derive all three components of magnetization.
10.21
Photon Correlation Spectroscopy (PCS)
method of measuring diffusion diameter from Brownian motion
NOTE Also referred to as Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and quasi-electric or self-beat light scattering.
10.22
Raman effect
scattering of light with a change in frequency characteristic of the scattering substance, representing a
change in the vibrational, rotational, or electronic energy of the substance that can be used to give
information on its chemical bonding or mechanical stress state
10.23
Raman spectroscopy
spectroscopy in which the Raman effect is used to investigate molecular energy levels
[OED [20]]
PAS 71:2005
18 BSI 25 May 2005
10.24
Selective Area Electron Diffraction (SAED)
diffraction of electrons from an area of the sample selected by an aperture
10.25
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
technique that produces magnified images of a specimen by scanning its surface with an electron beam
NOTE 1 SEMs typically have a spatial resolution of 1 to 10 nm.
NOTE 2 The instruments may be used to obtain the size, shape, structure and, in some cases, compositional information from single
or collections of particles.
NOTE 3 Some instruments have added detectors, such as an energy dispersive detector, that allow the composition of the sample to
be determined with spatial resolutions below 1 m, channelling detectors that allow crystal orientations or strain to be measured, or
backscatter detectors that provide atomic contrast.
10.26
Scanning Mobility Particle Sizing (SMPS)
technique for detecting and counting nanoparticles, which gives both size and number information, and
is capable of measuring aerosol size distribution from 3 to 800 nm; operates by charging particles and
separating them based on their mobility when passing between electrodes
NOTE 1 The size distribution is expressed in terms of particle mobility diameter.
10.27
Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM)
family of techniques for imaging a surface, using the interaction of a physical probe with the surface
NOTE See also AFM, STM and NSOM.
10.28
Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM)
technique for revealing the apparent electron-density-related atomic structure of surfaces, using a needle-
like probe near the object under observation; a tunnelling current, which is measured, is generated by
altering the potential at the tip of the probe; a 3D representation of the sample surface is generated by
rastering the surface of the object and mapping the distance for constant current level at various points
NOTE STMs have also been used to produce changes in the molecular composition of substances.
10.29
Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)
method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the mass-to-charge quotient and abundance of
secondary ions emitted from a sample as a result of bombardment by energetic ions
NOTE SIMS is, by convention, generally classified as dynamic, in which the material surface layers are continually removed as they
are being measured, and static, in which the ion areic dose during measurement is restricted to less than 10
16
ions/m
2
in order to retain
the surface in an essentially undamaged state.
10.30
Small Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS)
technique for measuring the scattering of neutrons at small angles with respect to the incident beam
NOTE May be used to determine the spatial distribution of adsorbed species on a particle.
PAS 71:2005
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10.31
Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (TXRF)
method in which an X-ray spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of fluorescence X-rays
emitted from a surface irradiated by primary X-rays under the condition of total reflection
10.32
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
technique using electrons that can image through very thin samples in transmission or, for thicker
samples, the outline profile in projection
NOTE 1 TEM typically requires samples 100 to 200 nm thick if internal details are required. Thicker samples may be viewed with
higher energies such as 200 or 300 keV electron beams.
NOTE 2 TEM can be used to image lattice planes and individual points with resolutions better than 0.2 nm.
10.33
Ultra-Violet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS)
method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of photoelectrons
emitted from a surface irradiated by ultra-violet photons
10.34
X-Ray Diffraction Line Broadening (XRDLB)
technique for measuring the size and strain of individual crystals under about 0.1 m, where the Debye
rings (X-ray lines) generated by the procedure are broadened
NOTE Strain in the material may also cause X-ray line broadening.
10.35
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy distribution of Auger and
photoelectrons emitted from a surface irradiated by X-ray photons
NOTE XPS instruments can achieve a lateral resolution as low as 5 2m.
11 Abbreviations
AES Auger Electron Spectroscopy
AFM Atomic Force Microscopy
AIM Atomic Imaging and Manipulation
ALE Atomic Layer Epitaxy
ATM Asynchronous transmission mode
ATOFMS Aerodynamic Time Of Flight Mass Spectrometer
BCC Body-Centred Cubic
BEEM Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy
BET Brunauer, Emmett and Teller method of measuring surface area
BSEI Backscattered Electron Image
Cermet Ceramic-Metal Composite
CFU Colony Forming Units
CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
CMP Chemical Mechanical Polishing
CNT Carbon NanoTube
CPC Condensation Particle Counter
PAS 71:2005
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CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition
DFT Density Functional Theory
DMA Differential Mobility Analyzer
EDS Energy Dispersive Spectrometry
EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis
EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry
EELS Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
EHDA Electrohydrodynamic Atomization
EIA Energetic Ion Analysis
ELPI Electrical Low Pressure Impactor
EPMA Electron Probe MicroAnalysis/Analyzer
ESAVD Electrostatic Spray Assisted Vapour Deposition
ESCA Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
ESEM Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope
EUV Extreme Ultra-Violet
EXAFS Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure
FABMS Fast Atom Bombardment Mass Spectroscopy
FCC Face-Centred Cubic
FDA Force Discrimination Assay
FEG-SEM Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscope
FEL Free Electron Laser
FET Field-Effect Transistor
FRET Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer
FWHM Full Width, Half Maximum
GDS Glow Discharge Spectrometry
GDOES Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectrometry
GDMS Glow Discharge Mass Spectrometry
GMR Giant Magneto-Resistance
GSD Geometric Standard Deviation
HDS HydroDeSulfurization
HEISS High Energy Ion Scattering Spectrometry
HFET Heterojunction Field-Effect Transistor
HREELS High-Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
HREM High-Resolution Electron Microscopy
HVOF High Velocity Oxygen Fuel
IBA Ion Beam Analysis
IEP IsoElectric Point
IFLM Inorganic Fullerene-Like Materials
IHP Inner Helmholtz Plane
IP Ionization Potential
LEISS Low Energy Ion Scattering Spectrometry
LFM Lateral Force Microscopy
LISA Lithographically Induced Self-Assembly
MBE Molecular Beam Epitaxy
MD Molecular Dynamics
MEISS Medium Energy Ion Scattering Spectrometry
MEMS MicroElectroMechanical Systems
PAS 71:2005
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MFM Magnetic Force Microscopy
MMAD Mass Median Aerodynamic Diameter
MRM Magnetic Resonance Microscopy
MS Mass Spectrometry
micro-TAS micro(scale)-Total Analysis System
nano-TAS nano(scale)-Total Analysis System
MWNT Multi-Walled NanoTube
NCSL NanoCrystal Super Lattices
NDR Negative Differential Resistance
NEMS NanoElectroMechanical Systems
NIL NanoImprint Lithography
nM nanoManipulator
NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NQR Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance
NSOM Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy
OHP Outer Helmholtz Plane
OPC Optical Particle Counter
OMPVE OrganoMetallic Vapour Phase Epitaxy
PEELS Parallel Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
PEEM PhotoEmission Electron Microscopy
PVS Physical Vapour Synthesis
PZC Point of Zero Charge
QCA Quantum Cellular Automata
QMOS Quantum Metal Oxide Semiconductor
RBS Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry
RTD Resonant Tunnelling Diode
SAM Self-Assembled Monolayer
SAM Scanning Auger Microscope
SAMMS Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports
SCM Scanning Capacitance Microscopy
SECM Scanning ElectroChemical Microscopy
SEED Self-Electro-optic Effect Device
SEI Secondary Electron Image
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
SET Single Electron Transistor
SFA Surface Force Apparatus
SFM Scanning Force Microscope
SIMS Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
SMPS Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer
SNMS Secondary Neutral Mass Spectrometry
SNMS Sputtered Neutral Mass Spectrometry
SPM Scanning Probe Microscopy
STEM Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope
STM Scanning Tunnelling Microscope
STS Scanning Tunnelling Spectroscopy
SWCNT Single-Walled Carbon NanoTube
SWNT Single-Wall NanoTube
PAS 71:2005
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TDM Two Dimensional Material
TEM Transmission Electron Microscope
TEOM Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance
TOFMS Time Of Flight Mass Spectrometry
TXRF Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy
UPS UltraViolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy
UV/VIS UltraViolet/VISible light
VCSEL Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser
WDS Wavelength Dispersive Spectrometry
WDX Wavelength Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry
XMCD X-ray Magnetic Circular Dicroism
XPS X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
PAS 133:2007
Terminology for
nanoscale measurement
and instrumentation
ICS 01.040.17; 17.040.99
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PAS 133:2007
Contents
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 General terms 1
3 Nanoscale measurement methods 2
4 Abbreviations 13
Bibliography 14
Summary of pages
pages i to iv, pages 1 to 14, an inside back cover and a back cover.
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PAS 133:2007
Introduction
usage.
Dictionary [1] and terms that already have well established meanings
wherever possible.
1 Scope
used in measurement and/or instrumentation for characterization at the
nanoscale and characterization of nanoscale properties by mean of
average measurement.
This is applicable to but not limited to terms used in the measurement
of chemical, functional and structural properties at the nanoscale.
It is intended for use by technologists, regulators, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), consumer organizations, members of the public
and others with an interest in the application or use of nanotechnologies
in the subject area.
2 General terms
2.1 microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
systems with dimensions in the microscale that can respond to an
electric (mechanical) stimulus and generate or produce a mechanical
(electric) response
NOTE MEMS may be used in nanometrology as they might be sensitive
to nanoscale properties.
PAS 133:2007
2 BSI 2007
2.2 nanomaterial
2.3 nanometrology
science of measurement of nanoscale properties
NOTE Nanoscale properties can be measured with probes larger
than 100 nm.
2.4 nanoscale
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.5 nanostructured
molecular structure
NOTE 2 The use of the term contiguous implies that a sphere, of
approximately 100 nm diameter, inscribed in a nanostructured material
3 Nanoscale measurement methods
3.1 Scanning probe methods
3.1.1 atomic force microscopy (AFM)
technique for imaging surfaces by mechanically scanning their contours
using a microfabricated probe, in which the deflection of a sharp tip
sensing the surface forces, mounted on a soft cantilever, is monitored
as the tip is moved across the surface
NOTE Part of the family of microscopies referred to as Scanning Probe
Microscopy (SPM).
[PAS 71: 2005, definition 10.2]
3.1.2 contact mode
atomic force microscope mode in which the probe or the sample height
is adjusted to keep a constant repulsive force between the probe and the
sample
[derived from BS ISO 18115:2001, Surface chemical analysis
Vocabulary]
1)
In preparation.
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3.1.3 electrostatic force microscopy (EFM)
AFM mode in which a conductive probe is used to map both topography
and electrostatic force between the tip and the sample surface
Vocabulary]
3.1.4 force-distance curve
pairs of force and distance values resulting from a mode of operation of
an AFM in which the probe is set at a fixed (x,y) position and the force
measured as the probe tip is moved towards or away from the surface
Vocabulary]
3.1.5 intermittent mode
AFM mode where the probe is operated with a sinusoidal
z-displacement modulation such that the probe tip makes contact with
the sample for a fraction of the sinusoidal cycle
Vocabulary]
3.1.6 lateral force microscopy (LFM)
AFM mode measuring the torsional deformation of the cantilever
NOTE The lateral deformation usually depends on the friction between
the tip and the surface.
3.1.7 magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
AFM mode measuring the force acting between the magnetic field of
the sample and the magnetic dipoles of a cantilever coated with
ferromagnetic materials
3.1.8 magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM)
scanning probe method which combines the three-dimensional imaging
capabilities of magnetic imaging with the high sensitivity and resolution
of atomic force microscopy by mechanically detecting magnetic
resonance signals between a permanent magnet and the spin
magnetization of the atoms
3.1.9 nanoprobe
probe used to facilitate measurement at the nanoscale
3.1.10 non-contact mode
atomic force microscope mode in which the probe oscillates above the
surface and experiences an attractive force during this oscillation
Vocabulary]
3.1.11 scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM)
AFM mode where an AC bias is applied to a conducting probe in contact
with a semiconductor sample generating capacitance variations in the
sample which can be detected using a GHz resonant capacitance sensor
NOTE SCM measures the change in electrostatic capacitance between
the surface and the probe.
PAS 133:2007
4 BSI 2007
3.1.12 scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM)
AFM mode in which a conductive probe is used in an electrolyte
solution to measure both topography and electrochemical current
Vocabulary]
3.1.13 scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM)
AFM non-contact mode which measures the relative potential between
the surface and a conductive probe by determining the probe bias for a
null alternating current
Vocabulary]
3.1.14 scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
method in which a probe is scanned over the surface of a sample,
usually coupled to a feedback loop. A generic term for all devices using
physical interaction between a probe tip and a sample surface for
sub-micrometer imaging
NOTE 1 Amongst this family those mentioned in note 2 can be used for
nanofabrication, for example, the physical probe can be used to move or
place atoms on a surface, change the chemistry of a surface, or remove
material from a surface in a controlled manner leaving a textured
surface.
NOTE 2 Established types of scanning probe microscopy that can be
used for nanofabrication include:
! AFM (Atomic Force Microscopy);
! MFM (Magnetic Force Microscopy);
! SNOM (Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (or NSOM
Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy) );
! SECM (Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy);
! STM (Scanning Tunneling Microscopy).
3.1.15 scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
technique for revealing the apparent electron-density-related atomic
structure of surfaces, using a needle-like probe near the object under
observation; a tunnelling current, which is measured, is generated by
altering the potential at the tip of the probe; a 3D representation of the
sample surface is generated by rastering the tip over the surface of the
object and mapping the distance for constant current level at various
points
NOTE STMs have also been used to produce changes in the molecular
composition of substances.
3.2 Ion beam analysis methods
3.2.1 Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)
method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the
energy distribution of Auger electrons emitted from a surface
[BS ISO 18115, definition 3.5]
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3.2.2 elastic recoil detection
method in which measurement of the elastic scattering of ions is used
to analyse for light elements in a solid
NOTE For carbon materials, the method is often used to determine the
hydrogen content, for example, in a-C:H.
3.2.3 focused ion beam (FIB)
beam of ions (usually gallium) focused through a set of electrostatic
lenses to create a small spot on a substrate
NOTE 1 The beam removes material from the substrate through physical
sputtering. The beam spot can be scanned across the surface to create a
pattern. Nanometer scale resolution can be obtained in this process.
NOTE 2 Also know as FIB milling.
NOTE 3 The generated secondary electrons (or ions) can be collected to
form an image of the surface of the sample.
NOTE 4 FIB is particularly used for site-specific analysis, deposition
and ablation of materials.
3.2.4 ion beam analysis (IBA)
method to elucidate composition and structure of the outermost atomic
layers of a solid material, in which principally mono-energetic, singly
charged probe ions, scattered from the surface are detected and
recorded as a function of their energy or angle of scattering, or both
3.2.5 Rutherford back scattering (RBS)
method in which the scattering of high energy ions is used to determine
compositional and structural information about a solid
NOTE The technique can be used, for example, to determine the
variation of sp
3
fraction and the density of a carbon film.
3.2.6 secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)
method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the
mass-to-charge quotient and abundance of secondary ions emitted
from a sample as a result of bombardment by energetic ions
3.3 Electron beam methods
3.3.1 electron energy dispersion
method where inelastic interaction of an electron beam with atoms in a
sample results in an energy distribution spectrum from which
compositional and chemical bonding information can be derived
[derived from PAS 71, Vocabulary Nanoparticles]
3.3.2 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
method in which the energy distribution spectrum of electrons
inelastically scattered as they pass through a material is used to
determine compositional and structural information about the material
NOTE For carbon materials, it is a well established method for probing
the existence of sp
2
and sp
3
hybridized atoms.
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3.3.3 energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
electron-excited x-ray spectrometry with a focused electron probe and
an electron interaction volume with sub-micrometer dimensions
NOTE Allows spatially-resolved elemental analysis in TEM and SEM.
[derived from BS ISO 23833:2006, Microbeam analysis Electron
probe microanalysis (EPMA) Vocabulary]
3.3.4 photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM)
method that involves imaging the distribution of electrons emitted
from a surface when it is illuminated with linearly or circularly polarized
x-rays
NOTE Has particular applications in magnetic domain imaging; allows
the user to derive all three components of magnetization.
3.3.5 scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
method for producing magnified images of a specimen by scanning its
surface with an electron beam and capturing the scattered electrons
NOTE 1 SEM typically has a spatial resolution of 1 to 10 nm.
NOTE 2 The method can be used to obtain size, shape, structure and, in
some cases, compositional information.
NOTE 3 Some methods use additional detectors, such as an energy
dispersive detector, that allow the composition of the sample to be
determined with spatial resolutions below 1 m, channelling detectors that
allow crystal orientations or strain to be measured, or backscatter
detectors that provide atomic contrast.
3.3.6 selective area electron diffraction (SAED)
diffraction of electrons from an area of the sample selected by an
aperture
3.3.7 transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
method for producing magnified images or diffraction patterns by
passing an electron beam through a specimen
NOTE 1 TEM typically requires samples less than 100 to 200 nm thick if
internal details are required. Thicker samples may be viewed with higher
energies.
NOTE 2 TEM can be used to image lattice planes and individual row of
atoms with resolutions better than 0.2 nm.
dispersive detector or electron energy loss spectrometer, that allow the
composition of the sample to be determined with spatial resolutions below
10 nm.
[derived from PAS 71, Vocabulary ! Nanoparticles]
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3.4 Optical methods and related terms
3.4.1 anti-Stokes scattering
scattering of light by a material where the scattered photon has higher
energy than the incident photon
NOTE 1 This gives rise to an anti-Stokes!! line on the higher energy or
shorter wavelength side of the incident spectrum.
NOTE 2 This term is used in Raman spectroscopy.
3.4.2 confocal scanning microscopy
optical microscopy using a Nipkow disc or a laser to produce
point-probing raster scanning, yielding images with associated high
resolution maps of the surface height
NOTE 1 A small aperture at the secondary focus of the objective lens
narrows the depth of focus and obstructs most of the light reflected from
out-of-focus objects.
NOTE 2 Microscopy which is able to create an image of the focal point by
concentrating light on a specimen using a confocal laser; the method can
also measure surface shape by recording height information, which
matches the focal point of each scan!s line image.
[SEMI D29, derived from Test Method for Heat Resistance in Flat
Panel Display (FPD) Color Filters [5]]
3.4.3 fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
spectroscopic technique measuring the infrared absorption by a sample
NOTE Used to probe bonding types and structures, e.g., double, triple
carbon-carbon bonds, bonds with other elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, present in a carbon material.
3.4.4 near field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM)
method for imaging surfaces in transmission or reflection by
mechanically scanning an optical probe much smaller than the
wavelength of light over the surface whilst monitoring the transmitted
or reflected light
NOTE 1 Also referred to as scanning near field optical microscopy
(SNOM).
NOTE 2 Part of the family of microscopes referred to as SPM, see 3.1.14.
3.4.5 Nipkow disc
mechanically spinning disk of any suitable material with a series of
equally distanced circular holes of equal diameter drilled in it
3.4.6 photoconductivity
increase in conductivity of a material when illuminated with light
NOTE Gives information on transport and recombination processes for
carbon materials.
3.4.7 photoluminescence (PL)
emission of light from a material under optical excitation
NOTE Gives information on the recombination process of electrons and
holes, and for carbon materials, it is attributed to the recombination of
electron-hole pairs confined in -rich entities surrounded by a sp
3
matrix.
PAS 133:2007
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3.4.8 radial breathing mode (RBM)
strongest low frequency Raman mode for carbon nanotubes
NOTE It is commonly used to determine the diameter of carbon
nanotubes.
3.4.9 Raman D-peak
peak in the Raman spectrum of carbon containing materials at about
1 350 cm
S1
for optical wavelength excitation
NOTE Directly linked to the breathing mode of aromatic carbon rings
and is used as indication of !!disorder"".
3.4.10 Raman effect
scattering of light with a change in frequency characteristic of the
scattering substance, representing a change in the vibrational,
rotational, or electronic energy of the substance that can be used to give
NOTE Also known as Raman scattering.
3.4.11 Raman G-peak
1 590 cm
S1
NOTE Directly linked to sp
2
bonded carbon and is used as an indication
of ordering. Many researchers use the I(D)/I(G) ratio of the intensities of
the D and G peaks to assess the amount of disorder in carbon films.
[Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 1276#1290; DOI: 10.1039/b613962k]
2)
.
3.4.12 Raman spectroscopy
analysis of the intensity of Raman scattering of monochromatic light as
a function of frequency of the scattered light; the information obtained
is useful for determining molecular structure
3.4.13 Stokes scattering
scattering of light by a material where the material absorbs energy and
the scattered photon has a lower energy
NOTE 1 This gives rise to a !!Stokes"" line on the lower energy or longer
wavelength side of the incident spectrum.
3.5 x-ray and neutron based measurement
techniques
3.5.1 near edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS)
method that uses measurement of the energies of photons and electrons
emitted from matter following irradiation with x-ray photons, which
themselves have energies close to the absorption edge of the material,
to derive structural information about the irradiated material
NOTE The method can provide valuable information about bonding in
molecular structures.
2)
See http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/CP/article.asp?doi=b613962k
BSI 2007 9
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3.5.2 small angle neutron scattering (SANS)
technique for measuring the scattering of neutrons at small angles with
respect to the incident beam
NOTE May be used to determine the spatial distribution of adsorbed
species on a particle.
3.5.3 small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS)
method in which analysis of the scattering of x-rays at angles close to
the transmitted beam is used to determine structural information about
materials
NOTE This method can be used to obtain data on ultrananocrystalline
diamond nucleation and growth behind the detonation wavefront.
3.5.4 synchrotron radiation small angle x-ray scattering
(SRSAXS)
<as 3.5.7> where synchrotron radiation is used as the source of x-rays
NOTE 1 Synchrotron radiation produces beams with much higher
intensity than conventional x-ray sources, allowing much shorter
exposure times to be used.
NOTE 2 This method can be used to elucidate aspects of
ultrananocrystalline diamond formation kinetics.
3.5.5 total reflection x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (TXRF)
method in which an x-ray spectrometer is used to measure the energy
distribution of fluorescence x-rays emitted from a surface irradiated by
primary x-rays under the condition of total reflection
[BS ISO 18115:2001, definition 4.12]
3.5.6 x-ray auger electron spectroscopy (XAES)
energy distribution of Auger electrons emitted from a surface after
irradiation with x-rays
NOTE 1 This method is extensively used to determine the bond angles
and nearest neighbour atom distance in carbon films. NEXAFS XAES
data has been used to determine carbon hybridization, and for the
detection of diamond-like bonding in a-C films.
NOTE 2 This method has been used to measure carbon hybridization at
the surface of carbon materials such as diamond, a-C and DLC.
3.5.7 x-ray diffraction line broadening (XRDLB)
method for measuring the size and strain of individual crystals under
about 0.1 nm, where the Debye rings (x-ray lines) generated by the
procedure are broadened
NOTE Strain in the material may also cause x-ray line broadening.
3.5.8 x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
energy distribution of photoelectrons and Auger electrons emitted from
a surface irradiated by x-ray photons
PAS 133:2007
10 BSI 2007
3.6 Nanoparticle measurement methods and related
terms
3.6.1 aerodynamic diameter
diameter of a unity-density sphere having the same gravitational settling
velocity as the particle in question
[Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques and
Applications [6]]
3.6.2 BET analysis
characterization method based on the model developed by Brunauer,
Emmet and Teller that allows the surface area of powders to be
determined by gas adsorption
NOTE Typically nitrogen or carbon dioxide is used but gases such as
krypton or argon may be used for low surface area materials because of
their greater sensitivity (mass gain per unit area).
3.6.3 condensation particle counter (CPC)
most widely used type of instrument for detecting and counting
nanoparticle aerosols, which operates by condensing vapour onto
sampled ultrafine particles to grow them to a size range that can be
detected by a standard optical counter
3.6.4 diffusion diameter
diameter of a unity-density sphere having the same rate of diffusion as
the particle in question
Applications [6]]
3.6.5 differential mobility analysis (DMA)
method of establishing the size distribution of aerosols, based on the
principle of the mobility of a charged particle in an electric field
3.6.6 dynamic light scattering (DLS)
method of determining the hydrodynamic diameter by measuring the
diffusion speed of particles or molecules undergoing Brownian motion,
using a coherent laser beam illuminating the material dispersed at a
suitable concentration in a liquid. The decay of the autocorrelation
function of the measured intensity of the scattered light is interpreted
as an average particle size and polydispersity index can be obtained
using the cumulants method, and information about size distribution
can be obtained using a range of algorithms
NOTE DLS is also known as photo-correlation spectroscopy (PCS).
[derived from ISO 13321-8:1996, Methods for determination of
particle size distribution Photon correlation spectroscopy]
BSI 2007 11
PAS 133:2007
3.6.7 epiphaniometer
instrument used to measure the Fuchs surface area of aerosols directly:
the aerosol is passed through a charging chamber where lead isotopes
created from a decaying actinium source are attached to the particle
surfaces; the particles are transported through a capillary to a collecting
filter; the amount of radioactivity measured is proportional to the
particle surface area
3.6.8 equivalent diameter
diameter of a sphere having the same rate of diffusion as the particle in
question
Applications [6]]
3.6.9 field flow fractionation (FFF)
method of separating particles in a fluid flowing in a channel by
applying a field perpendicular to the flow, e.g. a transverse flow or
thermal field
3.6.10 hydrodynamic diameter
NOTE 1 The hydrodynamic diameter measured by dynamic light
scattering is referred to as the Z-average mean.
NOTE 2 See equivalent diameter (3.6.8).
3.6.11 mean size
average of all sizes, that is, the sum of all sizes divided by the number of
particles
Applications [6]]
3.6.12 median size
size with an equal number of particles above and below this value
Applications [6]]
3.6.13 mobility diameter
diameter of a spherical particle with the same dynamic mobility as the
particle in question
Applications [6]]
3.6.14 mode size
peak size of a distribution of particle sizes
3.6.15 scanning mobility particle sizing (SMPS)
method for detecting and counting nanoparticles, which gives both size
and number information, and is capable of measuring aerosol size
distribution from 3 to 800 nm; operates by charging particles and
separating them based on their mobility when passing between
electrodes
NOTE The size distribution is expressed in terms of particle mobility
diameter.
PAS 133:2007
12 BSI 2007
3.7 Electro-magnetic techniques
3.7.1 Hall effect
development of a transverse electric field in a solid material when it
carries an electric current and is placed in a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current
NOTE With this measurement, it is possible to determine the type,
concentration, and mobility of carriers in the materials.
3.7.2 Hall probe
semiconductor-based probe which uses the Hall effect to allow the
strength of a magnetic field to be measured
3.7.3 Lorentz microscopy
type of transmission electron microscopy using the interaction of
the electron beam with the magnetic induction of a nanoscale structure
to create an image of the magnetic structure of a sample
3.7.4 superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
devices formed of superconducting loops containing Josephson
junctions used to measure magnetic fields
3.8 Mechanical techniques
3.8.1 nano-indentation
method where indentor is pressed into surface to a maximum depth
of 100 nm with continuous monitoring of the indentation force and
resultant indentor penetration enabling the determination of local
mechanical properties
3.8.2 nano-scratch
method where transverse sample movement during a
nano-indentation experiment produces scratches which can be used
to determine the adhesion strength of thin films and coatings
NOTE Repetitive scratches allow study of nanoscale wear.
3.8.3 surface acoustic wave
acoustic or vibrational wave travelling on the surface of a sample
3.9 Thermal techniques
3.9.1 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
method in which the mass of a sample of material is measured as a
function of temperature.
NOTE Useful in determining the thermal stability or composition of
materials.
BSI 2007 13
PAS 133:2007
4 Abbreviations
AFM Atomic Force Microscope
DLS Dynamic Light Scattering
DMA Differential Mobility Analysis
EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
EFM Electrical Force Microscopy
FFF Field Flow Fractionation
FIB Focused Ion Beam
MRFM Magnetic Resonance Force Microscopy
NSOM Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy
PCS Photon Correlation Spectroscopy
PEEM Photoemission Electron Microscopy
SAED Selective Area Electron Diffraction
SANS Small Angle Neutron Scattering
SECM Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
SIMS Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry
SKPM Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy
SMPS Scanning Mobility Particle Sizing
SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device
SRSAXS Synchrotron Radiation Small Angle X-ray Scattering
TGA Thermogravimetric Analysis
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
XAES X-ray Auger Electron Spectroscopy
XRDLB X-ray Diffraction Line Broadening
PAS 134:2007
Terminology for carbon
nanostructures
ICS 01.040.71; 71.100.99
BSI 2007 i
PAS 134:2007
Contents
Foreword ii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 General 2
3 Diamond nanostructures 3
4 Carbon nanorods ! nanofibres and nanotubes 3
5 Carbon films 6
6 Fullerenes 7
7 Characterization 9
8 Abbreviations 12
Bibliography 13
Summary of pages
pages i to iv, pages 1 to 13 and a back cover.
PAS 134:2007
2 BSI 2007
2 General
2.1 carbon hybridization
merging of the outer s and p orbitals in a carbon atom
NOTE Carbon has four valence electrons. In an isolated carbon
atom, two of the valence electrons are expected to be in the 2s orbital
and the other two to be in the 2p orbitals (there are three 2p orbitals
in total). However, depending on the local conditions, one of
the 2s electrons move to the third 2p orbital allowing the 2s to merge
with the 2p orbitals and form new kinds of orbital called sp. Even
though the s and p orbitals are symmetric with respect to the nucleus
of the carbon atom, the sp orbitals are highly directional and most of
the electron cloud exists on one side of the carbon nucleus. sp
1
, sp
2
and
sp
3
below are used to denote the different possible hybridizations in
carbon.
2.2 sp
1
carbon hybridization
merging between the 2s and one 2p orbitals
NOTE The two sp orbitals lie opposite to each other and on a straight line.
Common hybridization in linear chains of carbon atoms.
2.3 sp
2
merging between the 2s and two 2p orbitals
NOTE The three sp orbitals lie on the same plane at 120
o
from each other.
Carbon atoms in graphene are sp
2
hybridized.
2.4 sp
3
merging between the 2s and all three 2p orbitals
NOTE The four sp orbitals point to the apexes of a tetrahedron. Diamond
is made of sp
3
hybridized carbon.
2.5 fullerene
[J. Chem. Inf. Comp. Sci., 35, 969-978 [2]]
60
2.6 graphene
2
structure
2.7 heptagonal and pentagonal defects
interruption of the structure of graphitic layers with either heptagonal
or pentagonal rings of carbon respectively
NOTE Carbon atoms in graphite are organized in hexagons; when one
carbon atom is added or removed heptagonal or pentagonal defects are
formed, respectively.
2.8 turbostratic carbon
disordered graphitic structure where the graphitic planes may be bent
BSI 2007 3
PAS 134:2007
3 Diamond nanostructures
3.1 Synthesis
3.1.1 detonation
method of producing nanodiamond material by use of a high pressure
shock wave
3.1.2 high pressure high temperature (HPHT)
synthesis method using high temperature and pressure applied to a
material held between two anvils to modify the material structure
NOTE This method is currently used to convert sp
2
bonded carbon into
diamond
3.1.3 hot filament chemical vapour deposition (HFCVD)
industrial synthesis method in which reactant gases are passed over a
hot filament and deposit to form large area growth of polycrystalline
and nanocrystalline diamond
3.2 Materials
3.2.1 adamantane
C
10
H
16
closed structure comprising 4 benzene rings with hydrogen
termination
NOTE The smallest member of the H-terminated, cubic diamond
molecular series.
3.2.2 bare nanodiamonds
hybrid fullerene-diamond structure resulting from the reconstruction
of a nanodiamond surface following the removal of all surface hydrogen
NOTE This is called bucky diamond.
3.2.3 diamondoids
linked cages of adamantane
NOTE Also known as nanodiamonds.
3.2.4 hydrogenated nanodiamonds
H-terminated nanodiamond
3.2.5 ultradispersed diamond (UDD)
isolated diamond nanoparticles
NOTE Produced by detonation synthesis.
4 Carbon nanorods nanofibres and
nanotubes
4.1 Synthesis
4.1.1 arc discharge
use of an electric arc, formed by passing a high current between
electrodes (in this case, usually graphite/carbon), to vaporize the
electrode material and create a plasma of carbon
NOTE This is a technique for producing carbon nanotubes and
nano-onions, or generating a plasma for amorphous carbon and diamond
like carbon film deposition.
PAS 134:2007
4 BSI 2007
4.1.2 base-growth mode
growth mode of carbon nanorod catalyzed by a catalyst particle
anchored on a support surface
NOTE Carbon feedstock is supplied from the base where the nanorod
interfaces with the anchored catalyst.
4.1.3 chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
synthesis of a solid material by chemical reaction of a gaseous precursor
or mixture of precursors, commonly initiated by heat
NOTE An example would be the growth of carbon nanotubes from
methane gas with catalyst particles.
4.1.4 gas phase synthesis
growth technique where the product is formed in the gaseous phase
NOTE This is used for the synthesis of carbon nanotubes and
nanofibres.
4.1.5 laser ablation
preparation technique which uses a laser to vaporize a graphite target
to create a carbon plume, which is the precursor for growth of
amorphous carbon, diamond like carbon, carbon nanotubes, or
fullerenes
NOTE Either a continuous or pulsed laser can be used, the latter
giving rise to the terms pulsed laser ablation (PLR) and pulsed laser
deposition (PLD).
4.1.6 liquid arc
arc discharge carried out inside a liquid environment
NOTE 1 For example, in water or liquid nitrogen.
NOTE 2 When operated with carbon electrodes this technique provides
a rich source of high quality carbon nanotubes.
4.1.7 template growth
growth of nanofibres/nanotubes where their direction is confined or
guided by some physical template
4.1.8 tip-growth mode
nanotube lengthening involving the lifting off of the catalyst particle
from the support and its transportation to the open end of the tube end
where it continues to catalyze tube growth
NOTE Operates when the catalyst-support interaction is weak.
4.2 Materials
4.2.1 nanotube chirality
vector notation used to describe the way in which a graphene sheet
would be rolled to form the tube
NOTE 1 Described using the chiral vector, Ch = n a1 + m a2, which
connects two crystallographically equivalent sites on the graphene sheet
(where a1 and a2 are unit vectors from an atom to the next nearest
neighbouring atoms in the regular hexagonal honeycomb lattice, and n
and m are integers). Each nanotube topology is usually characterized by
these two integer numbers (n,m), thus defining some peculiar symmetries
such as armchair (n,n) and zigzag (n,0) classes.
NOTE 2 The chirality of a nanotube determines its electronic properties,
i.e. metallic or semiconducting.
BSI 2007 5
PAS 134:2007
4.2.2 armchair
nanotubes with chiral vector, where n = m
NOTE See nanotube chirality, 4.2.1.
4.2.3 zigzag carbon nanotube
nanotube whose chiral vector is (n, 0), and has mirror symmetry
4.2.4 carbon nanofibre (CNF)
carbon filament with a diameter in the nanoscale
NOTE Technically, this includes nanotubes, but recently the term has
been used to describe fibres that consist of graphitic layers which are not
parallel to the fibre axis.
4.2.5 nanoscale
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
4.2.6 carbon nanotube (CNT)
4.2.7 cup-stacked
type of structure of carbon nanofibre with the appearance of a series of
conical graphene cups stacked along its axis
NOTE Sometimes called Herringbone.
4.2.8 double wall carbon nanotube (DWCNT)
carbon nanotube consisting of two concentric single wall carbon
nanotubes
4.2.9 multi wall carbon nanotube (MWCNT)
carbon nanotube consisting of two or more concentric single wall
carbon nanotubes
4.2.10 nanohorn
nanoscale cone with a curved axis
4.2.11 dahlia like
aggregate of nanohorns arranged with the appearance of a dahlia
(flower)
4.2.12 bud like
aggregate of nanohorns arranged in the shape of a flower bud
4.2.13 single wall nanohorn (SW-NH)
nanohorn comprising one layer of carbon atoms
1)
In preparation.
PAS 134:2007
6 BSI 2007
5 Carbon films
5.1 Synthesis
5.1.1 cathodic vacuum arc
use of a vacuum arc on a carbon cathode to produce a high
temperature carbon plasma which condenses on a substrate to produce
a film
NOTE This is a type of arc discharge, see 4.1.1.
5.1.2 electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) CVD
use of a low pressure, high density plasma generated by a microwave
coupled with a magnetic field to promote chemical dissociation of
carbon containing gases to provide a source of excited carbon atoms for
film formation on a substrate
NOTE This is a type of plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition
system.
5.1.3 electron cyclotron wave resonance (ECWR)
high density plasma source for plasma enhanced chemical vapour
deposition comprising a single-turn inductively-coupled radio
frequency discharge with static transverse magnetic field
NOTE This is typically used for the preparation of amorphous carbon
and diamond-like carbon thin films.
5.1.4 filtered cathodic vacuum arc (FCVA)
cathodic vacuum arc deposition system incorporating a magnetic
and/or mechanical filter to produce a coating flux that is essentially free
of macroparticles
NOTE One possible realization is the s-bend filter using two curved
torroidal filters, widely used for the deposition of tetrahedral amorphous
carbon. films.
5.1.5 plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD)
chemical vapour deposition where the gas is decomposed using a
plasma
NOTE The plasma can be generated using direct current (DC-PECVD),
radio frequency (RF-PECVD) or microwave (MW-PECVD) energy. This is
a common technique for the synthesising amorphous carbon, diamond
like carbon, carbon nanotubes and diamond.
5.1.6 s-bend filter
high efficiency filter for filtered vacuum arc deposition using two
curved torroidal filters
NOTE The filtering can be improved by a factor of 100 by adding baffles
along the filter section.
5.1.7 sputtering
physical vapour deposition technique in which gas ions, formed in a
plasma, bombard a target material which is eroded and transferred
(sputtered) onto another surface
NOTE This is a common industrial process for the deposition of
amorphous carbon and DLC. a-C:H can be produced by reactive
sputtering, by using a plasma of Ar and hydrogen or methane.
BSI 2007 7
PAS 134:2007
5.1.8 subplantation
process in which atoms are implanted into a material to produce
densification
NOTE This process is typically used to describe the growth mechanism of
DLC where subplantation creates a metastable, densified phase DLC
film.
5.1.9 vacuum arc
arc discharge sustained in a vacuum
5.2 Materials
5.2.1 diamond like carbon (DLC)
amorphous carbon material containing a sufficient fraction of sp
3

hybridized carbon atoms, usually stabilized by hydrogen, to impart a
hardness of greater than 20 GPa
NOTE This term is used in the literature and by industry to describe a
wide range of carbon based coatings, some of which do not comply
with 5.2.1.
5.2.2 glassy carbon (g-C)
predominantly sp
2
bonded carbon comprising graphene ribbons and
fullerene structures
5.2.3 tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C)
non-hydrogenated amorphous carbon film containing over 80% sp
3

hybridized carbon
6 Fullerenes
6.1 Synthesis
6.1.1 plasma condensation
coalescence of ions and neutrals in a plasma to form larger structures
6.1.2 pulsed laser ablation (PLA)
use of short high intensity laser pulses directed at a target to generate a
plume of plasma
NOTE Condensation can occur within the plasma to produce complex
structure, e.g. fullerenes.
6.2 Materials
6.2.1 bridged fullerenes
fullerene molecules where two or more nonadjacent atoms are linked
NOTE The links or bridges are constructed by additional atoms which
might be outside or inside the fullerene molecule.
2)

6.2.2 buckminsterfullerene
type of fullerene with 60 atoms in the structure of a soccer ball (12
pentagons and 20 hexagons)
NOTE This is the smallest fullerene in which no two pentagons share an
edge.
2)
http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/fullerene/Fu07.html
PAS 134:2007
8 BSI 2007
6.2.3 cyclo-fullerenes
nondetachable prefix !cyclo" indicates the formation of a bond between
two atoms of a modified fullerene or a multicomponent fullerene
6.2.4 endohedral fullerene
fullerene with additional atoms, ions, or clusters enclosed within its
shell
6.2.5 exohedral fullerene
fullerene with additional atoms, ions, or clusters attached to the
outside of the fullerene shell
6.2.6 fullerene-like carbon film
thin films with a microstructure which resembles the structure of
fullerenes
NOTE The carbon atoms are arranged in sheets curved in 3-D due to the
incorporation of pentagonal and heptagonal defects in the structure of
graphene. The induced microstructure should be evident (in HREM) by
the presence of swirls and closed loops. The microstructure should persist
over several unit cells (10#20nm) to clearly distinguish the fullerene
microstructure from amorphous carbon. The main difference between a
fullerene-like microstructure and turbostratic carbon is the presence of
swirls and loops in the former while the latter mainly consists of bent
graphitic sheets in 2-D but not 3-D.
6.2.7 fullerene cation
cation formed by the removal of an electron from a fullerene, a
fullerene analog, or a fullerene derivative
6.2.8 fullerene derivative
structure with sections that have a fullerene derived structure
6.2.9 fullerene doped polymer
polymer with fullerene molecules bonded in the carbon chain
NOTE Charge exchange between the fullerene and the carbon chain
changes the electronic properties of the resulting polymer.
6.2.10 fullerene radical ions
radical ions formed by the addition of an electron to, or removal of an
electron from, a fullerene cage
6.2.11 fullerite crystal
ordered array of fullerenes (such as C
60
) where the arrangement of the
fullerenes resembles that of atoms in a crystal
6.2.12 fulleroid
molecule whose structure resembles that of a fullerene but does not
conform to the definition of a fullerene
NOTE Often named !modified fullerenes".
[IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology [3]]
6.2.13 fused fullerene
fullerene which is incorporated into a more complex structure by
sharing atoms with the surrounding molecules
BSI 2007 9
PAS 134:2007
6.2.14 ring fused fullerenes
a fullerene that shares an adjacent pair of atoms with an organic ring
or ring system
6.2.15 heterofullerene
fullerene that includes elements other than carbon
6.2.16 homofullerenes
fullerenes where a carbon-carbon bond has been replaced by a
methylene group
NOTE The atoms of the fullerene concerned are still part of the fullerene.
6.2.17 metallofullerene
(endohedral) fullerene with a metal ion or ions trapped inside the cage
6.2.18 norfullerene
fullerene structure from which carbon atoms have been removed
NOTE The dangling bonds created are usually satisfied by hydrogen.
6.2.19 parent fullerene
fullerene which shares atoms with other molecules
6.2.20 secofullerene
fullerene structure from which some of the bonds have been removed
6.2.21 spiro fullerenes
spiro compounds formed by the fusion of fullerenes or a fullerene to
other ring structures
7 Characterization
NOTE The techniques included here are those of particular relevance to
the characterization of carbon nanostructures. Other characterization
techniques of general relevance to carbon nanomaterials are considered
in PAS 133, Terminology for nanoscale measurement and
instrumentation.
7.1 near edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS)
7.2 x-ray auger electron spectroscopy (XAES)
method in which an electron spectrometer is used to measure the energy
distribution of Auger electrons emitted from a surface after irradiation
with x-rays
NOTE This method is extensively used to determine the bond angles and
nearest neighbour atom distance in carbon films. NEXAFS XAES data has
been used to determine carbon hybridization, and the detection of
diamond-like bonding in a-C films.
PAS 134:2007
10 BSI 2007
7.3 x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
NOTE This method has been used to measure carbon hybridization at
7.4 small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS)
materials
7.5 synchrotron radiation small angle x-ray scattering
(SRSAXS)
<as 7.4> where synchrotron radiation is used as the source of x-rays
NOTE 1 Synchrotron radiation produces a beam with much higher
intensity than conventional x-rays sources, allowing much shorter
NOTE 2 This method can be used to elucidate aspects of the
7.6 Stokes scattering
NOTE 1 This gives rise to a !stokes" line on the lower energy or longer
7.7 anti-Stokes scattering
NOTE 1 This gives rise to a 'anti-stokes' line on the higher energy or
7.8 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
function of temperature
NOTE For thermogravimetric analysis, the mass of a material as a
function of temperature is useful in determining the thermal stability or
composition of carbon materials.
7.9 Raman scattering
interaction of light/photons with a material where either energy is
absorbed from the photon or given to the photon
NOTE Hence, this changes the energy of the scattered photon.
7.10 Raman spectroscopy
BSI 2007 11
PAS 134:2007
7.11 Raman D-peak
peak in the Raman spectrum at about 1 350 cm
!1
for optical wavelength
excitation
and is used as an indication of disorder.
7.12 Raman G-peak
1590 cm
-1
2
the G and D peaks to assess the amount of disorder in carbon films.
3)
7.13 radial breathing mode (RBM)
NOTE Commonly used to determine the diameter of carbon nanotubes.
7.14 elastic recoil detection
7.15 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
the existence of sp
2
and sp
3
hybridized atoms.
7.16 fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
7.17 photoconductivity
carbon materials.
7.18 photoluminescence (PL)
3
matrix.
7.19 Rutherford back scattering (RBS)
variation of sp
3
3)
Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 1276!1290; DOI: 10.1039/b613962k.
PAS 134:2007
12 BSI 2007
8 Abbreviations
CNF Carbon Nanofibre
CNT Carbon Nanotube
CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition
DLC Diamond Like Carbon
ECR Electron Cyclotron Resonance
ECWR Electron Cyclotron Wave Resonance
FCVA Filtered Cathodic Vacuum Arc
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
g-C Glassy Carbon
HFCVD Hot Filament Chemical Vapour Deposition
HPHT High Pressure High Temperature
NEXAFS Near Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure
PECVD Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
PL Photoluminescence
PLA Pulsed Laser Ablation
RBM Radial Breathing Mode
RBS Rutherford Back Scattering
SAXS Small Angle X-ray Scattering
ta-C Tetrahedral Amorphous Carbon
UDD Ultradispersed Diamond
PAS 131:2007
Terminology for medical,
health and personal care
applications of
nanotechnology
ICS 01.040.11; 11.040.99
BSI 2007 i
PAS 131:2007
Contents
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 General 1
3 Molecular entities 3
4 Structural entities 4
5 Nanosystems 7
Bibliography 8
Summary of pages
BSI 2007 1
PAS 131:2007
Introduction
usage.
Dictionary [1], and terms that already have well established meanings
wherever possible.
1 Scope
used in or associated with naming or describing applications of
nanotechnologies and nanomaterials for medicinal products, medical
devices, cosmetics, sunscreens and other personal care products.
This PAS is intended for use by technologists, regulators,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), consumer organizations,
members of the public and others with an interest in the medical, health
and personal care applications of nanotechnology.
2 General
2.1 active nanostructure
nanostructure that achieves its intended function by virtue of a change
of state during application and/or in response to an external or
endogenous influence, or which has a direct influence on the system to
which it is applied
2.2 nanobiotechnology
use of biological components and/or construction principles for the
design, characterization, production and application of structures,
devices and systems in the nanoscale
PAS 131:2007
2 BSI 2007
2.3 nanocosmetic
cosmetic produced incorporating or utilizing nanomaterials and/or
nanotechnology
2.4 nanofluidics
study and development of fluid flow in and through engineered
nanostructures
2.5 nanointervention
manipulation at the cellular and subcellular level using nanoscale
properties of materials or systems
2.6 nanomaterial
material with one or more external dimensions in the nanoscale or
2.7 nanomedicine
application of nanotechnology to achieve advances in healthcare by
exploiting the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials
operating in the nanoscale
NOTE Nanomedicine has the potential to enable early detection and
prevention, and to essentially improve diagnosis, treatment and follow-up
of diseases.
[derived from the European Technology Platform for Nanotechnology
[2]]
2.8 nano-object
discrete piece of material with one or more external dimensions in the
nanoscale
NOTE This is a generic term for all nanoscale objects.
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.9 nanoparticle
nano-object with all three external dimensions in the nanoscale
NOTE If the lengths of the longest and the shortest axes of the nano-object
differ significantly (typically by more than three times) the terms
nanorod or nanoplate are intended to be used instead of the term
nanoparticle.
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.10 nanopharmaceutical
medicinal preparation making use of material properties in the
nanoscale
NOTE 1 This is sometimes colloquially known as a nanoceutical.
NOTE 2 An example includes nanoparticles for drug delivery
applications.
[derived from the Nanodictionary [3]]
1)
In preparation.
BSI 2007 3
PAS 131:2007
2.11 nanoscale
[ISO/TS 27687
2)
]
2.12 nanoscience
study of phenomena, novel characteristics and manipulation of
materials in the nanoscale
2.13 nanostructure
nanoscale structure
NOTE Also see definitions of active nanostructure and passive
nanostructure.
2.14 nanostructured
molecular structure
NOTE 2 The use of the term contiguous implies that a sphere of
approximately 100 nm diameter, inscribed in a nanostructured
material, will intersect more than one element of the structure.
2.15 nanotechnology
design, characterization, production and application of structures,
devices and systems by controlling shape and size in the nanoscale
[derived from Nanoscience and nanotechnologies [4]]
2.16 passive nanostructure
nanostructure that achieves its intended function through stable
behaviour or properties
NOTE 1 Passive nanostructures show morphological stability and
stability of their chemical, physical or biological properties.
NOTE 2 Changes in state can be morphological, chemical, physical or
biological.
3 Molecular entities
3.1 fullerene
60
[J. Chem. Inf. Comp. Sci., 35, 969-978 [5]]
3.2 graphene
2
structure
2)
In preparation.
PAS 131:2007
4 BSI 2007
4 Structural entities
4.1 acicular structure
needle shaped structure
4.2 agglomerate
collection of loosely bound particles or aggregates or mixtures of the
two where the resulting external surface area is similar to the sum of the
surface areas of the individual components
NOTE The forces holding an agglomerate together are weak forces, for
example van der Waals forces, as well as simple physical entanglement.
[ISO/TS 27687
3)
]
4.3 aggregate
particle comprising strongly bonded or fused particles where the
resulting external surface area may be significantly smaller than the
sum of calculated surface areas of the individual components
NOTE The forces holding an aggregate together are strong forces, for
example covalent bonds, or those resulting from sintering or complex
physical entanglement.
[ISO/TS 27687
3)
]
4.4 carbon nanotube
4.5 dendrimer
repeatedly branched macromolecule
NOTE Dendrimers can be configured as a sphere, partial sphere or
wedge structure (i.e. dendritic wedge).
4.6 dendritic particle
particle with a highly branched structure on its surface and/or in its core
NOTE Also referred to as a branched-chain aggregate.
4.7 dendron
dendrimer containing a single chemically addressable group
NOTE The single chemically addressable group is known as the focal
point.
4.8 engineered nanoparticles
nanoparticles deliberately designed and produced to have specific
properties or a specific composition
4.9 liposome
polymeric nanoparticle with various targeting ligands attached to its
surface
NOTE The functionality of liposomes means that they can attach to
surfaces and accumulate in pathological areas for treatment of disease.
3)
In preparation.
BSI 2007 5
PAS 131:2007
4.10 micelle
aggregation of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid
NOTE 1 The surfactant molecules are often sequestered into hydrophilic
and hydrophobic regions.
NOTE 2 Micelles are commonly spherical but can also be branched, rods
or worm-like.
4.11 nanocluster
non covalently or covalently bound group of atoms or molecules whose
largest overall dimension is in the nanoscale
4.12 nanocore
nanoscale central part of a structure encapsulated (or coated) in a
dissimilar material
4.13 nanocrystal
nanoscale solid formed with a periodic lattice of atoms, ions or
molecules
4.14 nanofibre
flexible nanorod
[ISO/TS 27687
4)
]
4.15 nanohorn
nanoscale cone
4.16 nanoplate
nano-object with one external dimension in the nanoscale and the two
other external dimensions significantly larger
NOTE 1 The smallest external dimension is the thickness of the
nanoplate.
NOTE 2 The two significantly larger dimensions are considered to differ
from the nanoscale dimension by more than three times.
NOTE 3 The larger external dimensions are not necessarily at the
nanoscale.
[ISO/TS 27687
4)
]
4.17 nanopowder
mass of dry nanoparticles
4.18 nanoribbon
nanorod flattened in one of its shorter dimensions
NOTE Also referred to as a nanobelt.
4)
In preparation.
PAS 131:2007
6 BSI 2007
4.19 nanorod
nano-object with two similar external dimensions in the nanoscale
and the third dimension significantly larger than the other two external
dimensions
NOTE 1 The largest external dimension is the length of the nanorod and
is not necessarily in the nanoscale.
NOTE 2 The two similar external dimensions are considered to differ in
size by less than three times and the significantly larger external
dimension is considered to differ from the other two by more than three
times.
NOTE 3 A nanorod can take any cross-sectional shape consistent with the
dimensional limits of the definition.
[ISO/TS 27687
5)
]
4.20 nanorope
nanofibres in a twisted conformation
4.21 nanoshell
hollow nanoparticle
NOTE This is typically used as a delivery vehicle.
[Nanodictionary [3]]
4.22 nanosome
liposome designed at the nanoscale
NOTE Nanosomes are also known as nanoscale liposomes and
nanocapsules.
4.23 nanotube
hollow nanorod
[ISO/TS 27687
5)
]
4.24 nanowire
elongated structure with only two dimensions in the nanoscale and
with properties that allow for the transmission of energy
4.25 primary particle
smallest identifiable subdivision in a particulate system
[Particle Size Characterization [6] and The Use of Nomenclature in
Dispersion Science and Technology [7]]
4.26 quantum dot
discrete nanoscale semiconductor or metal structure that exhibits
size-dependent electronic and optical properties due to quantum
confinement
[derived from Occupational Ultrafine Aerosol Exposure
Characterization and Assessment [8]]
4.27 stealth liposome
liposome that has been specifically designed to avoid detection by the
body!s immune system
NOTE 1 Stealth liposomes are particularly designed to avoid detection
within the reticuloendothelial system.
NOTE 2 Detection avoidance is commonly achieved by the studding of
the outside of the membrane with polyethylene glycol (PEGylation) which
is inert in the body and so permits a longer circulation for drug delivery.
5)
In preparation.
BSI 2007 7
PAS 131:2007
5 Nanosystems
5.1 nanoarray
multiple array of nanoscale features organized within a
two-dimensional geometry
NOTE A nanoarray can be used for sensing or capturing biomolecules
and cells.
5.2 nanochip
integrated electronic, photonic or fluidic system with features in the
nanoscale
5.3 nanocomposite
multiphase structure in which at least one of the phases has at least one
dimension in the nanoscale
[derived from Pure and Applied Chemistry, pp. 1985!2007 [9]]
5.4 nanodevice
coherent and functional entity for sensing, structural replacement,
diagnosis and/or actuation that is in the nanoscale or that incorporates
nanostructures or nanosystems
5.5 nanophase
discrete phase, within a material, which has at least one dimension in
the nanoscale
5.6 nanosystem
integration of passive nanostructures and/or active nanostructures
into a system by means of nanotechnology
BAM NanotechnoIogy Task Force
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Home > Nano glossary
Nano gIossary
The nanotechnology definitions and terminology listed here are taken from recently published
SO documents.
The following SO Technical Specifications defining nanotechnology vocabulary served as
sources for this glossary:
SO/TS 27687:2008 "Nanotechnologies - Terminology and definitions for nano-objects
- Nanoparticle, nanofibre and nanoplate"
SO/TS 80004-1:2010 "Nanotechnologies - Vocabulary - Part 1: Core terms"
SO/TS 80004-3:2010 "Nanotechnologies - Vocabulary - Part 3: Carbon nano-objects".
Additional SO Technical Specifications SO/TS 80004-x on more nanotechnology vocabulary
are being prepared and will be published in 2011.
BAM strongly supports the work of the national and international nanotechnology
standardisation organisations. Our experts actively participate in the corresponding technical
committees. n particular, the SO Technical Committee 229 - Nanotechnologies is working on
the adoption of a standardised terminology for nanotechnologies.

A - C | D - F | G - I | J - M | N - O | P - R | S - Z

AggIomerate
Collection of weakly bound particles or aggregates or mixtures of the two where the resulting
external surface area is similar to the sum of the surface areas of the individual components.
The forces holding an agglomerate together are weak forces, for example van der Waals
forces, or simple physical entanglement. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

Aggregate
Particle comprising strongly bonded or fused particles where the resulting external surface
area may be significantly smaller than the sum of calculated surface areas of the individual
components. The forces holding an aggregate together are strong forces, for example
covalent bonds, or those resulting from sintering or complex physical entanglement. (Source:
SO/TS 27687:2008)

CEN
European Committee for Standardization (Comit Europen de Normalisation, fr.)

DIN
German nstitute for Normalisation (Deutsches nstitut fr Normung, ger.)

Nanotechnology Task
Force
Contact nformation
Email:
aknano@bam.de
Phone:
+49 30 8104-3845
Chairman
Dr. rer. nat.
Georg Reiners
Unter den Eichen 44-46
12203 Berlin
phone:
+49 30 8104-1820
email:
georg.reiners@bam.de
Vice Chairman
Prof. Dr. rer. nat.
Heinz Sturm
Unter den Eichen 87
12205 Berlin
phone:
+49 30 8104-1624
email:
heinz.sturm@bam.de
Managing Director
Dr. rer. nat.
Mark A. Bader
Unter den Eichen 44-46
12203 Berlin
Phone:
+49 30 8104-3845
Email:
mark-andreas.bader@bam.de
NANO Nano glossary http://www.nano.bam.de/en/glossar/index.htm
1 oI 3 8/6/2011 11:57 PM
ISO
nternational Standardization Organization

ISO/TC 229
SO Technical Committee dealing with standardization in nanotechnologies

Nanofibre
Nano-object with two similar external dimensions in the nanoscale and the third dimension
significantly larger. A nanofibre can be flexible or rigid. The two similar external dimensions
are considered to differ in size by less than three times and the significantly larger external
dimension is considered to differ from the other two by more than three times. The largest
external dimension is not necessarily in the nanoscale. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

NanomateriaI
Material with any external dimension in the nanoscale or having internal or surface
structure in the nanoscale. (Source: SO/TS 80004-1:2010)

Nano-object
Material with one, two or three external dimensions in the nanoscale. (Source: SO/TS
27687:2008)

NanoparticIe
Nano-object with all three external dimensions in the nanoscale. (Source: SO/TS
27687:2008)

NanopIate
Nano-object with one external dimension in the nanoscale and the two other external
dimensions significantly larger. The smallest external dimension is the thickness of the
nanoplate. The two significantly larger dimensions are considered to differ from the
nanoscale dimension by more than three times. The larger external dimensions are not
necessarily in the nanoscale. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

Nanorod
Solid nanofibre. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

NanoscaIe
Size range from approximately 1 nm to 100 nm. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

NanotechnoIogy
2 oI 3 8/6/2011 11:57 PM
2011-03-24
The application of scientific knowledge to control and utilize matter in the nanoscale,
where properties and phenomena related to size or structure can emerge. (Source:
SO/TS 80004-1:2010)

Nanotube
Hollow nanofibre. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)
Nanowire
Electrically conducting or semi-conducting nanofibre. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

ParticIe
Minute piece of matter with defined physical boundaries [SO 14644-6:2007, definition
2.102]. A physical boundary can also be described as an interface. A particle can move
as a unit. This general particle definition applies to nano-objects. (Source: SO/TS
27687:2008)

Quantum dot
Crystalline nanoparticle that exhibits size-dependent properties due to quantum
confinement effects on the electronic states. (Source: SO/TS 27687:2008)

Reference MateriaI
Reference materials ensure that measurement results can be related to approved
reference values (standards). Additionally, they are often used for the determination of
measurement uncertainties and for calibration. For quality assurance in accredited and
certified measurement and calibration laboratories, the use of reference materials is
mandatory. (Please also refer to the topical category Reference Materials on the BAM
website.)

Home
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3 oI 3 8/6/2011 11:57 PM
Talking the Talk: Standardizing the Language of Nanotechnology
This third article in a series on standards for the nanotechnology community explains
how agreements for terminology and nomenclature are creating the common baseline
that is needed for global collaboration and understanding.
This article originally appeared in the
August 2008 issue of the Nanotechnology Law Report.
As an ever increasing array of industry sectors embraces the rapid
development of materials at the nano scale, stakeholders around the
planet have attempted to weave a new nano vocabulary into their
communications.
Consistent and globally-accepted nomenclature and terminology
the fundamental building blocks for any burgeoning industry tops
the list of stakeholder needs. Until there is consensus, even terms
that are frequently cited in relevant scientific literature, e.g.,
nanotechnology, nanoparticle, nanostructure, nanoscale and
nanomaterial are at risk of being interpreted differently between
nations and industries.
In a June 2004 letter to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Dr. John H.
Marburger, III, director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy to the Executive
Office of the President, wrote:
As new materials, structures, devices, and systems are developed that
derive their properties and function due to their nanoscale dimensions, it
will become increasingly important to the researchers, manufacturers,
regulators, and other stakeholders to have an agreed upon nomenclature
with which to communicate.
Dr. Marburger asked ANSI to step forward to facilitate the development of standards in
the area of nanotechnology, starting with nomenclature and terminology.
The Institute responded by forming in August 2004 a cross-sector coordinating body
known as the ANSI-Nanotechnology Standards Panel (www.ansi.org/nsp). The Panel
does not itself develop standards; rather, it works with other national, regional, and
international standards bodies, as well as industry, academic, and government
stakeholders, to establish work plans, harmonize efforts, and mitigate duplication or
overlap.
As the Panel became more and more engaged in coordination activities within the United
States, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and, then later, the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) each formed Technical Committees
Terminology is the body of specialized
terms used in a subject of study in
other words, the vocabulary for a
particular topic. It is technology-
driven, promoting transparency and
facilitating communication and
understanding.
Nomenclature is defined as the
selection of names for things in a
particular field, or as the system used
for developing unambiguous names. It
includes a description of the system
concept and a structure through which
new names can be developed.
By providing this basic structure, it
facilitates growth and
commercialization in the field.
(TCs) to create and promote the
implementation of nanotechnology
standards. The Panel quickly took on a new
global perspective.
Experts understood that the road to
consensus would be bumpy. Many of the
participating nations had already made clear
their perspectives about the characterization
of nano-objects and what constituted work
at the nanoscale. There were distinct
differences of opinion about whether the
definitions for nanotechnology terminology
should consider the size of the object, the
unique properties that materials exhibit at
the nanoscale, or both. [Ultimately,
consensus was reached that it should be
both.]
Work in Progress for Terminology and Nomenclature
Upon its formation in 2005, the founding members of ISO Technical Committee (TC)
229, Nanotechnologies, including the United States, agreed that a standardized naming
system and standardized terms were needed to facilitate communication among the many
sectors that deal with nanotechnologies.
U.S. participation in ISO/TC 229 and its Working Groups begins in the U.S. Technical
Advisory Group (TAG) to ISO/TC 229, chaired by Clayton Teague, director of the
National Nanotechnology Coordination Office. The TAG, which is administered by
ANSI, is organized into Working Groups that mirror their efforts on the scope of each TC
229 WG.
Under the leadership of convenor Dr. Clive Willis (Canada), a working group on
Terminology and nomenclature (ISO/TC 229/WG 1) was created and charged with
defining and developing unambiguous and uniform terminology and nomenclature that
can be used by any stakeholder, from manufacturing and research to government
agencies and regulatory bodies.
The mirror U.S. activity for nanotechnology terminology and nomenclature is chaired by
Martha Marrapese of Keller and Heckman. Experts from academia, government,
standards developing organizations, and the legal arena comprise the groups
membership
One of the WGs first actions was to agree that industries should resist the temptation to
simply add the prefix nano to already existing, well-defined terms. WG 1 members also
agreed to try to avoid redefining technical terms that are already in common usage and
not nano-specific.
The WGs first published work, Nanotechnologies Terminology and definitions for
nano-objects nanoparticle, nanofibre, and nanoplate (ISO/TS 27687), defines the basic
terms frequently used in nanotechnology literature. Included in this technical
specification are definitions for terms such as nanoscale (the size range from
approximately 1nm to 100nm) and nano-object (a material with one, two, or three
external dimensions at the nanoscale). The document also establishes a hierarchy of terms
that describe some of the more specific forms of nano-objects based on their dimensions.
Three additional WG 1 work items are still under development:
x ISO/NP TS 12144, Nanotechnologies Core terms Terminology and definitions
and ISO/NP TR 12802, Nanotechnologies Terminology and nomenclature
Framework provide a prioritized and systematic approach for developing further
definitions as needed.
x ISO/NP TS 12921, Nanotechnologies Terminology and definitions for
nanostructured materials will help foster a common understanding among
worldwide industrial, academic, and public sectors related to nanomaterials.
The audiences for WG 1s work are expansive. In addition to its collaborative work with
IECs nanotechnology committee (IEC TC 113), requests have also been received for
additional definitions that will apply to terms commonly used in nanomanufacturing
sectors, including: IT and telecommunications; aerospace and automotive industries;
energy and utilities; materials and chemical industries; forest and paper products
industries; food industries; pharmaceuticals, biomedical, and biotechnology; environment
and national security; and clothing and personal care.
Terminology and nomenclature are important underpinnings of nanotechnologies
standards activities, said Ms. Marrapese. They inform the other areas of standards
development, including measurement and characterization, health, safety and
environment issues, and product quality specifications. They also serve as the basis for
how vocabulary is used and specific materials are identified for the purposes of
international research, commercial activities, intellectual property protection, and
government oversight and support.
Getting Involved in ISO/TC 229 WG 1
Participation in the U.S. TAG ISO/TC 229 Working Group is open to all nationally
interested stakeholders. The TAG actively seeks participants who have expert knowledge
in all aspects of nanotechnology terminology and nomenclature. To join the ANSI-
accredited U.S. TAG for ISO/TC 229 or any of its WGs, contact Heather Benko
(hbenko@ansi.org; 212.642.4912).
PAS 133:2007
Terminology for
nanoscale measurement
and instrumentation
ICS 01.040.17; 17.040.99
BSI 2007 i
PAS 133:2007
Contents
Foreword iii
Introduction 1
1 Scope 1
2 General terms 1
3 Nanoscale measurement methods 2
4 Abbreviations 13
Bibliography 14
Summary of pages
BSI 2007 1
PAS 133:2007
Introduction
usage.
Dictionary [1] and terms that already have well established meanings
wherever possible.
1 Scope
used in measurement and/or instrumentation for characterization at the
nanoscale and characterization of nanoscale properties by mean of
average measurement.
This is applicable to but not limited to terms used in the measurement
of chemical, functional and structural properties at the nanoscale.
It is intended for use by technologists, regulators, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), consumer organizations, members of the public
and others with an interest in the application or use of nanotechnologies
in the subject area.
2 General terms
2.1 microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
systems with dimensions in the microscale that can respond to an
electric (mechanical) stimulus and generate or produce a mechanical
(electric) response
NOTE MEMS may be used in nanometrology as they might be sensitive
to nanoscale properties.
PAS 133:2007
2 BSI 2007
2.2 nanomaterial
2.3 nanometrology
science of measurement of nanoscale properties
NOTE Nanoscale properties can be measured with probes larger
than 100 nm.
2.4 nanoscale
[ISO/TS 27687
1)
]
2.5 nanostructured
molecular structure
NOTE 2 The use of the term contiguous implies that a sphere, of
approximately 100 nm diameter, inscribed in a nanostructured material
3 Nanoscale measurement methods
3.1 Scanning probe methods
3.1.1 atomic force microscopy (AFM)
technique for imaging surfaces by mechanically scanning their contours
using a microfabricated probe, in which the deflection of a sharp tip
sensing the surface forces, mounted on a soft cantilever, is monitored
as the tip is moved across the surface
NOTE Part of the family of microscopies referred to as Scanning Probe
Microscopy (SPM).
[PAS 71: 2005, definition 10.2]
3.1.2 contact mode
atomic force microscope mode in which the probe or the sample height
is adjusted to keep a constant repulsive force between the probe and the
sample
Vocabulary]
1)
In preparation.
BSI 2007 3
PAS 133:2007
3.1.3 electrostatic force microscopy (EFM)
AFM mode in which a conductive probe is used to map both topography
and electrostatic force between the tip and the sample surface
Vocabulary]
3.1.4 force-distance curve
pairs of force and distance values resulting from a mode of operation of
an AFM in which the probe is set at a fixed (x,y) position and the force
measured as the probe tip is moved towards or away from the surface
Vocabulary]
3.1.5 intermittent mode
AFM mode where the probe is operated with a sinusoidal
z-displacement modulation such that the probe tip makes contact with
the sample for a fraction of the sinusoidal cycle
Vocabulary]
3.1.6 lateral force microscopy (LFM)
AFM mode measuring the torsional deformation of the cantilever
NOTE The lateral deformation usually depends on the friction between
the tip and the surface.
3.1.7 magnetic force microscopy (MFM)
AFM mode measuring the force acting between the magnetic field of
the sample and the magnetic dipoles of a cantilever coated with
ferromagnetic materials
3.1.8 magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM)
scanning probe method which combines the three-dimensional imaging
capabilities of magnetic imaging with the high sensitivity and resolution
of atomic force microscopy by mechanically detecting magnetic
resonance signals between a permanent magnet and the spin
magnetization of the atoms
3.1.9 nanoprobe
probe used to facilitate measurement at the nanoscale
3.1.10 non-contact mode
atomic force microscope mode in which the probe oscillates above the
surface and experiences an attractive force during this oscillation
Vocabulary]
3.1.11 scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM)
AFM mode where an AC bias is applied to a conducting probe in contact
with a semiconductor sample generating capacitance variations in the
sample which can be detected using a GHz resonant capacitance sensor
NOTE SCM measures the change in electrostatic capacitance between
the surface and the probe.
PAS 133:2007
4 BSI 2007
3.1.12 scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM)
AFM mode in which a conductive probe is used in an electrolyte
solution to measure both topography and electrochemical current
Vocabulary]
3.1.13 scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM)
AFM non-contact mode which measures the relative potential between
the surface and a conductive probe by determining the probe bias for a
null alternating current
Vocabulary]
3.1.14 scanning probe microscopy (SPM)
method in which a probe is scanned over the surface of a sample,
usually coupled to a feedback loop. A generic term for all devices using
physical interaction between a probe tip and a sample surface for
sub-micrometer imaging
NOTE 1 Amongst this family those mentioned in note 2 can be used for
nanofabrication, for example, the physical probe can be used to move or
place atoms on a surface, change the chemistry of a surface, or remove
material from a surface in a controlled manner leaving a textured
surface.
NOTE 2 Established types of scanning probe microscopy that can be
used for nanofabrication include:
! AFM (Atomic Force Microscopy);
! MFM (Magnetic Force Microscopy);
! SNOM (Scanning Near-field Optical Microscopy (or NSOM
Near Field Scanning Optical Microscopy) );
! SECM (Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy);
! STM (Scanning Tunneling Microscopy).
3.1.15 scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
technique for revealing the apparent electron-density-related atomic
structure of surfaces, using a needle-like probe near the object under
observation; a tunnelling current, which is measured, is generated by
altering the potential at the tip of the probe; a 3D representation of the
sample surface is generated by rastering the tip over the surface of the
object and mapping the distance for constant current level at various
points
NOTE STMs have also been used to produce changes in the molecular
composition of substances.
3.2 Ion beam analysis methods
3.2.1 Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)
energy distribution of Auger electrons emitted from a surface
BSI 2007 5
PAS 133:2007
3.2.2 elastic recoil detection
3.2.3 focused ion beam (FIB)
beam of ions (usually gallium) focused through a set of electrostatic
lenses to create a small spot on a substrate
NOTE 1 The beam removes material from the substrate through physical
sputtering. The beam spot can be scanned across the surface to create a
pattern. Nanometer scale resolution can be obtained in this process.
NOTE 2 Also know as FIB milling.
NOTE 3 The generated secondary electrons (or ions) can be collected to
form an image of the surface of the sample.
NOTE 4 FIB is particularly used for site-specific analysis, deposition
and ablation of materials.
3.2.4 ion beam analysis (IBA)
method to elucidate composition and structure of the outermost atomic
layers of a solid material, in which principally mono-energetic, singly
charged probe ions, scattered from the surface are detected and
recorded as a function of their energy or angle of scattering, or both
3.2.5 Rutherford back scattering (RBS)
variation of sp
3
3.2.6 secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)
method in which a mass spectrometer is used to measure the
mass-to-charge quotient and abundance of secondary ions emitted
from a sample as a result of bombardment by energetic ions
3.3 Electron beam methods
3.3.1 electron energy dispersion
method where inelastic interaction of an electron beam with atoms in a
sample results in an energy distribution spectrum from which
compositional and chemical bonding information can be derived
3.3.2 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
the existence of sp
2
and sp
3
hybridized atoms.
PAS 133:2007
6 BSI 2007
3.3.3 energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
electron-excited x-ray spectrometry with a focused electron probe and
an electron interaction volume with sub-micrometer dimensions
NOTE Allows spatially-resolved elemental analysis in TEM and SEM.
[derived from BS ISO 23833:2006, Microbeam analysis Electron
probe microanalysis (EPMA) Vocabulary]
3.3.4 photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM)
method that involves imaging the distribution of electrons emitted
from a surface when it is illuminated with linearly or circularly polarized
x-rays
NOTE Has particular applications in magnetic domain imaging; allows
the user to derive all three components of magnetization.
3.3.5 scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
method for producing magnified images of a specimen by scanning its
surface with an electron beam and capturing the scattered electrons
NOTE 1 SEM typically has a spatial resolution of 1 to 10 nm.
NOTE 2 The method can be used to obtain size, shape, structure and, in
some cases, compositional information.
dispersive detector, that allow the composition of the sample to be
determined with spatial resolutions below 1 m, channelling detectors that
allow crystal orientations or strain to be measured, or backscatter
detectors that provide atomic contrast.
3.3.6 selective area electron diffraction (SAED)
diffraction of electrons from an area of the sample selected by an
aperture
3.3.7 transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
method for producing magnified images or diffraction patterns by
passing an electron beam through a specimen
NOTE 1 TEM typically requires samples less than 100 to 200 nm thick if
internal details are required. Thicker samples may be viewed with higher
energies.
NOTE 2 TEM can be used to image lattice planes and individual row of
atoms with resolutions better than 0.2 nm.
dispersive detector or electron energy loss spectrometer, that allow the
composition of the sample to be determined with spatial resolutions below
10 nm.
[derived from PAS 71, Vocabulary ! Nanoparticles]
BSI 2007 7
PAS 133:2007
3.4 Optical methods and related terms
3.4.1 anti-Stokes scattering
NOTE 1 This gives rise to an anti-Stokes!! line on the higher energy or
3.4.2 confocal scanning microscopy
optical microscopy using a Nipkow disc or a laser to produce
point-probing raster scanning, yielding images with associated high
resolution maps of the surface height
NOTE 1 A small aperture at the secondary focus of the objective lens
narrows the depth of focus and obstructs most of the light reflected from
out-of-focus objects.
NOTE 2 Microscopy which is able to create an image of the focal point by
concentrating light on a specimen using a confocal laser; the method can
also measure surface shape by recording height information, which
matches the focal point of each scan!s line image.
[SEMI D29, derived from Test Method for Heat Resistance in Flat
Panel Display (FPD) Color Filters [5]]
3.4.3 fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.4.4 near field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM)
method for imaging surfaces in transmission or reflection by
mechanically scanning an optical probe much smaller than the
wavelength of light over the surface whilst monitoring the transmitted
or reflected light
NOTE 1 Also referred to as scanning near field optical microscopy
(SNOM).
NOTE 2 Part of the family of microscopes referred to as SPM, see 3.1.14.
3.4.5 Nipkow disc
mechanically spinning disk of any suitable material with a series of
equally distanced circular holes of equal diameter drilled in it
3.4.6 photoconductivity
carbon materials.
3.4.7 photoluminescence (PL)
3
matrix.
PAS 133:2007
8 BSI 2007
3.4.8 radial breathing mode (RBM)
NOTE It is commonly used to determine the diameter of carbon
nanotubes.
3.4.9 Raman D-peak
1 350 cm
S1
and is used as indication of !!disorder"".
3.4.10 Raman effect
scattering of light with a change in frequency characteristic of the
scattering substance, representing a change in the vibrational,
rotational, or electronic energy of the substance that can be used to give
NOTE Also known as Raman scattering.
3.4.11 Raman G-peak
1 590 cm
S1
2
the D and G peaks to assess the amount of disorder in carbon films.
[Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 12761290; DOI: 10.1039/b613962k]
2)
.
3.4.12 Raman spectroscopy
3.4.13 Stokes scattering
NOTE 1 This gives rise to a !!Stokes"" line on the lower energy or longer
3.5 x-ray and neutron based measurement
techniques
3.5.1 near edge x-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS)
2)
See http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/CP/article.asp?doi=b613962k
BSI 2007 9
PAS 133:2007
3.5.2 small angle neutron scattering (SANS)
technique for measuring the scattering of neutrons at small angles with
respect to the incident beam
NOTE May be used to determine the spatial distribution of adsorbed
species on a particle.
3.5.3 small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS)
materials
3.5.4 synchrotron radiation small angle x-ray scattering
(SRSAXS)
<as 3.5.7> where synchrotron radiation is used as the source of x-rays
NOTE 1 Synchrotron radiation produces beams with much higher
intensity than conventional x-ray sources, allowing much shorter
NOTE 2 This method can be used to elucidate aspects of
3.5.5 total reflection x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (TXRF)
method in which an x-ray spectrometer is used to measure the energy
distribution of fluorescence x-rays emitted from a surface irradiated by
primary x-rays under the condition of total reflection
[BS ISO 18115:2001, definition 4.12]
3.5.6 x-ray auger electron spectroscopy (XAES)
energy distribution of Auger electrons emitted from a surface after
irradiation with x-rays
NOTE 1 This method is extensively used to determine the bond angles
and nearest neighbour atom distance in carbon films. NEXAFS XAES
data has been used to determine carbon hybridization, and for the
detection of diamond-like bonding in a-C films.
NOTE 2 This method has been used to measure carbon hybridization at
3.5.7 x-ray diffraction line broadening (XRDLB)
method for measuring the size and strain of individual crystals under
about 0.1 nm, where the Debye rings (x-ray lines) generated by the
procedure are broadened
NOTE Strain in the material may also cause x-ray line broadening.
3.5.8 x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
PAS 133:2007
10 BSI 2007
3.6 Nanoparticle measurement methods and related
terms
3.6.1 aerodynamic diameter
diameter of a unity-density sphere having the same gravitational settling
velocity as the particle in question
Applications [6]]
3.6.2 BET analysis
characterization method based on the model developed by Brunauer,
Emmet and Teller that allows the surface area of powders to be
determined by gas adsorption
NOTE Typically nitrogen or carbon dioxide is used but gases such as
krypton or argon may be used for low surface area materials because of
their greater sensitivity (mass gain per unit area).
3.6.3 condensation particle counter (CPC)
most widely used type of instrument for detecting and counting
nanoparticle aerosols, which operates by condensing vapour onto
sampled ultrafine particles to grow them to a size range that can be
detected by a standard optical counter
3.6.4 diffusion diameter
diameter of a unity-density sphere having the same rate of diffusion as
the particle in question
Applications [6]]
3.6.5 differential mobility analysis (DMA)
method of establishing the size distribution of aerosols, based on the
principle of the mobility of a charged particle in an electric field
3.6.6 dynamic light scattering (DLS)
method of determining the hydrodynamic diameter by measuring the
diffusion speed of particles or molecules undergoing Brownian motion,
using a coherent laser beam illuminating the material dispersed at a
suitable concentration in a liquid. The decay of the autocorrelation
function of the measured intensity of the scattered light is interpreted
as an average particle size and polydispersity index can be obtained
using the cumulants method, and information about size distribution
can be obtained using a range of algorithms
NOTE DLS is also known as photo-correlation spectroscopy (PCS).
[derived from ISO 13321-8:1996, Methods for determination of
particle size distribution Photon correlation spectroscopy]
BSI 2007 11
PAS 133:2007
3.6.7 epiphaniometer
instrument used to measure the Fuchs surface area of aerosols directly:
the aerosol is passed through a charging chamber where lead isotopes
created from a decaying actinium source are attached to the particle
surfaces; the particles are transported through a capillary to a collecting
filter; the amount of radioactivity measured is proportional to the
particle surface area
3.6.8 equivalent diameter
diameter of a sphere having the same rate of diffusion as the particle in
question
Applications [6]]
3.6.9 field flow fractionation (FFF)
method of separating particles in a fluid flowing in a channel by
applying a field perpendicular to the flow, e.g. a transverse flow or
thermal field
3.6.10 hydrodynamic diameter
NOTE 1 The hydrodynamic diameter measured by dynamic light
scattering is referred to as the Z-average mean.
NOTE 2 See equivalent diameter (3.6.8).
3.6.11 mean size
average of all sizes, that is, the sum of all sizes divided by the number of
particles
Applications [6]]
3.6.12 median size
size with an equal number of particles above and below this value
Applications [6]]
3.6.13 mobility diameter
diameter of a spherical particle with the same dynamic mobility as the
particle in question
Applications [6]]
3.6.14 mode size
peak size of a distribution of particle sizes
3.6.15 scanning mobility particle sizing (SMPS)
method for detecting and counting nanoparticles, which gives both size
and number information, and is capable of measuring aerosol size
distribution from 3 to 800 nm; operates by charging particles and
separating them based on their mobility when passing between
electrodes
NOTE The size distribution is expressed in terms of particle mobility
diameter.
PAS 133:2007
12 BSI 2007
3.7 Electro-magnetic techniques
3.7.1 Hall effect
development of a transverse electric field in a solid material when it
carries an electric current and is placed in a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current
NOTE With this measurement, it is possible to determine the type,
concentration, and mobility of carriers in the materials.
3.7.2 Hall probe
semiconductor-based probe which uses the Hall effect to allow the
strength of a magnetic field to be measured
3.7.3 Lorentz microscopy
type of transmission electron microscopy using the interaction of
the electron beam with the magnetic induction of a nanoscale structure
to create an image of the magnetic structure of a sample
3.7.4 superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
devices formed of superconducting loops containing Josephson
junctions used to measure magnetic fields
3.8 Mechanical techniques
3.8.1 nano-indentation
method where indentor is pressed into surface to a maximum depth
of 100 nm with continuous monitoring of the indentation force and
resultant indentor penetration enabling the determination of local
mechanical properties
3.8.2 nano-scratch
method where transverse sample movement during a
nano-indentation experiment produces scratches which can be used
to determine the adhesion strength of thin films and coatings
NOTE Repetitive scratches allow study of nanoscale wear.
3.8.3 surface acoustic wave
acoustic or vibrational wave travelling on the surface of a sample
3.9 Thermal techniques
3.9.1 thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
function of temperature.
NOTE Useful in determining the thermal stability or composition of
materials.
BSI 2007 13
PAS 133:2007
4 Abbreviations
AFM Atomic Force Microscope
DLS Dynamic Light Scattering
DMA Differential Mobility Analysis
EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
EFM Electrical Force Microscopy
FFF Field Flow Fractionation
FIB Focused Ion Beam
MRFM Magnetic Resonance Force Microscopy
NSOM Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy
PCS Photon Correlation Spectroscopy
PEEM Photoemission Electron Microscopy
SAED Selective Area Electron Diffraction
SANS Small Angle Neutron Scattering
SECM Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
SIMS Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry
SKPM Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy
SMPS Scanning Mobility Particle Sizing
SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
XRDLB X-ray Diffraction Line Broadening

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