Chapter 5. Transverse Loading 5.

1 Introduction
One of the most common types of loading that an engineer is likely to encounter is the transverse loading (lateral). One reason for this is the fact that stresses and displacement due to transverse loading are usually greater than that caused by other types of loading such as axial loading. While it is not difficult to imagine the physical bending of a steel beam and the associated change in the shape of that beam, any axial displacement in a steel bar is unlikely to be observable without any measuring device. The calculation of stresses and displacements due to bending is more complex than the corresponding calculations for an axially loaded bar. For these reasons, understanding the bending behaviour of beams requires more effort than studying the axial stresses and displacement. Initially we will derive an equation for the normal stress due to bending of beams whose cross-sections have at least one axis of symmetry.

5.2 Symmetrical Bending of Beams

By definition, normal stress is the intensity of normal force and is given by the equation: = dF/dA We have seen that, in the absence of any stress concentration, the normal stress = F/A F due to centric axial loading may be taken as uniform and is therefore given by the formula: = F/A. In this chapter, we will derive an equation for the normal stress in a beam due to bending. Limitations, Definitions and Assumptions: The derivations presented are for symmetrical bending of beams. This means the cross section of the beams must have at least one axis of symmetry.
=? M

Plane of bending

y Neutral Plane M z x

Use pp 2-6 with flex0.exe, pp 7-9 with flex.exe P10 with flex2.exe, p11 with flex3.exe and p12-17 with flex4.exe

The loading (forces that cause bending) are assumed to act in the plane of symmetry, thus eliminating the possibility of twisting. This plane will also be referred to as the plane of bending. As the beam is transversely loaded it bends; for example the top fibers may shorten while the bottom fibers stretch. The type of stress on the extreme surfaces will be opposite to each other (one side in tension the other in compression.) Between the two outer surfaces, there will exist a plane (or surface) where there will be neither tension nor compression. This surface/plane is called the neutral surface or neutral plane. Strictly speaking, as the loaded beam is not straight, this will not be a flat plane, but since all displacements concerned are small, the neutral surface may be referred to as 'neutral plane'. In a pure symmetrical bending, the neutral plane will be perpendicular to the plane of bending. Assumptions 1. The beam is made of a homogeneous, isotropic material having linear elastic properties. 2. The stresses are within the proportional and elastic limits. 3. Youngs modulus is the same in tension and compression. 4. The beam is initially straight and stress free. 5. The beam is symmetrical about the plane of bending. 6. Transverse sections of the beam remain plane during bending. 7. The deflections are small. 8. The sectional dimensions of the beam are small compared to the span and the deflection due to shearing is negligible. First let us consider the case of pure bending. That is to say that the only internal action in a beam is the bending moment.

Geometry of Deformation: Consider an infinitesimal element of the beam, having length dx at unloaded state. As the beam undergoes bending, the eleveation of the segment would change its shape. From a rectangular shape, it will take the shape of a curved element, with two straight edges as shown in the diagram. The edges will be straight, because of the assumption that the transverse planes will remain plane during bending. Let the extended lines along the transverse sections meet at point O. The r-y infinitesimal length of the fibers along the beam will have changes, except at the neutral y plane which is free of stress. In our illustration, the beam element is shown to have a positive bending, and all fibres above the neutral axis will undergo a shortening, while those below the neutral axis are stretched.

r dy y

Our first task is to obtain an expression for the strain at distance y from the neutral axis. Since the deflections are assumed to be small, we can take the curved length as approximatley circular arcs, with which we can obtain the following expression for the length of the element at distance y above the N.A. Length of element at distance y from the N.A. = Length of element at the N.A. = But since the N.A. is free from stress, the original length at the N.A. = the new length at the N.A. Prior to bending, the element had a rectangular elevation, and therefore the original length at distance y = the length at the N.A. This means the change in length at distance y = By definition the normal strain = change in length/original length. Therefore the strain at distance y may be expressed as: = From the above equation we may conclude that the strain varies linearly with y.

Hookes Law: Stress = =

r-y

r dy

Force in area dA is, dF = = Net force on the cross section = F = dF = dA

A A

E = r A

Longitudinal (axial) equilibrium: However, for a beam undergoing pure bending, the net force on a section = E Therfore, = y. dA = 0 r A i.e. y. dA = 0
A

This means the f

about the N.A. is zero.

It is worth recalling that this is also a property of a centroidal axis. Therefore we can conclude that: the N.A. passes through the centroid of the cross-section of the beam. This property may be used to locate the neutral axis of a given section.

Moment-Curvature Relationship: We already have, = - Ey/r Taking moments due to dF (on the positive face) about the N.A. gives: dM = The minus sign is introduced to reconcile the conflict between the sense of the moment due to a positive (tensile) force acting at a positive y (above the N.A.) and the definition of a positive bending moment. But, dF = dA = -(Ey/r)dA Therfore dM = To find the net moment on the cross section we may integrate dM with respect to dA. i.e. M = dM = dA
A A

dF

dy y

At a given cross section, the only variables are y and dA. Therefore the above equation may be simplified to yield: M = (E/r) y2 dA
A

The integral may be recognised as the We may rewrite the above equation as: M = EI/r But we lready have, from equation ( ), (E/r) = -/y Therefore, in terms of stress, M = -I/y Since we want to find stress in terms of M, we may rearrange the above equation to get the following formula: = -My/I This is referred to as the Euler-Bernoulli beam bending formula.

Flexural Stress Calculations Beam Bending Formula: = -My/I (Use S. I. Units) Sign Convention: Sagging moment positive y positive above the neutral axis Tensile stress () positive Procedure: Locate the neutral axis Obtain the second moment of area about the neutral axis Apply the beam bending formula Problem: A 1.2 m long cantilever beam is subject to a 25 kN load at the free end as shown. For each of the cross-sections given, determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses induced. All sections have the same crosssectional area.
x 25 kN

1.2 m

For equilibrium, M= Magnitude of M maximum at the clamp. Use:

is

B.M.D. First let us consider a square section having an area of 10000 mm2. Geometric Properties of Areas: This set of handouts does not contain notes on: Parallel Axis Theorem Perpendicular Axis Theorem Formulae for the second moment of area of rectangles, triangles and circles

(a) A Square Section

25 kN

25 kN

100 mm 100 mm

N.A.

Plane of bending

First step: Locate the neutral axis (N.A.) This section has an axis of symmetry perpendicular to the plane of bending. Therefore the axis of symmetry is the N.A. Second Step: Calculate the second moment of area. For rectangular sections, I = b= ,d= Therefore I =

100 mm

N.A. 50 mm

100 mm

Final Step: Apply the flexure formula. = -My/I The magnitude of moment is maximum at the clamp. Hence, use M = The stresses are maximumat the top and bottom (i.e. at y = 0.05 m). To determine the stress at the top, put y = which gives, = Similarly, at the bottom, y = which gives, = Hence Maximum tensile stress = , and Maximum compressive stress = (b) A Rectangular Section:

Consider a rectangular section having the same area. i.e. Let the depth be (100a) mm and the breadth be (100/a) mm. Area = 100a 100/a = 10000 mm2 I = bd3/12 = (0.1/a)*( 0.1 a)3/12 = 8.33 10-6 a2 m4. Extreme y values are: (0.05) a m Extreme stresses are given by: = -My/I = This means that the extreme stresses decrease with the aspect ratio. Does it mean that a very tall but narrow cross-sectional beam is ideal for carrying transverse loading? This is not the case, since there may be problems with instability, and difficulty in applying loading. Therefore, a practical solution is to provide flanges to apply the loading, and design a web to withstand compression so that it doesnt buckle. Structural beams such as I beams are designed to minimse bending stress, because the flanges are away from the centroid, thus giving a very large second moment of area.

30 mm

(c) A Mono-symmetrical I- section First step: Locate the neutral axis (N.A.)
N.A.

100 mm

From the first moment of area theorem,

A iy i = ( A i ) y

200 mm

y
Datum 30 mm 10 mm

A1 =
y1 =

A2 =
y2=

A3 =
y3 =

y= Second Step: Calculate the second moment of area about the N.A. I for each rectangular area about its own centroid is given by: I= Due to the top flange, I1 = Due to the bottom flange, I3 = Due to the web, I2 = I = I1 + I2 + I3 =

100 mm 30 mm

N.A. =134 mm

200 mm

y
Datum 30 mm 10 mm

Final Step: Apply the flexure formula: = -My/I M= I= Extreme stresses occor at the top and bottom surfaces. At the top, y = , and the stress is given by: == Similarly at the bottom, = =

(d) A Fully-symmetrical I- section Consider this I beam which also has the same cross-sectional area (10000 mm2). Since it is a symmetrical section, the neutral axis is the horizontal axis of symmetry. The second moment of area about the N.A. can be calculated conveniently as follows: First calculate the second moment of area of the 100 mm x 240 mm block: I1 = Now calculate the second moment of area of the hollow part (70 mm x 200 mm block): I2 = Net second moment of area: I = I1 I2 = Final Step: Apply the flexure formula = -My/I I=

35 mm

35 mm

20 mm

N.A.

200 mm

y = 120 mm
Datum 30 mm 20 mm

35 mm

35 mm

20 mm

N.A.

200 mm

y = 120 mm
Datum 30 mm 20 mm

We also have M = Using the formula for stress, At the top, y = + 0.120 m, = At the bottom, y = - 0.120 m, =

10

T-Beam

tf

bf

bf = h=
y= N.A.

tf = tw=

Due to the flange, I1 in Due to the web, Iw in

= =

Datum tw

The second moment of area of the section I = I1 + Iw = M= Stress at the top = Stress at the bottom =

11

I-Beam

t2

b2

b1 = h= b2 =
y= N.A. Datum

t1 = tw= t2 = = = =

Due to the top flange, I1 in Due to the web, Iw in Due to the bottom flange, I2 in

t1

tw

Datum

The second moment of area of the section I = I1 + Iw +I2 = M= Stress at the top = Stress at the bottom =

12

Fully Symmetrical Rectangular hollow Cross section

bi

b= bi = e= 0
N.A. d Axis of Symmetry

d= di=

di

For the IS = For the Ih =

block, hollow part,

The second moment of area of the section I = IS Ih = M= Stress at the top = Stress at the bottom =

13

Rectangular Section With a circular Hole

b= r=
e r Datum. N.A.. d

d=

e=
y=

Now we can calculate the second moment of area of the rectangle about the N.A. IS = The second moment of area of the circular hole about the N.A. Ih = The second moment of area of the section I = M= Stress at the top = Stress at the bottom =

14

Tutorial 5.1
1. A 2.3 m long channel beam is clamped at one end, and is subject to two point loads as shown in Figure 1a. A transverse section of the beam is shown in Figure 1b. Determine: (a) The extreme values (maximum and minimum) of the bending moment in the beam; (b) The maximum compressive stress in the beam;

12.0 kN

6 mm

1.5 m

23.5 kN 0.8 m Figure 1a 12 mm 80 mm Figure 1b

100 mm

12 mm

2. A 2.1 m long simply supported beam is subject to two point loads as shown in Figure 2a. The beam is of rectangular section with an 80 mm diameter hole. The centre of the hole is located 60 mm above the bottom of the beam. A transverse section of the beam is shown in Figure 2b. Determine: (c) The extreme values (maximum and minimum) of the bending moment in the beam; (d) The maximum compressive stress in the beam; (e) The maximum tensile stress in the beam.

22 kN

12 kN 40 mm 60 mm

150 mm

0.8 m

0.8 m Figure 2a

0.5m 100 mm Figure 2b

15

3. A 2.1 m long simply supported beam is subject to two point loads as shown in Figure 1a. The beam is of rectangular section with an 80mm x 70 mm rectangular hole as shown in Figure 1b. Determine: (a) The extreme values (maximum and minimum) of the bending moment in the beam; (b) The maximum compressive stress in the beam; (c) The maximum tensile stress in the beam. 45 kN 25 kN

0.8 m

0.8 m Figure 3a

0.5m

80 mm 150 mm

70 mm 100 mm Figure 3b

20 mm

4. Repeat Question 1 with the following sections. All dimensions are in mm. 70 100

10

90

N.A. 160 Datum

N.A.

Datum Datum Figure 4 12

10

12

16