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), with a period of wealth and no way of blaming them” ( :); God
power in between and a possibility of bet- would help those who had always met like
ter times ahead ( :-). Another sūra with like, only to be wronged ( :), for
( :-) notes that the Byzantines (q.v.) a bad deed called for another like it
have been defeated, predicting that they ( :-; see ; ).
will soon win (over the Persians) or, alter- “Fight in the path of God those who fight
natively, that the Byzantines have been against you, but do not transgress”
victorious, predicting that they will soon be ( :); “a sacred month for a sacred
defeated (by the believers). month… whoever aggresses against you,
Most warfare in the Qurān is conducted aggress against him in a like manner”
by the believers in the present. One verse ( :; see ); “fight the polytheists
regulates fighting among the believers all together as they fight you altogether”
themselves: one should make peace (q.v.) ( :). Where the principle of like for
between the two parties or fight the wrong- like is abandoned (see ), the
doers ( :; see ). Another claim is that bloodshed (q.v.) is the lesser
threatens war against the believers when evil (“kill them wherever you come upon
they take usury (q.v.; :f.). But most them, expel them from where they expelled
encourage the believers to fight others, var- you, for fitna is worse than killing,” :;
iously identified as “those who fight you” cf. :; see ). The famous
( :), unbelievers (e.g. :; :; “sword verse” (“kill the polytheists wher-
:), the polytheists altogether ( :), ever you find them, take them, seize them,
People of the Book (q.v.) who do not be- besiege them, and lie in wait for them,”
lieve in God and the last day ( :; see :), seems to be based on the same
), hypocrites ( :), rules, given that it is directed against a par-
friends of Satan ( :), and imāms of ticular group accused of oath-breaking
unbelief ( :), without it being clear and aggression ( :-; cf. :-; see
how far these groups are identical or ;
distinct. The hypocrites side with the be- ) and that polytheists who remain
lievers when the latter win but not faithful to their treatises are explicitly
when they lose ( :) and once appear excepted ( :). Here as elsewhere, it is
in alliance with unbelieving People of the stressed that one must stop when they
Book ( :). All war is assumed to in- do ( :; :; :f., ; :, , )
volve religious issues. and, though the language is often ex-
tremely militant, the principle of forgive-
The moral status of war ness (q.v.) is reiterated in between the
Fighting is declared legitimate in self- assertions of the right to defend oneself
defense, by way of preemption ( :; cf. ( :-).
:), for the rescue of fellow believers Justifying war appears to have been hard
( :) and for the righting of wrongs, work. The exhortations (q.v.) are addressed
including the punishment of the wrongdo- to a people who were not warlike (“pre-
ers ( :-). The basic principle is that scribed for you is fighting, though you dis-
one should treat other communities as they like it,” :), who assumed warfare to
treat one’s own (see be forbidden (q.v.; “permission has been
). “As for the person who defends granted to those who fight⁄are fought, be-
himself after having been wronged, there is cause they have been wronged,” :),
457
and who had to be persuaded that it could quently deemed inadequate. “How is it
be morally right (“if God did not drive with you that you do not fight in God’s
back some people by means of others, path?” ( :; cf. :); “What is the mat-
cloisters, churches⁄synagogues [biya], ora- ter with you, that when you are told to go
tories [alawāt], and mosques in which forth in the path of God you sink heavily
God’s name is much mentioned would be into the ground?” ( :). Some people
destroyed,” :; “the earth would be are apparently happy to pray and pay alms
ruined,” :). Only the jizya verse but protest when fighting is prescribed for
( :; see ) seems to endorse them, asking for postponement ( :).
war of aggression. If read as a continu- Some hope for a sūra but would look faint
ation of :-, however, it would be if one were to come down mentioning
concerned with the same oath-breaking fighting ( :; cf. :). Some plead ig-
“polytheists” (cf. :f.) as the sword norance of fighting or turn back, wishing
verse. that their brethren who have fallen in
battle had done the same ( :f., f.).
Mobilization Others ask for permission to leave before a
Orders to fight came down in “sūras” battle, pleading that their own homes are
(q.v.), apparently on an ad hoc basis exposed ( :) or ask not to be put in
( :; :) and always in what appears temptation (by being asked to fight against
to be a mobilizing rather than a legislative kinsmen?; :; cf. ; see ).
vein (for :, an apparent exception, Bedouin (q.v.) shirkers plead preoccupation
compare :; :). Exhortations to with their flocks (amwāl) and families
fight abound ( :; :, ; :; :, ( :; see ). Some turn their
, ; :, etc). Those who emigrate (see backs in actual battle ( :; :f.;
; ) :f.).
and strive for the cause with their wealth All lack of martial zeal is debited to base
(q.v.) and their lives are promised rich re- motives. The blind, sick, weak and des-
wards, not least when they fall in God’s titute are of course exempted ( :;
path (e.g. :; :; :f., see :; see ;
; ). ) but shirkers are sick
They rank higher than those who sit at of heart (q.v.; :), unwilling to be in-
home ( :), just as those who joined the convenienced by long journeys ( :) or
fighting before the victory rank higher than heat ( :), keen to stay at home with
those who joined after it ( :; cf. :; their women ( :, ), reluctant to con-
see ). Fighting and⁄or tribute even though they are rich ( :,
striving in God’s path is described as sell- , ), cowards who anticipate defeat
ing the present life to God for the hereafter ( :; see ; ), who are
( :; :), a loan that will be repaid scared of death (cf. :f.; :) and
many times over ( :; :; cf. :; who would boast (q.v.) of their luck if the
:) and a commerce that will deliver expedition were hit by disaster but wish
from painful chastisement ( :f.; see that they had been present when things
; ). went well ( :f.); if they were Bedouin
Whatever one spends, God will repay in (q.v.), they are only interested in booty
full ( :). (q.v.; :). Such people are liars
The response to these appeals is fre- ( :; cf. :), hypocrites ( :),
458
cursed by God for only obeying part of those of little faith ( :f.). Here as so
what he sent down ( :), closer to un- often, the unbelievers seem to be members
belief than to faith ( :), indeed out- of the party deemed lacking in commit-
right unbelievers ( :; :; cf. :f.), ment to the cause.
who are really fighting for āghūt ( :, cf.
:; see ; ); they will The objectives of war
be cast into a blazing fire (q.v.; :) and Opponents have wronged the believers by
hell is to be their abode ( :; see breaking their oaths and plotting to expel
). Some people who have or kill the messenger ( :; :; :)
been granted permission to stay behind, a and by actually expelling both him ( :;
decision now regretted, are singled out for :) and the believers without right, just
particular attention in increasingly sharp for saying “God is our lord” (q.v.; e.g.
terms ( :-). But the Bedouin who :; cf. :, f.); they have also
stayed behind are promised a second blocked access to the sanctuary ( :;
chance: they will be called against a mighty :; see ). The objec-
people and rewarded if they obeyed tive of war is to avenge these wrongs, to
( :). The believers in general are told help the weak men, women and children
that if they would not go forth, God will left behind ( :; see
punish them and choose another people , ), to expel the people in control
( :). If they think their fathers, sons, of the sanctuary as they expelled the be-
brothers, wives, kinsmen, trade and lievers ( :), to put an end to fitna (trial
houses are more important than God, his or test, traditionally understood as persecu-
messenger, and jihād fī sabīl Allāh, then they tion, more probably communal division),
will eventually learn otherwise ( :). to make the religion entirely God’s
There is no need to be afraid. Death will ( :; :), to make his religion prevail
come at its appointed time, wherever one even if the polytheists dislike it ( :;
may be ( :), and God might restrain :; cf. :) and to punish the opponents:
the power of the unbelievers ( :); in one should fight them so that God might
any case, unbelievers, hypocrites and chastise them “at your hands” ( :);
People of the Book are all cowards who God will chastise them either on his own
will turn their backs (cf. :f.; :; (min indihi, presumably meaning by natural
:f.). disasters; see ; ) or
Attempts are also made to shame the be- “at our hands” ( :); he would have ex-
lievers into fighting by construing war as a acted retribution himself (see )
test: God could have avenged himself on if he had not decided to do it through the
his opponents but he wants the believers to believers to let them test one another
do it so that he and they can see their true ( :). The jizya verse stands out by en-
worth ( :, ). Most people have failed joining fighting until unbelieving People of
the test, as they had done back in the time the Book are reduced to tributary status
of Moses and Saul and David (q.v.; above), ( :). That the opponents will be de-
whose experiences clearly reflect the mes- stroyed is treated as certain: “How many a
senger’s own (see ). Misfor- city (q.v.) stronger than the one that ex-
tunes in battles are likewise cast as tests pelled you have we destroyed,” God says
( :f.; :f.). God alternates good ( :); “are your unbelievers better than
and bad days to purify the believers and to they?” ( :). And the objectives are in
destroy the unbelievers, i.e. to weed out fact achieved: God has expelled the un-
459
believing People of the Book from their Wissenschaft, Kunst und Technik (), -;
homes and their fortresses, banishing them W.M. Watt, Islamic conceptions of the holy war,
in T.P. Murphy (ed.), The holy war, Columbus,
( :f.); and he has fulfilled the vision he OH , -.
had granted the messenger by allowing the
believers to enter the sanctuary ( :),
though the presence of believing men and Warmth see
women there has caused him to withhold
his punishment ( :).
Warner
Exegesis
The exegetes understood the qurānic One who foretells the (negative) conse-
verses on war as legislation regarding the quences of actions. The Arabic word nadhīr
Islamic duty of jihād and typically treated (pl. nudhur) appears no fewer than fifty-
each verse as an independent unit for eight times in the Qurān, scarcely less fre-
which the context was to be found in the quently than the verb andhara (including
tradition rather than the Qurān itself. For nominal and adjectival forms, particularly
the result, see , , mundhir) from which it derives, and nearly
, and the further cross-references always in the sense of “warner” (cf. Lisān
given there. al-Arab, xiv, ). As Watt puts it (Muham-
mad at Mecca, ), the verb “describes the
Patricia Crone action of informing a person of something
of a dangerous, harmful, or fearful nature,
Bibliography so as to put him on his guard against it or
(in addition to the classical commentaries on the put him in fear (q.v.) of it” (see also
verses cited above): H. Busse, The Arab conquest
in revelation and politics, in (), -;
;
R. Firestone, Jihād. The origin of holy war in Islam, ). Particularly in the lan-
New York ; M.K. Haykal, al-Jihād wa-l-qitāl guage of the sīra (see
fī l-siyāsati l-shariyya, Beirut ; A.A. Jannatī, ), andhara is also used to describe the
Defense and jihad in the Qur’an, in al-Tawīd
(), -; M.J. Kister, An yadin (Qurān Prophet’s foreknowledge — his “giving
IX⁄). An attempt at interpretation, in Arabica notice” — of future events (see -
(), -; A. Morabia, Le Ǧihād dans l’Islam ; ; ) and as such
médiéval. Le “combat sacré” des origines au XII e siècle,
can be counted as one of the signs (q.v.; see
Paris ; M. Muahhari, Jihad in the Qurān,
in M. Abedi and G. Legenhausen (eds.), Jihād and also ) of his prophethood (Ibn Isāq,
shahādat. Struggle and martyrdom in Islam, Houston Sīra, i, ; Ibn azm, Jawāmi al-sīra, f.;
, -; A. Noth, Heiliger Krieg und heiliger see ).
Kampf in Islam und Christentum, Bonn ; H.T.
Obbink, De heilige oorlog volgens den Koran, Leiden The primary sense of nadhīr in pre-
; Abdallāh b. Amad al-Qādirī, al-Jihād fī qurānic Arabic seems to have been con-
sabīli llāh. aqīqatuhu wa-ghāyatuhu, Jeddah ; nected to warfare: the nadhīr al-jaysh⁄
U. Rubin, Barāa. A study of some quranic
al-qawm is usually described as the scout
passages, in (), -; A. Sachedina,
The development of jihād in Islamic revelation who warned the main force of the enemy’s
and history, in J.T. Johnson and J. Kelsay (eds.), presence (see ; ), a usage that
Cross, crescent and sword, New York , -; continues in the Islamic period (see Bevan,
A. Schleifer, Jihād and traditional Islamic
consciousness, in (), -;
Naāid, , “one who gives the alarm,” and
F. Schwally, Der heilige Krieg des Islam in , “a warner”; Ibn Qutayba, Uyūn, i,
religionsgeschichtlicher und staatsrechtlicher ; Wensinck, Concordance, s.v. andhara). It
Beleuchtung, in Internationale Monatsschrift für
is apparently this sense that lies behind the