SMART ANTENNA ADVANTAGES Smart antennas can help systems meet these requirements in the following manner: First,

both phased andadaptive arrays provide increased power by providing higher gain for the desired signal. Phased arrays usenarrow pencil beams, particularly with a large number of antenna elements at higher frequencies, to providehigher gain (power) in the direction of the desired signal. Adaptive arrays place a main beam in the directionof the desired signal for an M-fold power gain with M antenna elements.In terms of interference suppression, phased arrays reduce the probability of interference with the narrowerbeam, and adaptive arrays adjust the beam pattern to suppress interference. For multipath mitigation, smartantennas can provide diversity, of which there are three basic types: spatial, polarization, and angle (orpattern) diversity. The WTEC study concludes that the major research issues for smart antennas are the following: cost (including power and electronics) size diversity tracking spatial-temporal processing hooks in international standards to include provisions for smart antennas vertical integration/interdisciplinary research Of these, interdisciplinary research incorporating smart antennas was considered to be the key to the greatest gains, but very little of this type of research is currently being conducted because of the difficulty of the required interactions. 25.2 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SMART ANTENNAS The development of smart antennas began in the late 1950s. The term adaptive array was first coined by Van Atta10 in 1959 to describe a self-phased array. Self-phased arrays merely reflected all incident signals back in the direction of arrival by using phase conjugation schemes. Self-phasing has alternatively been called retrodirection. Self-phased arrays are instantaneously adaptive arrays since they essentially reflect the incident signal in a fashion similar to the classic corner reflector.Phase-locked loop (PLL) systems were incorporated into arrays in the 1960s in an effort to construct better retrodirective arrays.11 PLLs are still used in single beam scanning systems.12Adaptive sidelobe cancellation (SLC) was first proposed by Howells13,14 in 1959. This technique allowed for interference nulling, thus raising the signal-to-interference ratio. The Howells SLC was the first adaptive scheme that allowed for automatic interference nulling. By maximizing the generalized signal-to-noise ratio, Applebaum developed the algorithm governing adaptive interference cancellation,15,16 which is now referred to as the HowellsApplebaum algorithm. At the same time, through the use of least mean squares (LMS), Widrow and others applied self-training to adaptive arrays.17,18 The Howells-Applebaum and Widrow algorithms are both steepest-descent/gradient-search methods that converge to the optimum Wiener solution. The convergence rate of these methods is dependent upon the eigenvalue spread19 such that larger spreads require longer convergence times. The convergence time constant is given by Monzingo and Miller20:

ii=12 (25-1) where m = gradient step size li = ith eigenvalue Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use