Computational Methods for Electromagnetics (and Photonics)

Sailing He Division of Electromagnetic Engineering (also with Photonics Lab in Kista, KTH-ZJU Joint Research Centre of Photonics) E-mail: sailing@kth.se Tel: 08-7908465
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Course introduction
Twelve Lectures
My part of lectures: Lecture 1: Introduction to CEM . Lecture 9: Detailed application examples of CEM, from Stealth to Cloaking, from RF antennas to optical nano-antennas, Computational project on waveguides. Lecture 10: Application examples of FDTD for resonators, etc., Lecture 11: CEM for planar lightwave circuits, photonics, etc. .

Four Lab Works

TA: Ning Zhu, ningz@kth.se , tel. 790 4266 (Kista)

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Lecture 1. Introduction to Computational Electromagnetics

I. Brief introduction to Computational Electromagnetics (CEM); II. Classification of Computational Methods; III. Some Applications IV. Challenging Problems

I. Brief introduction to CEM

Three Stages of EM Simulations

The Stage of Closed-Form Solutions

(paper and pen)

The Stage of Approximate Solutions

(calculator, computer)

The Stage of Numerical Solutions

(computer, super computer)
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The Stage of Closed-Form Solutions

After the Maxwells equations were published in 1864, and in the beginning of 1900s, many closed-form solutions have been obtained: Mie, ca. 1900: Mie series solution of scattering by a sphere (separation of variables) Lord Rayleigh, 1897: Guided-wave solution in a hollow waveguide (separation of variables) Lord Rayleigh: Rayleigh scattering by small particles
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The Stage of Approximate Methods

High-Frequency Methods Geometrical Optics (GO) Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD) Uniform Theory of Diffraction (UTD) Physical Optics (PO) Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD) Shooting and Bouncing Ray (SBR): XPATCH combination of High-Frequency and Numerical Methods. High-frequency methods are ray-based methods, which require information of shadow region and illuminated region.
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The Stage of Numerical Methods

Age of numerical methods: MOM, FDTD, FEM Yee, 1966; Harrington, 1968; Silvester, 1972; Rao, Wilton & Glisson, 1982; Mittra, 1980+; Taflove, 1980+.
Differential Equation Solvers (FDTD, FEM) Integral Equation Solvers (MoM, BIM)

Z I = V
The radiation condition at infinity is emulated by the use of absorbing boundary conditions (ABC), such as Perfect Matched Layer (PML)

Many numerical methods started in the electromagnetic community, 7 and later spread to other communities and become popular

Impact of EM simulations
Biomedical Engineering & BioTech Nanophootnics Wireless Comm. & Propagation RCS Analysis, Design, ATR & Stealth Technology Physics Based Signal Processing & Imaging Computer Chip Design & Circuits Lasers & Optoelectronics

New Materials (metamaterials)

EM SIMULATIONS

MEMS & Microwave Engineering Remote Sensing & Subsurface Sensing & NDE
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Antenna Analysis & Education Design

EMC/EMI Analysis

Whats the CEM?

Computational electromagnetics (CEM)
refers to the process of modeling the interaction of electromagnetic fields with physical objects and the environment, in which computationally efficient approximations to Maxwell's Equations are typically used.

Solving a Complex Problem Needs

Electromagnetic Physics: A correct and efficient problem definition A good physical insight within calculations A good physical model can reduce complexity Mathematics A correct and efficient mathematical description Mathematical analysis: convergence, stability, conditioning, error analysis, error control Computer Science Efficient algorithms for the math problem Efficient memory arrangement: shared memory and local memory Parallelization of computers and interprocessor communications

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Basic Theory in Electromagnetics

The most elegant equations in the universe.

E =

B t D H = J+ t D = B = 0 J + =0 t B = H D = E

Faradays Law Amperes Law Gausss Law No magnetic charge Current Continuity Constitute Relation
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
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with Boundary Conditions

n1 H1 + n2 H 2 = J s E n + E n = M 1 1 s 2 2 n1 D1 + n2 D2 = s n1 B1 + n2 B2 = ms

1 2

n1

n2

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Solving Maxwells Equations

Time Domain Frequency Domain

Fourier transform

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Time vs. Frequency Domain

Time domain:
Broadband simulation/frequency sweep Nonlinear material modeling Transient phenomena

Frequency domain:
Multiple excitation/angular sweep Dispersive material modeling Steady state phenomena
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II. The Classification of CEM

Analytical methods Numerical Methods
Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD); Finite Element Method (FEM); Method of Moments (MoM); Beam Propagation Method (BPM) -- Lecture 11;
Transmission-line modeling; Monte Carlo method;

Hybrid Methods
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CEM Overview

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(Labs 2 and 4 with commercial softwares) Method of moments (Harrington, 1960s) Integral equation based Versatile geometry handling Small number of unknowns Finite Difference Time Domain Method (Yee, 1960s) Differential equation based Simplicity Large number of unknowns Sparse matrix system
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Numerical Methods

(1). Method of Moments (MoM)

MoM for EM Problems
Derive integral equation (IE) Convert the IE into a matrix equation using basis functions and weighting functions Evaluate matrix elements Solve the matrix equation and obtain the poarameters of interest

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Conducting Cylinders, TM case

Consider a perfectly conducting cylinder excited by an impressed electric field Ezi

y
dl

P P

o
C

The impressed field induces surface currents Jz on the conducting cylinder, which produce a scattered field Ezs.
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Conducting Cylinders, TM case

The field due to Jz is given by

E zs ( ) =

k ( J z ( ) H 0 2 ) ( k )dl 4 C

On the cylinder surface C, the boundary condition is

E z = E zi + E zs = 0, on C
k ( J z ( ) H 0 2 ) ( k )dl = 0 on C E ( ) 4 C
i z

k ( J z ( ) H 0 2 ) ( k )dl , on C E ( ) = 4 C
i z

where

E zi ( )

is known and

Jz

is the unknown to be determined.

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Method of Moments
Consider inhomogeneous equation

Lf = g

(*)

L: operator g: excitation (source) (known function) f: field or response (unknown function to be determined)

~ N f = an un
n =1

(**)

an : constant un : expansion (basis) functions

For exact solutions the summation is usually infinite and un form a complete set of basis functions For approximate solutions the summation is usually finite.

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Method of Moments
Substitude (**) in (*) and use the linearity of L

a Lu
n

=g

n Now define a set of weighting functions or testing functions, w1,w2, w3 ,... n the range of L, take the inner product with each wm.

wm , Lun = wm , g , m = 1,2,3,...
w1 , Lu2 w2 , Lu2 ... ... ... ...

n This set of equations can be written in matrix form:

[lmn ][an ] = [gm ]

w1 , g [gm ] = w2 , g
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w1 , Lu1 [lmn ] = w2 , Lu1 ...

a1 [an ] = a2

More About MoM

MOM is an old topic, which was proposed by Harrington in 1966. However, new bloods have been put in MOM in the past decades. For Basis Function (for PEC, for example):
Rao-Wilton-Glisson (RWG) basis , triangular patch (1982)

High-order basis, triangular patch or quadr. patch High-order basis, curvelinear triangular patch Wire-surface junction Surface-surface junction New physics-based basis functions

Fewer Unknowns, Complicated Evaluation

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Download software Feko-lite: http://www.feko.info/sales

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CADFeko

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Basic steps Establish the model in CADFEKO

Create CAD geometry using canonical structures and perform boolean operations on these. Add the properties, e.g. dielectric constant, coating, conductivity Set solution parameters (e.g. frequency, loads). Set excitations (e.g. frequency, loads). e.g. far-fields, near-fields, S-parameters, SAR analysis Create mesh (surface and volume meshes) from CAD geometries. Add the excitation

Add the request for results Mesh and Calculation

Once the model preparation is complete (geometry, mesh, excitations and calculation requests), the Solution is obtained by running the solver FEKO.
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Lab 2. Design a rectangle patch antenna of a given size (10cmx7.8cm) working at 915MHz on a substrate with r = 4.4, h = 1.55mm The patch is located at the middle of the substrate (20cmx15cm). Find the best feeding point (i.e., |S11| is minimal and at least less than -10dB when the input port impedance is 50 ). Show the far field radiation and S-parameters of the antenna

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(2). FDTD Method

The acronym of FDTD stands for Finite Difference Time Domain. first developed by Kane S. Yee in 1966. A method to simulate electromagnetic wave propagation in any kind of materials (including metals with dispersion). Very useful tool for simulating waves in subwavelength scale object (e.g. near-field optics).
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Electromagnetic wave H = E t E = H t
F F ( x + x / 2 ) F ( x x / 2) = x x
Finite difference scheme (discretization)

finitedifference approximation

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Yees mesh
electric field points are spatially half-grid offset from the magnetic field points.

1 cell

F ( x, y , z , t ) = F (i x, j y , k z , nt ) = F n (i, j, k )
In 1966, K. S. Yee in the first time presented the finite difference approximation of Maxwells equations. These formulas are called Yees formulas. This method is called Finite Difference Time Domain now.
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FDTD method
Maxwell equation for plane wave traveling in the positive z direction (in one dimension): E H H E = , = z z t t time-stepping in the discretized form:
n 1 1 1 n 1 2 2 E (k ) = E (k ) C EXLZ H y k + H y k 2 2 1 1 n+ 1 n 1 2 2 H y k + = H y k + C HYLZ E xn (k + 1) E xn (k 1) 2 2
n x n 1 x

}
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C EXLZ

t = z

C HYLZ

t = z

Algorithm

This flow chart often called Leap-flog Algorithm

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FDTD Results
what will you see with FDTD?
a movie of the field propagating in or being scattered by the object.

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interaction with a human head

FDTD simulation: Cell phone

Cell phone interaction with the human head. Digested from: Recom Inc. Website: http://www.recomic.com/html/index.html.
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A commercial software for FDTD simulation: OptiFDTD

OptiFDTD is a powerful, highly integrated, and user friendly CAD environment that enables the design and simulation of advanced passive and non-linear photonic components.

Some applications:
Waveguide-based planar light circuits such as splitters, couplers and resonators Photonic band gap materials and devices Surface plasmon devices Nonlinear materials and dispersive materials

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Main components of OptiFDTD

Designer
Creates a layout of devices on a wafer.

Simulator
Processes data in designer files, monitors the progress and stores the results.

Analyzer
Loads and analyzes the result files by simulator.

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Designer
Very user-friendly CAD interface, in which you can easily draw your structures. Conveniently switching between different views.

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Simulator and Analyzer

Edit parameters

You can edit any simulation parameters in simulator. In simulation, an animation of what is happening makes you intuitively understand the phenomenon. Analyzer offers you convenient tools for dealing with the data provided by the simulator.
Simulating Data analyzing

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Lab 4. 2D ring resonator

You are required to design a ring resonator in 2D case based on the provided materials, which acts like a filter for specific resonant wavelengths. You need to optimize the structure parameters, such as the radius of the ring, distance between the waveguides, etc. You can use the commercial software for the simulation and test your own design.

schematic diagram for a ring resonator

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Commercial FDTD Codes are found on the Web:

APLAC http://www.aplac.hut.fi/aplac/general.html Apollo Photonics http://www.apollophoton.com/ Applied Simulation Technology http://www.apsimtech.com/ CFD Research http://www.cfdrc.com/datab/software/maxwell/maxwell.html Cray http://lc.cray.com/ Empire http://www.empire.de/ EMS Plus http://www.ems-plus.com/ezfdtd.html ETH http://www.iis.ee.ethz.ch/research/bioemc/em_simulation_platform.en.html Optima Research http://www.optimaresearch.com/Software/Waveguide/fullwave.htm Optiwave http://www.optiwave.com/ Quick Wave http://www.ire.pw.edu.pl/ztm/pmpwtm/qw3d/ Remcom http://www.remcominc.com/html/index.html RSoft http://www.rsoftinc.com/fullwave_info.htm Schmid http://www.semcad.com/solver_performance.html Vector Fields http://www.vectorfields.com/concerto.htm Virtual Science http://www.virtualscience.co.uk/celia/Celia_code/celia_home.htm Zeland Software http://www.zeland.com/fidelity.html

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References:

Yee, K. S., Numerical solution of initial boundary value problems involving Maxwells equations in isotropic media, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. 14, 1966, pp. 302-307. A. Taflove, Computational Electrodynamics-The Finite Difference Time-Domain Method, Norwood: Artech House, 2005.

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III. Some Applications

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1. Applications in Microwave Antenna

Dipoles--the Simplest Antennas

III. Some Applications

Real-time evolution of the electric field of an oscillating electric dipole

base station
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Pictures form http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Common Commercial Softwares for Antenna Simulation

FEKO
Method of Moments (MoM)

CST Microwave Studio HFSS XFDTD

Finite-Volume Time-Domain (FVTD) method Finite Element Method (FEM) Finite Difference time-domain Methods (FDTD)
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Reflector Antennas

National Radio Astronomy Observatory in U.S

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Patch Antenna
FR4 substrate microstrip fed air substrate coaxial line fed

PIFA (Planar Inverted-F Antenna)

shorted patch

ground plane

feeding probe
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Example I : UWB (Ultra-Wide Band) Antenna (using HFSS software)

Antenna Structure
Animated Current Distribution

VSWR

Bandwidth: VSWR < 1.5

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Radiation Patterns (H plane)

3GHz
90 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -80 180 0 150 30 120 60

10GHz
90 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -80 180 0 150 30 120 60

-60 -40 -20 0 240 270 300 210 330

-60 -40 -20 0 240 270 300 210 330

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Example II: E Shaped Patch Antenna (using CST)

Antenna Structure Model in CST

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Broad band formed by 3 resonances

Return Loss

f1=2.252GHz f3=2.553GHz f2=2.422GHz

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f1=2.252GHz

E field and surface current

Animate Current Distribution 3D pattern

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f1=2.422GHz

E field and surface current

Animate Current Distribution 3D pattern

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f1=2.553GHz

E field and surface current

Animate Current Distribution 3D pattern

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Array Applications
array antenna on F22 combat aircraft

microstrip fed planar phase array

reflector antenna array

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2. Radar Applications
RCS (Radar cross section) is the unit of measure of how detectable an object is with a radar. For example, a stealth aircraft (which is designed to be undetectable) will have design features that give it a low RCS, as opposed to a passenger airliner that will have a high RCS. In particular, an article on stealth provides an overview of various methods used in designing aircraft so that they are more difficult to detect.
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A USAF B-2 Spirit in flight

Concept of pulse radar

http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/electronics/q0168.shtml 56

1. The power transmitted in the direction of the target 2. The amount of power that impacts the target and is reflected back in the direction of the radar 3. The amount of reflected power that is intercepted by the radar antenna 4. The length of time in which the radar is pointed at the target

Factors that determine the energy returned by a target

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Typical RCS diagram

T-33 jet trainer

T-33 medianized radar cross section

T-33 radar cross section

Website: http://www.cst.com/ 58

Invisible (transparent) cloaking with metamaterials (n=0)

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Obtain macroscopic (effective) material parameters from an artificial structure of microscopic elements through CEM

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Our world (refractive index n>0)

Positive refraction n>0

>0.5

slab: defocusing

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Metamaterials with negative refractive index

3 decades agoVeselago predicted theoretically
permittivity<0 permeability<0 refractive index n<0

n<0

slab: focusing
V.G. Veselago, Sov. Phys. Usp. 10, 509, 1968
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First experiment for metamaterial with n<0 ---- at microwave frequencies

lattice of split ring resonators

SCIENCE VOL 292 6 APRIL 2001

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Negative permeability at 100 THz

(metals permittivity is already negative at optical frequencies)
Au

Retrieved real part of Effective Permeability

M. Wegener et al., Science 306, 1351 (2004)

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Can be applied to both simple and complicated structures

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66

Cloaking, realized with SRRs

First experimental demonstration of cloaking at 8.5GHz

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Cloak OFF

Cloak ON

Non-magnetic cloak @ 632.8nm with silver wires in silica

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3. Circuit design
(1). Microwave circuits.
Waveguide based on Split Ring Resonators (SRRs) (with CST STUDIO SUITE)

Dual band-rejection filter

Overall size: 15mm*10mm Rejection bands: 2.47~2.7GHz, 4.7~5.3GHz

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Current distribution

f = 2.5GHz

f = 5GHz

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(2). Electronic integrated circuits

Package (SiP), shown in figure 1 and imported from the CDS Cad design System, consists of copper (lossy metal), polyimide and Silicon with bond wires and through vias.

Applications in EMC Transient Simulation of a System-in-

(with CST STUDIO SUITE)

System-in-Package model with material definitions

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Figure 2 shows the discrete port assignment for the power suppy pin (1) and the signal pins (2,3,4,5).

Definition of the discrete ports in the SiP model

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Figure 4 shows an animated field plot of the surface currents at 10GHz as a function of phase. Surface currents in the SiP at 10 GHz for Port 1 excitation - some materials have been hidden for clarity
Pictures from http://www.cst.com 73

a bad design may result in:

Breakdown

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(3). Photonic Integrated Circuits

Optical Coupler. Waveguide ports have been defined at
the waveguide feeds. The ring and feed lines are defined with a dielectric constant of 9. The frequency range simulated was between 170 THz and 250 THz.

Geometry of the Optical Coupler with Waveguide Ports

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frequency dependent behaviour of the field. Ports 3 and 4 are isolated at 211.6 THz whereas ports 1 and 2 are isolated at 250 THz. E-Field Plot at 211.6 THz

E-Field Plot at 250 THz

Website: http://www.cst.com/ 76

Ultra-compact resonator filter

Here is an ultra-compact thermally-tunable microring resonator filter with a submicron heater on silicon nanowires.
metal Through SiO2 Si
metal

pad

Input

pad
SiO2 insulator layer

Output

Si core SiO2 up-cladding

The 3D view of schematic configuration of the present tunable MRR filter J. Lightwave Technol. 26(6): 704-709, 2008.
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Through

100m

R
100m

Heater Pad

wg

Heater Pad
Input Drop

T-junction wtp Ltp Lmid wT Ltp

the designed mask and the details of the structure

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TE Lmid=0.4m Ltp=1m wT=0.2m

TM Lmid=0.4m Ltp=1m wT=0.2m

(a)

(b)

The 2D-FDTD simulated light propagation in an optimally designed T-junction for (a) TE polarization; (b) TM polarization.

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Thermal characteristics
numerically solve the Laplacian Equation with appropriate boundary conditions.
cladding

Unit:C n (dB/cm) Loss eff

2.54 2.52 2.5 2.48 2.46

TE TM

y (m)

Si core

SiO2 insulator

2.44 0 1 2

x (m)

P (mW)

3 4 Power(mW)

T(x,y) @ P=5mW:

Below heater: 350C Core: 152C~155C

neff/P: ~0.00644 mW-1 P=5mW neff=0.0322, ~ 20nm from =(neff/neff)

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The spectral response (TE) as power increases

0 -10 -20
(a) 0mW

0 -10 -20 1580

(b) 1mW

spectrum (dB)

res:1551.7nm -30 1550 1560 1570

0 -10 -20

(c) 2mW

res:1555.3nm -30 1550 1560 1570 1580 0 (d) 3mW -10

-30 1550 1560 1570 0 res:1567.35nm -10 -20 -30 1550 1560

res:1559.1nm

-20 1580
res:1563.1nm -30 1550 1560 1570 1580 0 res:1571.8nm -10

Power: 0mW 5mW, 1551.7nm 1571.8nm, : ~20nm; IL: ~0.25dB; Extinction ratio: >20dB; Q(=/): ~1000;
3 4 l44 4 3

(e) 4mW

-20 -30 1550 1560

(f) 5mW

1570

1580

1570

1580

wavelength (nm)

Higher Q: decrease the coupling by

increasing the gap width. E.g., Gap=200nm.

Q~104

when
1

Gap
2 l22 2 1 81

IV. Challenging Problems

Scattering by an airplane

Current distribution
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Faster solver for a very large object

Example: Fast Multipole Method Currents are induced on a PEC scatterer illuminated by a source. The induced currents adjust themselves to cancel the incident field. Hence, every current element needs to talk to the other elements.
Js

Einc

PEC

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Fast Multipole Method

One-Level Algorithm
all current elements talk directly to each other. The number of links is proportional to N 2 , where N is the number of current elements. => large matrix

Two-Level Algorithm
hubs are established to reduce the number of direct links between the current elements.

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Multi-Level Algorithm

Fast Multipole Method (contd)

A tree structure showing the procedure to form a multilevel algorithm. (N log N)

"Efficient MLFMA, RPFMA and FAFFA Algorithms for EM Scattering by Very Large Structures, IEEE Transactions on Antennas Propagation, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 759-770, March 2004.

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an airplane hit by lightning:

(with CST STUDIO SUITE)

Lightning strikes most commonly occur in clouds: either inter- or intra-cloud or cloud-to-ground. The simulation of indirect lightning effects on structures with metallic shells The lightning strike, modelled by the shown double exponential waveform, is applied to the nose of the aircraft using a discrete current port. A 300 Ohm load from the tail to the electric boundary forms the discharge channel.
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The surface current magnitude on the aircraft due to the lightning strike is shown as it varies in time.
Pictures from http://www.cst.com 87

CEM for a tank

On the ground

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Car communications

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90

Homework: Derive the boundary conditions on page 12 from Maxwells equations (on page 11).

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