Roman numeration systems.

The use of Roman numerals has been mathematically obsolete for more than 1100 years. Roman numerals are a numeral system of ancient Rome based on letters of the alphabet, which are combined to signify the sum of their values. The form of Roman numeration used today was established during the middle Ages in Western Europe. It is derived from the systems actually used in Roman times, but with certain improvements. The system is decimal but not directly positional and does not include a zero. It is a cousin of the Etruscan numerals, and the letters derive from earlier non-alphabetical symbols; over time the Romans came to identify the symbols with letters of their Latin alphabet.

Roman numerals are commonly used in numbered lists (such as the outline format of an article), clock faces, pages preceding the main body of a book, chord triads in music analysis, the numbering of movie publication dates, months of the year, successive political leaders or children with identical names, and the numbering of annual events.

Symbol The Roman notation is based on 7 fundamental figures and 6 groups base:

7 fundamental figures I 1 V 5 X 10 L 50 C 100 D 500 M 1000

6 groups base: IV 4 IX 9 XL 40 XC 90 CD 400 CM 900

These groups the figure to left has stolen from that to the right (IV=4=5-1). The other numbers are gotten with varied combinations of the seven fundamental symbols and of the six groups base. The groups base is the only cases in which a number with a subtraction is pointed out, 49 is not written with the IL symbol (50-1), but must be written XLIX (40+9). The Roman numbers are written putting to the right of a fundamental figure or of a basic group the other necessary figures, so that the add of all the written figures are equal to the number that wants to be pointed out.

XCIX CI CIV DXXXVII DCXL

= = = = =

99 101 104 537 640

Any particular rules; the first 3 multiples of the symbols base the X, C, M, is gotten repeating the symbols. For instance XX = 20, XXX = 30, these symbols could be repeated only three times. The symbols V, L, D, ever are not repeated. With these rules the taller number that could be written is 3999 = MMMCMXCIX (3000+900+90+9) and in fact the M symbol could not be repeated more than three times, and there is not no fundamental superior to M. For go on the numeration, the Romans used a particular adroitness, setting a line above the symbol and they with this understood to multiply the value of the numbers for 1000. For multiply a number for 100000 then, beyond to the superior line two vertical lines were added him || such from frame it.

The symbols are repeated to form larger numbers, and when different symbols are combined, the larger unit precedes the smaller. Thus VIII represents 8, CLXXX is 180, and MMDCCXXV is 2725. To shorten the length of such numbers a "subtraction rule" appeared in later Roman times and was commonly used in medieval times. The "subtraction rule" allows the use of six compound symbols in which a smaller unit precedes the larger:

IV = 4

IX = 9

XL = 40

XC = 90

CD = 400

CM = 900

Using these symbols, 949 are written more compactly as CMXLIX. (Other "subtracted" symbols are not allowed. Thus 99 must write XCIX, not IC.) The use of subtracted symbols was never mandatory, so IIII and IV can be used interchangeably for 4.

Actually, the symbols D (500) and M (1000) were originally written using a vertical stroke with surrounding arcs These arcs can only be approximated on this page by using parentheses. D appeared as I ) and M as ( I ). This system allowed powers of ten larger than 1000 to be written by increasing the number of arcs: 10 000 was written (( I )) and 100 000 was written ((( I ))). The Romans had no word for 1000 000 and rarely considered numbers of that size or larger. In late Roman and medieval times, after D and M were adopted as the symbols for 500 and 1000, a custom arose of writing a bar over a number to multiply that number by 1000. Thus 10 000 became X with a bar over it and 100 000 became C with a bar over it. These "over barred" symbols are almost never seen today.

Roman numerals continued in use in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire, and they remained in general use for centuries after our modern number system became available. As we see, their use in certain applications continues even today.

Place-value systems.

A place-value system assigns a certain value to the spatial location of a number in a series. For example, in the decimal system, a number's position relative to others in a series defines its category as being in the tens, hundreds, thousands, tenthousands, and so on. In the number 1,234, the "4" occupies the slot representing zero through 9, the "3" occupies the slot representing 10 through 99, the "2" occupies the slot representing 100 through 999, and the "1" occupies the slot representing 1000 through 9999.

Place value systems are important because they make common arithmetic functions much more efficient. If people are to manipulate spatial symbols readily, they need a

method that is simple, consistent, and symmetrical so that numbers can be lined up visually and quickly grouped at a glance according to their value. Without the place values of the decimal system, simple arithmetic functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are enormously difficult because they are intimidating, time-consuming, overly complicated, and prone to error.

The Roman numeral system (I, II, III, IV...) did not have place value that is the same symbol has the same value no matter where it is and it makes simple arithmetic functions very difficult to perform for most people. There also no column indication of place value that the decimal numbering system has where each column of numbers represents a place value such as 1's, 10's, etc. the current usage of Roman Numerals does group similar place values together. The place values used can be understood to be based on base 10 with characters for groups of 5's introduced as well.

Base.

Every numeration system is founded on some number as its base. The base of a system can be thought of as the highest number to which one can count without repeating any previous number. In the decimal system used in most parts of the world today, the base is 10. Counting in the decimal system involves the use of ten different digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. To count beyond 9, one uses the same digits over againbut in different combinations: a 1 with a 0, a 1 with a 1, a 1 with a 2, and so on. The base chosen for a numeration system often reflects actual methods of counting used by humans. For example, the decimal system may have developed because most humans have ten fingers. An easy way to create numbers, then, is to count off one's ten fingers, one at a time. The more used numeration is that to base 10. In most ancient system of numeration the base was 5, because 5 are the fingers of the hand. The numbers, for written,

they were suitable with of the dots or of the lines engraved on tablets of clay or papyruses.

The Roman notation was base 5 and 10. These two numbers are pointed out with the V signs and X and the single unity, suitable with the sign I, additions were considered or subtracted one had positioned to their right or left.

II

III

IV

VI

VII

VIII

IX

XI

XII

If we define those suitable from the small numbers of the base like unity of 1 order, the same base is a unity of 2 order. The ancient considered unity of order also superior and they pointed out it with special signs. The Romans, for example they hollow out with the letters L, C, D, M, the superior groups to 50, 100, 500, 1000 unit.

Limitations

Limitations in numerations system mean the weakness of the numerations system. For the Roman numerations system the number zero did not have its own Roman numeral, but a primitive form (nulla) was known by medieval computists (responsible for calculating the date of Easter). They included zero (via the Latin word nulla meaning "none") as one of nineteen epacts, or the age of the moon on March 22. The first three epacts were nullae, xi, and xxii (written in minuscule or lower case). The first known computist to use zero was Dionysius Exiguus in 525. Only one instance of a Roman numeral for zero is known. About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nullae, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.

Roman numerations systems are an additive system. It is because there are no place values in roman numeration systems so they introduced two new attributes, there is subtractive principle and multiplicative principle.

Subtractive Principle:

Any numeral is counted positively unless there's a larger numeral anywhere to its right, in which case it is counted negatively. However, proper Roman numbers are subject to the following restrictions about the applicability of the subtractive principle.

The subtractive principle (a subtrahend preceding a minuend) may apply: Only to a numeral (the subtrahend) which is a power of ten (I, X or C). For example, "VL" is not a valid representation of 45 (XLV is correct). Only when the subtrahend preceeds a minuend no more than ten times larger. For example, "IL" is not a valid representation of 49 (XLIX is correct). Only if any numeral preceeding the subtrahend is at least ten times larger. For example, "VIX" is not a valid representation of 14 (XIV is correct), and "IIX" is not correct for 8 (VIII is correct). Only if any numeral following the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend. For example, "XCL" is not a valid representation of 140 (CXL is correct).

Multiplicative Principle (medieval numeration only):

When the second of the above conditions was not met in front of an M (or C) numeral, a medieval convention was that the number to the left of M (or C) was the number of thousands (or hundreds) which was to be added to the number located to the right of M (or C). When this convention is intended, it's best to write M (or C) as a superscript (as explained below). For example, CM means 900, but LLM could only be 100000. (This latter example is rather dubious and not based on an historical instance.)

An ancient writer would probably have hesitated to use this multiplicative convention beyond XCIXM (99000) or XCIXMCMXCIX (99999).

Applications.

Nonetheless, the Roman symbols for numbers continue to be used in a variety of ways, most of them rather stereotyped: to mark the hours on clock faces, to number pages in the prefaces of books, to express copyright dates, and to count items in a series (such as the Super Bowls of U.S. professional football).

In Roman times, only the capital letters were used for number symbols. Later, after lower case letters came into use, Roman numbers were often written in lower case. Thus "vi" means 6 and "cxxii" means 122. Sometimes cases were even mixed, as in "Mcxl" for 1140. Furthermore, the lower case letter "j" was sometimes used in place of "i". A common custom was to write "j" for the last in a series of one's, as in "xiij" for 13.