GNU/Linux lOl

March 8, 2007

University of Tehran Linux Workshop

ACM Student Chapter

Steps Install Linux! Go into the Linux and walk around!

How can I change this or move that? I need HELP! Where is my pen? How can I change my key to this home? Search and find and view ..... It takes a lot of space! Any compressor? Who are working on this system? Who uses the CPU? What's the time? I want to use my USB, CD?

I want to write my own program!

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Linux Architecture Shell: a software that provides a kind of interface to the end-user
two kinds of shell in OS
Command Line Interface (CLI)
command.com (DOS) cmd.exe (Windows) sh, bash, csh, ksh (Linux & Unix)
User Apps Shells System Calls Kernel Hardware

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

CDE KDE GNOME XFCE

Shells CLI
faster that GUI on the same operations simpler in some cases good for administration (esp. remote) tasks and batch processing

GUI
user friendly more suitable for end-user and desktop

Managing and Displaying Windows X Window System

Started at MIT Basic windowing services
drawing moving windows on the screen interacting with input devices such as mouse, keyboard, touchpad

Follows a client/server architecture

protocol X11

No specification for the User Interface

User Interfaces Many Window Manager and UI

KDE; the most popular GNOME Xfce twm

They use X services to create a suitable GUI for user

File System One of most important part in an OS

Responsible for organizing, storing and accessing data on/from the storage media Directories to associate files with file names

File systems in Linux

XFS Ext2, Ext3 ReiserFS GFS, GFS2 NILFS, ...

Filesystem Structure Files are organized into directories Files and directories are arranged in one big tree rooted at '/' A Hirarachy (Tree) of directories
Filesystem Hirarchy Standard
specifies the usage of major directories such as /bin, /lib, /usr, /etc, ...

... Filesystem Structure /bin/ : Essential command binaries for all users (e.g., cat, ls, cp) /boot/ : Boot loader files (e.g., kernels, initrd) /dev/ : Essential devices (e.g., /dev/null, /dev/modem, /dev/mouse) /etc/ : Host-specific system-wide configuration files /home/ : Users' home directories

/lib/ : Libraries essential for the binaries in /bin/ and /sbin/

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... Filesystem Structure

/mnt/ : Temporarily mounted filesystems /proc/ : Virtual filesystem documenting kernel and process status, mostly text files (e.g., uptime, network) /root/ : Home directory for the root user /usr/ : Secondary hierarchy for user shareable, read-only data /var/ : Variable files, such as logs, databases, websites, and temporary e-mail files

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Bourne Again Shell (Bash) A command interpreter Developed in GNU Project based on Bourne Shell, sh, in Unix Incorporate many useful features from Korn and C Shell (ksh, csh) Simple with many capabilities

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Programs & Commands Commands are programs installed

except shell specific command

Command interpreter
take a command and its arguments from input process the command line find the program execute the program

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Moving Around cd destination_dir_path : change directory to destination_dir_path

shell specific command '.' represents current directory '..' represents parent directory destination_dir_path
relative : respect to current location in the file system absolute : a path starts with '/' /usr/local/Adobe-7.0

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... Moving Around pwd : print name of current/working directory '~' : represent Home directory of user cd without any parameter : change to user home dir cd - : change to the last visited directory

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Working in Bash Typical bash Prompt

[username@machine-name:current-dir]$

Ctrl-U: Erase line before cursor Ctrl-H: Erase a character before cursor Ctrl-D: Exit shell Ctrl-C: Terminate a running program Ctrl-Z: Temporarily stop program, EOF character Ctrl-S: Start incremental command history search

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... Working in Bash Ctrl-R: Start reverse incremental command history search up-down-arrow: Moving in command history TAB: Complete input of the filename to the command line Ctrl-V TAB: Input TAB without expansion to the command line Ctrl-Alt-Del: Reboot/halt the system

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Command Overview Syntax

command-name [OPTIONS] [FIELDS]

Case sensitive executing multiple command

command1; command2; ...

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Basic Linux Commands whoami

Display current user name

file file_name
Display a type of file for the file file_name

type commandname
Display information on command commandname

whatis commandname
Display one line explanation on command commandname

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List of Files and Directories ls

List contents of directory (non-dot files and directories)

ls -a
List contents of directory (all files and directories)

ls -A
List contents of directory (almost all files and directories, i.e., skip ".." and ".")

ls -l
List contents of directory in long format

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... ls ls [OPTIONS] [FILES]* Combining options

ls -Al

Colored output
ls --color=auto

Other useful options

-S : sort by file size -r : reverse sort result -R : list recursively -1 : one file per line -d : directory entries instead of content

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... Basic Linux Commands clear : clear the terminal screen passwd : change user password

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Files and Directories Manipulation mkdir dir_path

create directory dir_path dir_path can be absolute or relative

mkdir -p dir_path
create directory dir_path and all of its parents

rmdir dir_path
remove empty directory dir_path

rmdir -p dir_path
remove parents

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Copying touch FILES

change the modification time of each file to current time or create a file if not exists

cp [OPTIONS] SOURCE DEST [OPTIONS] SOURCE... DIRECTORY cp -r : recursive copy cp -v : verbos output cp -f : force overwrite cp -i : interactive mode, prompt before overwrite

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Removing rm [OPTIONS] FILES

remove files and directories

rm -r : remove dirs and their content recursively rm -f : never prompt rm -i : prompt before removal rm -v : explain what is being done Attention: use this command with care when you are logged in as root

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Moving mv [OPTIONS] SOURCE DEST [OPTIONS] SOURCE... DIRECTORY

rename or move files or directories

-f : force overwrite, no prompt -i : interactive -v : verbos output

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Viewing Content cat: concatenate files and print on the standard output
cat myprogram.cpp myprogram.h cat -n myprogram.cpp myprogram.h
number all output lines

less myprogram.cpp less -N myprogram.cpp

number lines

Or you can use more

more file_name
use space to scroll down

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Standard I/O Keyboard is the standard input

file descriptor number is 0

Screen is the standard output for both output messages and error messages
standard output file descriptor number is 1 standard error file descriptor number is 2

You can change the standard input by using <

cat < file

Changing the standard output

ls -al > file_list.txt
redirect the standard output of command `ls -al' to file `file_list.txt'

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... Standard I/O Changing the standard error

ls -al 2> error_messages.txt

Redirecting output and error separately

command 1> stdout.txt 2> stderr.txt

Redirecting both standard output and error

command &> output-error.txt

Appending
command >> output.txt

Feeding the whole output of ne program to another program

command1 | command2 ls -al | less
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Getting Help man commandname

show the manual for commandname

man systemcall_function man library_function man special_file_name manual sections

1 2 3 5 : Executable programs or shell commands : System calls : Library functions : Special files

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... Getting Help man [section] page

look for manual with name page in section

apropos KEYWORDS
search the manual page names and descriptions

man -k KEYWORDS
equivalent to apropos

commandname --help commandname -h

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Wildcards Working with group of files and directories without typing all of them

*
This matches any group of 0 or more characters This does not match a filename started with "."

?
This matches exactly one character

[...]
This matches exactly one character with any character enclosed in brackets

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... Wildcards [a-z]

This matches exactly one character with any character between a and z

[^...]
This matches exactly one character other than any character enclosed in brackets (excluding "^")

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Environment Variables $PATH $HOME echo $ENV_VAR_NAME

show the value

env
show all the environment variables

export ENV_VAR_NAME=value
create an environment variable with name ENV_VAR_NAME

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Aliasing For commonly used commands you can set a shorter command_name using alias alias new_cmd_name='command [options] [args]' Example:
alias ls='ls -h --color=auto' alias la='ls -al' cls='clear'

Unalias: remove an alias or all of them

unalias cls unalias -a
removes all the aliases from the current session

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Permissions Groups Owner and group of a file Access mode Changing the owner of files Changing the group of files Changing the access mode of files Adding user to a group

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... Permissions Why permission?

control access of users and groups to the files and directories

File attributes
Owner and group owner of the file File type (regular, directory, ...) Permissions Date and time of creation, last read and change File size Address of file on the disk

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... Permissions Three levels of permission

user (u) group (g) other (o)

In every level there are some specific permission, read , write and execute Every file is owned by a specific user, owner of file group is a set of users and groups Every file belongs to a group

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Groups There is a group associated with each user with the same name as user Groups in system
www-data, dip, lp, audio

/etc/group adduser username groupname

add user to group

deluser username groupname

remove user from group

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Specific Permissions For file

read (r): to read contents of the file write (w): to modify the file execute (x): to run the file as a command

For directory
read (r): to list contents of the directory write (w): to add or remove files in the directory execute (x): to access files in the directory

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... Specific Permissions

user

group

other

Access Mode

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File Type regular file (-) directory (d) block special file (b)
block devices

character special file (c)

character devices

symbolic link (l)

reference to another file

named pipe (p) domain socket (s)

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file type file permission file size modification date

owner of file

group of file

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Changing Owner chown new_owner file_dir_name

change the owner of file_dir_name to new_owner new_owner is the name of a user in system

chown -R new_owner dir_name

recursively change the owner of all files and directories in dir_name to new_owner

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Changing Group chgrp GROUP FILES

change the group of FILES to GROUP GROUP is the name of a group in system

chgrp -R GROUP FILES

recursively change the group of all files and directories in FILES to GROUP

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Changing Access Mode chmod [OPTION]... OCTAL-MODE FILE...

OCTAL-MODE is mode in base 8
644 -> rw-r--r-753 -> rwxr-xrw-

chmod 753 myfile.sh

chmod [OPTION]... MODE FILE...

MODE
[ugoa...][+-=][rwxX...]

chmod u+w file

gives write permission to user

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... Changing Access Mode chmod u+rx,go-wx file

give read and execure permissions to user and revoke write and execute permissions from group and other

chmod a+r file

give read permission to all (user, group and other) equivalent to chmod ugo+r file

chmod -R
recursive ...

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Programming

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Editors Text mode editors

vi nano

GUI editors
Kate Kwrite Emacs

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vi

up k move around using arrow keys or backward h l Pressing the Esc key whenever put you in the normal mode. j Then you can issue commands down To exit go to normal mode and type ':q' To exit and discard changes, normal mode, then type ':q!' In normal mode if you type x it will delete a character To insert and edit, type i To undo changes Esc and then type u

forward

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... vi To write changes to disk press Esc and then type ':w' To write changes to disk and exit press Esc and then type ':wq' To delete a line press Esc and then type 'dd' To go to the end of file press Esc and then 'G' To go to the beginning of file press Esc and then 'gg' To search a word place vi in normal mode and type '/' and then type your word to search and press enter.
to find the next occurrence of word press 'n' or 'N' for previous occurrence
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Compiling and Running Compile

g++ myprogram.cpp -o myprogram To get all warnings use -Wall g++ -Wall myprogram.cpp -o myprogram

Run
./myprogram

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Make For faster build process There are some targets

target has dependencies target has some commands to be executed

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Working with Files Linking

What is a link?
a reference to a file or directory in the filesystem more than one location refer to the same information

Two types of links

symbolic links or soft links hard links

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Linking Symbolic link

refer to a symbolic path indicating the abstract location of another file
soft link to file1

file1

Hard link
refer to the specific location of physical data

file1 data

hard link to file2

file2 data

file2

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... Linking In case of soft links if reference to data be removed, there would soft be no access to data link to file1 Not true for hard links

file1

file1 data

hard link to file2

file2 data

file2

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... Linking How to create soft links?

ln -s TARGET LINK_NAME
TARGET could be a directory or a file

How to create hard links

don't specify -s option ln TARGET LINK_NAME
create hard link LINK_NAME to TARGET

hard link to directories is not allowed

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... Linking Behavior of other commands with links

Options to follow links or show information about where links refer to

ls -L
show information for the file the link references rather than for the link itself

ls -H
follow symbolic links listed on the command line

cp -H
follow symbolic links

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Finding Files find

a program to find files find all the files matching a criteria under the specified directory

find . -name "my*"

find all the file start with my (case sensitive) under current directory

find /usr/share/apps/ -name "g[tn]*"

find all the file under /usr/share/apps start with gt or gn (case sensitive)

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... Finding Files Find file only:

find DIR -name PATTERN -type f f : regular file c : character device file b : block device file d : directory l : symbolic link

Extended information
specify -ls option find DIR -name PATTERN -ls

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... Finding Files Complex Criteria

find /usr/share/apps/ \( -name "k[n]*" -a -name "*.jpg" \) -type f

find DIR COND The COND part is a boolean expression expr1 -a expr2 expr1 and expr2 expr1 -o expr2 expr1 or expr2 ! expr not expr

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... Finding Files Executing a command on every file found

find DIR COND -exec command {} \;

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Searching Content of Files grep <option> <regularexpression> <filename> grep string_to_find *

search content of all the files in the current directory for string_to_find

grep -r string_to_find .
search content of all the files in the current directory recursively for string_to_find

grep grep grep grep

-H -h -L -l

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Regular Expression lOl regular expression, r, is nothing or a character concatenated with another regular expression Quantification
r?
zero or one occurrence of r

r*
0, 1 or any number

r+
1 or more

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... Regular Expression lOl alteration

r1|r2
r1 or r2

grouping
(r)

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Head and Tail head filename

output the first part of files

head --lines <n> filename

output first n lines

tail filename
output the last part of files

tail --lines <n> filename tail -f filename

output appended data as the file grows

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Compressing zip -r file.zip FILES

compress all FILES into file.zip Files could contain wildcards

unzip file.zip
decompress file.zip

unzip -t file.zip
just test the file, no decompression

zip -R file.zip FILES

recursively add the files in directory structure

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... Compressing zip -u file.zip FILES

update file.zip

unzip file.zip -d extdir

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... Compressing tar cfv file.tar FILES

create a tar file archive with verbose output from FILES

tar cvfz file.tar.gz FILES

create a tar file archive with verbose output from FILES and then compress it using gzip algorithm

tar cvfj file.tar.bz2 FILES

bzip2 algorithm for compression

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... Compressing tar xfv file.tar

extract tar archive

tar xvfz file.tar.gz

extract tar gz archive

tar xvfj file.tar.bz2

extract tar bzip2 archive, j!

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Processes A process is a running instance of a program, including all variables and other state Each Process has a Process ID, PID Each process is created by a parent process, Parent Process, PPID There is a process called init that is parent of all other processes This relationship between processes in system form a tree of processes

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... Processes pstree

shows a tree of processes

ps
show processes running

ps -A
show all the processes running in the system

ps -f
show full information

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Signals A signal is an asynchronous event transmitted between one process and another SIGKILL : 9 SIGINT : 2 SIGTERM : 15

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KILLING kill -9 PID

terminate a process

killall process_name
kill processes by name

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... Processes A process that is running in background Lower priority In order to run a process in background
command &

top
another process manager

ksysguard

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System and Hardware Information Proc Filesystem File Disk Usage System Disk Usage Date and Time

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Proc Filesystem The /proc filesystem is a pseudo-filesystem and contains information about the system and running processes There is a directory associated with each process running Other information about system organized in files and directories
/proc/meminfo /proc/cpuinfo

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File Disk Usage du

estimate file space usage

du -h FILES
Summarize disk usage of each FILE, recursively for directories

du -s FILES
display only a total for each argument

du -h FILES --max-depth=<n>
show information for at most n level

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System Disk Usage df

Report file system disk space usage

df -h
report in a human readable format

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Date and Time date date +'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'

show date with the specified format %Y -> year %m -> month for detailed see manual for date

Setting the date

date --set='2006/11/20 12:34:23 IRST'
set date to November 20, 2006 12:34:23 also set the time zone to Iran Standard Time

To set the your hardware clock use hwclock

hwclock --set --date=newdate
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Peripherals Mount: binding a device to a directory CDROM device

/dev/cdrom /dev/hdc

In order to use cdrom

mount /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom /mnt/cdrom is the content of CDROM

You can't eject cdrom while you are using it First un-mount

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... Peripherals umount /dev/cdrom

or

umount /mnt/cdrom No process should use this device or directory!

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USB Your memory stick will be considered as a USB mass storage device posing as a removable SCSI disk /dev/sda, /dev/sdb mount -t vfat /dev/sda1 /mnt/myflash
for a FAT32 flash memory

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Floppy /dev/fd0 mount /dev/fd0 /mnt/floppy umount /dev/fd0

unmounting the floppy device

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Connecting to another computer Secure Shell

a secure encrypted connection between two host

ssh user@host_name ssh user@ip.add.re.ss use `-v' option for verbos output Secure file trasfer
sftp user@host_name sftp user@ip.add.re.ss

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Downloading wget : The non-interactive network downloader wget URL wget -r URL
download recursively

wget -nH -r URL Disable generation of host-prefixed directories invoking Wget with -r http://somwhere.com/ will create a structure of directories beginning with somwhere.com/

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... Downloading wget -i <file>

read URLs from file

wget --convert-links -r -L

http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/debian/chapter/book/index.html

Retrieve only one HTML page, but make sure that all the elements needed for the page to be displayed, such as inline images and external style sheets, are also downloaded.

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